ICELAND

ICELAND, a large island lying in the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean, between 63 and 68 degrees of north latitude, and between 10 and 26 degrees of west longitude, its greatest length being about 700 miles, and its breadth 300.

This country lying partly within the frigid zone, and being liable to be surrounded with vast quantities of ice which come from the Polar Seas, is on account of the coldness of its climate very inhospitable; but much more so for other reasons. It is exceedingly subject to earthquakes; and so full of volcanoes, that the little part of it which appears fit for the habitation of man seems almost totally laid waste by them. The best account that hath yet appeared of the island of Iceland is in a late publication intitled, "Letters on Iceland, &c. written by Uno Von Trol, D.D. first chaplain to his Swedish majesty." This gentleman sailed from London on the 12th of July 1772, in company with Mr Banks, Dr Solander, and Dr James Lind of Edinburgh, in a ship for which L. 100 Sterling was paid every month. After visiting the western isles of Scotland, they arrived on the 28th of August at Iceland, where they cast anchor at Besslestr or Bessladr, lying in about 64° 6' N. Lat. in the western part of the island. The country had to them the most dismal appearance that can be conceived. "I-

Imagine to yourself (says Dr Trolle,) a country, which from one end to the other presents to your view only barren mountains, whose summits are covered with eternal snow, and between them fields divided by vitrified cliffs, whose high and sharp points seem to vie with each other to deprive you of the sight of a little grass which scantily springs up among them. These same dreary rocks likewise conceal the few scattered habitations of the natives, and no where a single tree appears which might afford shelter to friendship and innocence. The prospect before us, though not pleasing, was uncommon and surprising. Whatever presented itself to our view bore the marks of devastation; and our eyes, accustomed to behold the pleasing coasts of England, now saw nothing but the vestiges of the operation of a fire, Heaven knows how ancient!

"On our landing, we found two tracts of lava, called gorde and hualeyre-braun, (for what we and the Italians call lava, is called in Iceland braun, from brinna, "to flow"), of which the last was particularly remarkable, since we find there a whole field covered with lava, which must have been liquefied in the highest degree; and whole mountains of turf. Chance had directed us exactly to a spot on which we could better than on any other part of Iceland consider the operations of a fire which had laid waste a stretch of 10 or 12 miles (A).

"We had now seen almost all the effects of a volcano except the crater from whence the fire proceeded; and in order to examine this likewise, we undertook a journey of 12 days to mount Hecla itself. We travelled 50 or 60 miles, (300 or 360 English ones,) over an uninterrupted track of lava, and had at last the pleasure of being the first who ever reached the summit of this celebrated volcano. The reason that no one has been there before is partly founded in superstition, and partly in the extreme difficulty of the ascent before the last discharge of fire, which happened in 1766. This mountain has been more taken notice of than many others in the country of as great extent, partly from its having vomited fire more frequently, and partly from its situation, which exposes it to the sight of ships sailing to Greenland and North America. It is situated in the southern part of the island, about four miles from the sea-coast, and is divided into three points at the top; the highest of which is that in the middle; and is, according to an exact observation with Ramsden's barometer, 5000 feet higher than the sea. We made use of our horses, but were obliged to quit them at the first opening from which the fire had burst. This was a place surrounded with lofty glazed walls, and filled with high glazed cliffs, which I cannot compare with any thing I ever saw before.

"A little higher up, we found a large quantity of grit and stones; and still farther on, another opening, which, though not deep, descended lower down than that of the highest point. We thought we plainly observed marks of hot boiling water in this place. Not far from thence the mountains began to be covered with snow, some small spots excepted, which were bare. We could not at first discern the cause of this difference, but soon found that it proceeded from the

vapour which arose from the mountain. As we ascended higher, these spots became larger; and about 200 yards from the summit, we found a hole of about one yard and a half in diameter, from which so hot a steam exhaled, that it prevented us from ascertaining the degree of heat with the thermometer.

"The cold now began to be very intense, as Fahrenheit's thermometer, which was at 54 at the foot of the mountain fell to 24. The wind was also become so violent, that we were sometimes obliged to lie down, to avoid being thrown into the most dreadful precipices by its fury.

"We were now arrived at one of the highest summits, when our conductor who did not take great pleasure in the walk, endeavoured to persuade us that this was the highest part of the mountains. We had just finished our observations, and found by them that Ramsden's barometer stood at 24.238, and the thermometer fixed to it at 27, when happily the clouds divided, and we discovered a still higher summit. Here we experienced at one and the same time a high degree of heat and cold; for in the air Fahrenheit's thermometer was constantly at 24, and when we set it down on the ground it rose to 153. The barometer was here at 22.247.—We could not safely remain here for any long time, though we were very much inclined to it; and therefore descended, after having considered the last opening there, one of the sides of which was entirely overturned, and the other quite covered with ashes and grit. In our return we observed three considerable openings, in one of which every thing looked as red as brick. From another the lava had flowed in a stream of about 50 yards in breadth, and at some distance from thence the stream divided into three broad arms. Further on we found a large circular opening, at the bottom of which we observed a mountain in the form of a sugar-loaf, in throwing up of which the fire seemed to have exhausted itself.

"The mountain does not consist of lava, but chiefly of sand, grit, and ashes; which are thrown up with the stones partly melted and partly discoloured by the fire. We likewise found several sorts of pumice, and among them one piece with some sulphur in it. The pumice was sometimes so much burnt, that it was as light as tow; their form and colour was sometimes very fine, but at the same time so soft, that it was difficult to remove them from one place to another. Of the common lava we found both large pieces and small bits; as likewise a quantity of black jasper burned at the extremities, and resembling trees and branches. Among the stones thrown out of the mountain we saw some slate of a strong red colour. In one place the lava had taken the form of chimney-stalks half-broken down.

"It scarcely ever happens that any of the Iceland volcanoes begin to throw out fire unexpectedly. For besides a loud rumbling noise which is heard at a considerable distance, for several days preceding any eruption, and a roaring and cracking in the part from whence the fire is going to burst forth, many fiery meteors are observed, but unattended in general with any violent concussion of the earth, though sometimes earth-

earthquakes, of which the history of the country affords several instances, have accompanied these dreadful conflagrations.—It is likewise considered as a sign of an impending eruption, when small lakes, rivulets, and streams, dry up. Some persons believe, that it does not a little contribute to hasten the eruption, when the mountain is so covered with ice that the holes are stopped up through which the exhalations formerly found a free passage; and though it is by no means probable that this contributes much to it, it cannot be denied that the fire is generally contained in these mountains covered with ice, or, as the Icelanders call them, jökul.

“The sign of an eruption going to take place immediately, is the bursting of the mass of ice with a dreadful noise. Flames then burst forth, and lightning and balls of fire issue from the smoke. With the flames proceed a number of larger and smaller stones, which are sometimes thrown to an incredible distance. A round stone about a Swedish ell (two feet) in diameter was thrown from Hecla, in the last eruption, to the distance of near six English miles. Egbert Olafs-fen also relates, that at the last eruption of Kattlegiaa, another volcano, a stone which weighed 290 pounds was thrown to the distance of 24 English miles. A quantity of white pumice-stone is also thrown up, with the boiling waters; and it is conjectured with great probability that the latter proceed from the sea, as a quantity of salt sufficient to load several horses has frequently been found after the mountain has ceased to burn.—Then follow generally brown or black pumice stone, sand, ashes, and lava.

“The lava is seldom found near the opening; but rather tufa, or loose ashes and grit; and indeed the greater part of the Icelandic mountains consist of this matter, which, when it is grown cold, generally takes an arched form. The upper crust frequently grows hard and solid, whilst the melted matter beneath it continues liquid; this forms great cavities, whose walls, bed, and roof, are of lava, and where great quantities of stalactite of lava are found. There are a great number of these caves in Iceland, some of which are very large, and are made use of by the inhabitants for sheltering their cattle. The largest in the island is 5034 feet long, from 50 to 54 in breadth, and between 34 and 36 in height.

“Among the traces left by the eruptions of the Iceland volcanoes, are some prodigious clefts, the largest of which is called Almenneggiaa, near the water of Tingalla in the south-western part of the island. It is 105 feet in breadth, and of great length. The direction of the chasm itself is from north to south. Its western wall, from which the other has been perpendicularly divided is 107 feet six inches in height, and consists of many strata (each of which is about 10 inches in height) of lava grown cold at different times, as may easily be discovered by the apparent crust which is full of blisters, of a darker brown, and not so much compressed as the remaining part of the mass of lava. The eastern wall is only 45 feet 4 inches in height; and that part of it which is directly opposite to the highest part of the other side is no more than 36 feet five inches high.

“The eruptions of the Iceland volcanoes are no less terrible and destructive than those of Vesuvius and

Ætna. The first mentioned in the ancient records happened in the ninth century, immediately after the arrival of the Norwegians on the island; and produced a lava three miles in length, and two and a half in breadth. After this there is no mention made of eruptions till the year 1000, when Christianity was introduced. At a time when the chiefs of the country were assembled to consult about the reception of the Christian religion, information was brought that an eruption of fire had happened. The heathens considered this as a proof of the wrath of the gods, on which account they were resolved to refuse the new religion; but this resolution was over-ruled by one of the assembly asking, “On whom did the gods display their wrath, when those rocks on which we now stand were on fire?”—In 1311, 22 farms were destroyed by eruptions, and 70 more in 1366. Hecla destroyed two in 1374; seven in 1390; and 18 in one day in 1436. In the same manner five farms were destroyed in 1660, and many more in 1693. In 1727, 600 sheep and 150 horses were destroyed by the flood and pieces of ice which rushed down the side of a volcano during an eruption. In 1728, many farms were destroyed, and a large lake entirely dried up. Into this lake the streams of fire that rolled from the mountains flowed during some years, and formed a tract of lava four miles in length, and one and a half in breadth. In 1755 six parishes were destroyed; and, in the last eruption of Hecla, a tract of many miles was laid waste.

“In the eruption of 1755, a flash of lightning was seen to burst from the flame, and pierced through the cliffs which intercepted its way. The same lightning in one place killed eleven horses, three of which were in a stable. A farmer was also killed by it near the door of his room: his upper cloaths, which were woollen, remained entirely unhurt; but his shirt and waistcoat, which were both of linen, were burnt; and when his clothes were pulled off, it was found that the flesh and skin on his right side were consumed to the very bones. The maid-servant who wanted to assist him in saving the cattle was likewise struck by the lightning; but did not die till some days after, during which time she suffered inexpressible torture. It is likewise said that her cloaths were singed by the glutinous fires which cleaved to her body.

“Iceland abounds with hot and boiling springs, some of which spout up into the air to a surprising height. All the jets d’eau which have been contrived with so much art, and at such an enormous expence, cannot by any means be compared with these wonders of nature in Iceland. The water-works at Herenhausen throw up a single column of water of half a quarter of a yard in circumference to a height of about 70 feet; those at the Winterkasten at Cassel, throw it up, but in a much thinner column, 130 feet; and the jet d’eau at St Cloud, which is thought the greatest of all the French water-works, casts up a thin column 80 feet into the air: but some springs in Iceland pour forth columns of water several feet in thickness to the height of many fathoms; and many affirm, of several hundred feet.

“These springs are unequal in their degrees of heat; but we have observed none under 188 degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, in some it is 192, 193,

212, and in one small vein of water 213 degrees. From some the water flows gently, and the spring is then called laug, a "bath;" from others it spouts with a great noise, and is then called hver, or kittel. It is very common for some of these spouting springs to close up, and others to appear in their stead. All these hot waters have an incrusting quality, so that we very commonly find the exterior surface from whence it bursts forth covered with a kind of rind, which almost resembles chafed work, and which we at first took for lime, but which was afterwards found by Mr Bergman to be of a siliceous or flinty nature. In some places the water tastes of sulphur, in others not; but when drank as soon as it is cold, tastes like common boiled water. The inhabitants use it at particular times for dyeing; and were they to adopt proper regulations, it might be of still greater use. Victuals may also be boiled in it, and milk held over its steam becomes sweet: owing, most probably, to the excessive heat of the water, as the same effect is produced by boiling it a long time over the fire. They have begun to make salt by boiling sea-water over it, which when it is refined, is very pure and good. The cows which drink this hot water yield a great deal of milk. Egbert Olafsen relates, that the water does not become turbid when alkali is thrown into it, nor does it change the colour of syrup of violets. Horrebow asserts, that if you fill a bottle at one of the spouting springs, the water will boil over two or three times while the spring throws forth its water; and if corked too soon, the bottle will burst.

8
A particu-
lar descrip-
tion of one
named
Gejser.

"Among the many hot springs to be met with in Iceland, several bear the name of gejser; the following is a description of the most remarkable of that name, and in the whole island. It is about two days journey from Hecla, near a farm called Haukadal. Here a poet would have an opportunity of painting whatever nature has of beautiful and terrible, united in one picture, by delineating this surprising phenomenon. Represent to yourself a large field, where you see on one side, at a great distance, high mountains covered with ice, whose summits are generally wrapped in clouds, so that their sharp and unequal points become invisible. This loss, however, is compensated by a certain wind, which causes the clouds to sink, and cover the mountain itself when its summit appears as it were to rest on the clouds. On the other side Hecla is seen, with its three points covered with ice, rising above the clouds, and, with the smoke which ascends from it, forming other clouds at some distance from the real ones: and on another side is a ridge of high rocks, at the foot of which boiling water from time to time issues forth; and further on extends a marsh of about three English miles in circumference, where are 40 or 50 boiling springs, from which a vapour ascends to a prodigious height.—In the midst of these is the greatest spring gejser, which deserves a more exact and particular account. In travelling to the place about an English mile and an half from the hver, from which the ridge of rocks still divided us, we heard a loud roaring noise, like the rushing of a torrent precipitating itself from stupendous rocks. We asked our guide what it meant; he answered, it was gejser roaring; and we soon saw with our naked eyes what before seemed almost incredible.

"The depth of the opening or pipe from which the water gushes cannot well be determined; for sometimes the water sunk down several fathoms, and some seconds passed before a stone which was thrown into the aperture reached the surface of the water. The opening itself was perfectly round, and 19 feet in diameter, and terminated in a basin 59 feet in diameter. Both the pipe and the basin were covered with a rough stalactitic rind, which had been formed by the force of the water: the outermost border of the basin is nine feet and an inch higher than the pipe itself. The water here spouted several times a-day, but always by starts; and after certain intervals. The people who lived in the neighbourhood told us, that they rose higher in cold and bad weather than at other times; and Egbert Olafsen and several others affirm, that it has spouted to the height of 60 fathoms. Most probably they guessed only by the eye, and on that account their calculation may be a little extravagant; and indeed it is to be doubted whether the water was ever thrown up so high, though probably it sometimes mounts higher than when we observed it. The method we took to observe the height was as follows. Every one in company wrote down, at each time that the water spouted, how high it appeared to him to be thrown, and we afterwards chose the medium. The first column marks the spoutings of the water, in the order in which they followed one another; the second, the time when these effusions happened; the third, the height to which the water rose; and the last, how long each spouting of water continued.

"At 35 minutes after twelve we heard as it were three discharges of a gun under ground, which made it shake: the water flowed over immediately, but instantly sunk again. At eight minutes after two, the water flowed over the border of the basin. At 15 minutes after three, we again heard several subterranean noises, though not so strong as before. At 43 minutes after four, the water flowed over very strongly during the space of a minute. In six minutes after, we heard many loud subterranean discharges, not only near the spring, but also from the neighbouring ridge of rocks where the water spouted. At 51 minutes after six, the fountain spouted up to the height of 92 feet, and continued to do so for four minutes. After this great effort, it sunk down very low into the pipe, and was entirely quiet during several minutes; but soon began to bubble again: it was not, however, thrown up into the air, but only to the top of the pipe.

"The force of the vapours which throw up these waters is excessive; it not only prevents the stones which

Iceland. which are thrown into the opening from sinking, but even throws them up to a very great height, together with the water. When the balon was full, we placed ourselves before the sun in such a manner that we could see our shadows in the water; when every one observed round the shadow of his own head (though not round that of the heads of others,) a circle of almost the same colours which compose the rainbow, and round this another bright circle. This most probably proceeded from the vapours exhaling from the water.

"Not far from this place, another spring at the foot of the neighbouring ridge of rocks spouted water to the height of one or two yards each time. The opening through which this water issued, was not so wide as the other: we imagined it possible to stop up the hole entirely by throwing large stones into it, and even flattered ourselves that our attempt had succeeded: but, to our astonishment, the water gushed forth in a very violent manner. We hastened to the pipe, and found all the stones thrown aside, and the water playing freely through its former channel. In these large springs the waters were hot in the highest degree, and tasted a little of sulphur; but in other respects it was pure and clear. In the smaller springs of the neighborhood the water was tainted: in some, it was as muddy as that of a clay-pit; in others, as white as milk; and, in some few, as red as blood.

2
account of
the
basaltic
lars.
"Iceland abounds with pillars of basaltes, which the lower sort of people imagine have been piled upon each other by the giants, who made use of supernatural force to effect it. They have generally from three to seven sides; and are from four to six feet in thickness, and from 12 to 16 yards in length, without any horizontal divisions. But sometimes they are only from six inches to one foot in height, and they are then very regular, inasmuch that they are sometimes made use of for windows and door-posts. In some places they only peep out here and there among the lava, or more frequently among the tufa; in other places they are quite overthrown, and pieces of broken pillars only make their appearance. Sometimes they extend without interruption for two or three miles in length. In one mountain they have a singular appearance: on the top the pillars lie horizontally, in the middle they are sloping; the lowest are perfectly perpendicular; and in some parts they are bent into a semicircular figure. The matter of the Iceland basaltes seems to be the same with that of STAFFA; though in some it is more porous, and inclines to a grey. Some we observed which were of a blackish grey, and composed of several joints. Another time we observed a kind of porous glassy stone, consequently a lava, which was so indistinctly divided, that we were for some time at a loss to determine whether it was basaltes or not, though at last we all agreed that it was."

30
account of
the
climate.
The climate of Iceland is not unwholesome or naturally subject to excessive colds, notwithstanding its northerly situation. There have been instances indeed of Fahrenheit's thermometer sinking to 24° below the freezing point in winter, and rising to 104° in summer. Since the year 1749, observations have been made on the weather; and the result of these ob-

servations hath been unfavourable, as the coldness of the climate is thought to be on the increase, and of consequence the country is in danger of becoming unfit for the habitation of the human race. Wood, which formerly grew in great quantities all over the island, cannot now be raised. Even the hardy firs of Norway cannot be reared in this island. They seemed indeed to thrive till they were about two feet high; but then their tops withered, and they ceased to grow. This is owing chiefly to the storms and hurricanes which frequently happen in the months of May and June, and which are very unfavourable to vegetation of every kind. In 1772, governor Thodal sowed a little barley, which grew very briskly; but, a short time before it was to be reaped, a violent storm so effectually destroyed it, that only a few grains were found scattered about. Besides these violent winds, ²¹ destructive this island lies under another disadvantage, owing to effects of the floating ice already mentioned, with which the the ice.

coasts are often beset. This ice comes on by degrees, always with an easterly wind, and frequently in such quantities as to fill up all the gulfs on the north-west side of the island, and even covers the sea as far as the eye can reach; it also sometimes drives to other shores. It generally comes in January, and goes away in March. Sometimes it only reaches the land in April; and, remaining there for a long time, does an incredible deal of mischief. It consists partly of mountains of ice, said to be sometimes 60 fathoms in height; and partly of field-ice, which is neither so thick nor so much dreaded. Sometimes these enormous masses are grounded in shoal-water; and in these cases they remain for many months, nay years, undissolved, chilling the atmosphere for a great way round. When many such bulky and lofty ice-masses are floating together, the wood which is often found drifting between them, is so much chafed, and pressed with such violence together, that it sometimes takes fire; which circumstance has occasioned fabulous accounts of the ice being in flames.

In 1753 and 1754, this ice occasioned such a violent cold, that horses and sheep dropped down dead by reason of it, as well as for want of food; horses were observed to feed upon dead cattle, and the sheep eat of each other's wool. In 1755, towards the end of the month of May, the waters were frozen over in one night to the thickness of an inch and five lines. In 1756, on the 26th of June, snow fell to the depth of a yard, and continued falling through the months of July and August. In the year following it froze very hard towards the end of May and beginning of June, in the south part of the island, which occasioned a great scarcity of grass. These frosts are generally followed by a famine, many examples of which are to be found in the Icelandic chronicles. Besides these calamities, a number of bears annually arrive with the ice, which commit great ravages among the sheep. The Icelanders attempt to destroy these intruders as soon as they get sight of them. Sometimes they assemble together, and drive them back to the ice, with which they often float off again. For want of firearms, they are obliged to use spears on these occasions. The government also encourages the destruction of these animals, by paying a premium of 10 dollars.

Iceland. dollars for every bear that is killed, and purchasing the skin of him who killed it.

Thunder and lightning are seldom heard in Iceland, except in the neighbourhood of volcanoes. Aurora Borealis is very frequent and strong. It most commonly appears in dry weather; though there are not wanting instances of its being seen before or after rain, or even during the time of it. The lunar halo, which prognosticates bad weather, is likewise very frequent here; as are also parhelions, which appear from one to nine in number at a time. These parhelions are observed chiefly at the approach of the Greenland ice, when an intense degree of frost is produced, and the frozen vapours fill the air. Fire-balls, sometimes round, and sometimes oval, are observed, and a kind of ignis fatuus which attaches itself to men and beasts; and comets are also frequently mentioned in their chronicles. This last circumstance deserves the attention of astronomers.

Iceland, besides all the inconveniences already mentioned, has two very terrible ones, called by the natives skrida and snisfodi: the name of the first imports large pieces of a mountain tumbling down and destroying the lands and houses which lie at the foot of it: this happened in 1554, when a whole farm was ruined, and 13 people buried alive. The other word signifies the effects of a prodigious quantity of snow, which covers the tops of the mountains, rolling down in immense masses, and doing a great deal of damage: of this there was an instance in 1699, during the night, when two farms were buried, with all their inhabitants and cattle. This last accident Iceland has in common with all very mountainous countries, particularly Switzerland.

At what time the island of Iceland was first peopled is uncertain. An English colony indeed is said to have been settled there in the beginning of the fifth century; but of this there are not sufficient proofs. There is, however, reason to suppose, that the English and Irish were acquainted with this country under another name, long before the arrival of the Norwegians; for the celebrated Bede gives a pretty accurate description of the island. But of these original inhabitants we cannot pretend to say any thing, as the Iceland chronicles go no farther back than the arrival of the Norwegians. What they relate is to the following purpose.

Naddodr, a famous pirate, was driven on the coast of Iceland in 861, and named the country Snis-land, "Snow-land," on account of the great quantities of snow with which he perceived the mountains covered. He did not remain there long; but, on his return, extolled the country to such a degree, that one Garder Suafarson, an enterprising Swede, was encouraged by his account to go in search of it in 864. He failed quite round the island, and gave it the name of Gardalsholmur, or Garder's-island. Having remained in Iceland during the winter, he returned in the spring to Norway, where he described the new-discovered island as a pleasant well-wooded country. This excited a desire in Floke, another Swede, reputed the greatest navigator of his time, to undertake a voyage thither. As the compass was then unknown, he took three ravens on board to employ them on the discovery. By the way he visited his friends at Ferro; and having

failed farther to the northward, he let fly one of his ravens, which returned to Ferro. Some time after, he dismissed the second, which returned to the ship again, as he could find no land. The last trial proved more successful; the third raven took his flight to Iceland, where the ship arrived a few days after. Floke stayed here the whole winter with his company; and, because he found a great deal of floating ice on the north side, he gave the country the name of Iceland, which it has ever since retained.

When they returned to Norway in the following spring, Floke, and those that had been with him, made a very different description of the country. Floke described it as a wretched place; while one of his companions, named Thorulfr, praised it so highly, that he affirmed butter dropped from every plant; which extravagant commendation procured him the name of Thorulfr-smior, or Butter-Thorulfr.

From this time there are no accounts of any voyages to Iceland, till Ingolf and his friend Leifr undertook one in 874. They spent the winter on the island, and determined to settle there for the future. Ingolf returned to Norway, to provide whatever might be necessary for the comfortable establishment of a colony, and Leifr in the mean time went to assist in the war in England. After an interval of four years, they again met in Iceland, the one bringing with him a considerable number of people, with the necessary tools and instruments for making the country habitable; and the other imported his acquired treasures. After this period, many people went there to settle; and, in the space of 60 years, the whole island was inhabited. The tyranny of Harold king of Norway contributed not a little to the population of Iceland; and so great was the emigration of his subjects, that he was at last obliged to issue an order that no one should sail from Norway to Iceland, without paying four ounces of fine silver to the king.

Besides the Norwegians, new colonies arrived from different nations, between whom wars soon commenced; and the Icelandic histories are full of the accounts of their battles. To prevent these conflicts for the future, a kind of chief was chosen in 928, upon whom great powers were conferred. This man was the speaker in all their public deliberations; pronounced sentence in difficult and intricate cases; decided all disputes; and published new laws, after they had been received and approved of by the people at large: but he had no power to make laws, without the approbation and consent of the rest. He therefore assembled the chiefs, whenever the circumstances seemed to require it; and, after they had deliberated among themselves, he represented the opinion of the majority to the people, whose assent was necessary before it could be considered as a law. His authority among the chiefs and leaders, however, was inconsiderable, as he was chosen by them, and retained his place no longer than while he preserved their confidence.

This institution did not prove sufficient to restrain the turbulent spirits of the Icelanders. They openly waged war with each other; and, by their intestine conflicts, so weakened all parties, that the whole became at last a prey to a few arbitrary and enterprising men; who, as is too generally the case, wantonly

wantonly abused their power to the oppression of their countrymen, and the disgrace of humanity. Notwithstanding these troubles, however, the Icelanders remained free from a foreign yoke till 1261; when the greatest part of them put themselves under the protection of Hakans king of Norway, promising to pay him tribute upon certain conditions agreed on between them; and the rest followed their example in 1264. Afterwards, Iceland, together with Norway, became subject to Denmark. For a long time the care of the island was committed to a governor, who commonly went there once a year; though, according to his instructions, he ought to have resided in Iceland. As the country suffered incredibly through the absence of its governors, it was resolved a few years ago that they should reside there, and have their seat at Besslestr, one of the old royal domains. He has under him a bailiff, two laymen, a sheriff, and 21 syssel-men, or magistrates who superintend small districts; and almost every thing is decided according to the laws of Denmark.

At the first settlement of the Norwegians in Iceland, they lived in the same manner as they had done in their own country, namely, by war and piracy. Their situation with regard to the kings of Norway, however, soon obliged them to apply to other states, in order to learn as much of the knowledge of government and politics as was necessary to preserve their colony from subjugation to a foreign yoke. For this purpose they often sailed to Norway, Denmark, Sweden, England, and Scotland. The travellers, at their return, were obliged to give an account to their chiefs of the state of those kingdoms through which they passed. For this reason, history, and what related to science, was held in high repute as long as the republican form of government lasted; and the great number of histories to be met with in the country, shew at least the desire of the Icelanders to be instructed. To secure themselves, therefore, against their powerful neighbours, they were obliged to enlarge their historical knowledge. They likewise took great pains in studying perfectly their own laws, for the maintenance and protection of their internal security. Thus Iceland, at a time when ignorance and obscurity overwhelmed the rest of Europe, was enabled to produce a considerable number of poets and historians. When the Christian religion was introduced about the end of the 10th century, more were found conversant in the law than could have been expected, considering the extent of the country, and the number of its inhabitants. Fishing was followed among them; but they devoted their attention considerably more to agriculture, which has since entirely ceased.

Two things have principally contributed towards producing a great change both in their character and way of life, viz. the progress of the Christian religion, and their subjection first to Norway, and afterwards to Denmark. For if religion, on one side, commanded them to desist from their ravages and warlike expeditions; the secular power, on the other, deprived them of the necessary forces for the execution of them: and, since this time, we find no farther traces of their heroic deeds, except those which are preserved in their histories.

The modern Icelanders apply themselves to fishing and breeding of cattle. They are middle-sized and well-made, though not very strong; and the women are in general ill-featured. Vices are much less common among them, than in other parts where luxury and riches have corrupted the morals of the people. Though their poverty disables them from imitating the hospitality of their ancestors in all respects, yet they continue to shew their inclination to it: they cheerfully give away the little they have to spare, and express the utmost joy and satisfaction if you are pleased with their gift. They are uncommonly obliging and faithful, and extremely attached to government. They are very zealous in their religion. An Icelander never passes a river or any other dangerous place, without previously taking off his hat, and imploring the divine protection; and he is always thankful for the protection of the Deity, when he has passed the danger in safety. They have an inexpressible attachment to their native country, and are nowhere so happy. An Icelander therefore rarely settles in Copenhagen, tho' ever such advantageous terms should be offered him. On the other hand, we cannot ascribe any great industry or ingenuity to these people. They work on in the way to which they have all along been accustomed, without thinking of improvements. They are not cheerful in conversation, but simple and credulous; and have no aversion against a bottle, if they can find an opportunity. When they meet together, their chief pastime consists in reading their history. The master of the house makes the beginning, and the rest continue in their turns when he is tired. Some of them know these stories by heart; others have them in print, and others in writing. Besides this, they are great players at chess and cards, but only for their amusement, since they never play for money: which, however, seems to have been formerly in use among them; since, by one of their old laws, a fine is imposed upon those who play for money.

The modern Icelanders have made very little alteration in their dress from what was formerly in use. The men all wear a linen shirt next to the skin, with a short jacket, and a pair of wide breeches over it. When they travel, another short coat is put over all. The whole is made of coarse black cloth, called wadmal; but some wear clothes of a white colour. On their head they wear large three-cornered hats, and on their feet Iceland shoes and worsted stockings. Some of them indeed have shoes from Copenhagen; but, as they are rather too dear for them, they generally make their own shoes, sometimes of the hide of oxen, but more frequently of sheep's leather. They make them by cutting a square piece of leather, rather wider than the length of the foot; this they sew up at the toes, and behind at the heel, and tie it on with leather-thongs. These shoes are convenient enough where the country is level; but it would be very difficult for us who are not accustomed to walk with them amongst the rocks and stones, though the Icelanders do it with great ease.

The women are likewise dressed in black wadmal. They wear a bodice over their shifts, which are sewed up at the bosom; and above this a jacket laced before, with long narrow sleeves reaching down to the wrists.

wrists. In the opening on the side of the sleeve, they have buttons of chased silver, with a plate fixed to each button; on which the lover, when he buys them in order to present them to his mistress, takes care to have his name engraved along with hers. At the top of the jacket a little black collar is fixed, of about three inches broad, of velvet or silk, and frequently trimmed with gold cord. The petticoat is likewise of wadmal, and reaches down to the ankles. Round the top of it is a girdle of silver or some other metal, to which they fasten the apron, which is also of wadmal, and ornamented at top with buttons of chased silver. Over all this they wear an upper-dress nearly resembling that of the Swedish peasants; with this difference, that it is wider at bottom: this is close at the neck and wrists, and a hand's-breadth shorter than the petticoat. It is adorned with a facing down to the bottom, which looks like cut velvet, and is generally woven by the Icelandic women. On their fingers they wear gold, silver, or brass rings. Their head-dress consists of several cloths wrapped round the head almost as high again as the face. It is tied fast with a handkerchief, and serves more for warmth than ornament. Girls are not allowed to wear this head-dress till they are marriageable. At their weddings they are adorned in a very particular manner: the bride wears, close to the face, round her head-dress, a crown of silver gilt. She has two chains round her neck, one of which hangs down very low before, and the other rests on her shoulders. Besides these, she wears a lesser chain, from whence generally hangs a little heart, which may be opened to put some kind of perfume in it. This dress is worn by all the Icelandic women without exception: only with this difference, that the poorer sort have it of coarse wadmal, with ornaments of brass; and those that are in easier circumstances have it of broad cloth, with silver ornaments gilt.

The houses of the Icelanders are very indifferent, but the worst are said to be on the south side of the island. In some parts they are built of drift-wood, in others of lava, almost in the same manner as the stone-walls we make for inclosures, with moss stuffed between the pieces of lava. In some houses the walls are wainscotted on the inside. The roof is covered with sods, laid over rafting, or sometimes over the ribs of whales; the walls are about three yards high, and the entrance somewhat lower. Instead of glass, the windows are made of the chorion and amnios of sheep, or the membranes which surround the womb of the ewe. These are stretched on a hoop, and laid over a hole in the roof. In the poorer sort of houses they employ for the windows the inner membrane of the stomach of animals, which is less transparent than the others.

As the island of Iceland produces no kind of grain, the inhabitants of consequence have no bread but what is imported; and which being too dear for common use, is reserved for weddings and other entertainments. The following list of their viands is taken from Troil's Letters.

"1. Flour of falgras, (lichen islandicus, or rock-grass). The plant is first washed, and then cut into small pieces by some; though the greater number dry it by fire or in the sun, then put it into a bag in which it is well beaten, and lastly work it into a flour by

"2. Flour of komfyrgr, (polygonum bistorta), is prepared in the same manner, as well as the two other sorts of wild corn melur (Arundo arenaria, and Arundo foliorum lateribus convolutis), by separating it from the chaff, pounding, and lastly grinding it.

"3. Surt smør, (four butter). The Icelanders seldom make use of fresh or salt butter, but let it grow four before they eat it. In this manner it may be kept for 20 years, or even longer; and the Icelanders look upon it as more wholesome and palatable than the butter used among other nations. It is reckoned better the older it grows, and one pound of it then is valued as much as two of fresh butter.

"3. String, or whey boiled to the consistence of four milk, and preserved for the winter.

"4. Fish of all kinds, both dried in the sun and in the air, and either salted or frozen. Those prepared in the last manner are preferred by many.

"5. The flesh of bears, sheep, and birds, which is partly salted, partly hung or smoked, and some preserved in casks with four or fermented whey poured over it.

"6. Misst, or whey boiled to cheese, which is very good. But the art of making other kinds of good cheese is lost, tho' some tolerably palatable is sold in the east quarter of Iceland.

"7. Beina-strig, bones and cartilages of beef and mutton, and likewise bones of cod, boiled in whey till they are quite dissolved: they are then left to ferment, and are eat with milk.

"8. Skyr. The curds from which the whey is squeezed are preserved in casks or other vessels; they are sometimes mixed with black crow-berries or juniper-berries, and are likewise eat with new milk.

"9. Syra, is four whey kept in casks, and left to ferment; which, however, is not reckoned fit for use till a year old.

"10. Blanda, is a liquor made of water, to which a twelfth part of syra is added. In winter, it is mixed with the juice of thyme, and of the black crow-berries.

"11. They likewise eat many vegetables, some of which grow wild, and some are cultivated; also shell-fish and mushrooms."

The Icelanders in general eat three meals a-day, at seven in the morning, two in the afternoon, and nine at night. In the morning and evening they commonly eat curds mixed with new milk, and sometimes with juniper or crow berries. In some parts, they also have pottage made of rock-grass, which is very palatable, or curdled milk boiled till it becomes of a red colour, or new milk boiled a long time. At dinner, their food consists of dried fish, with plenty of four butter; they also sometimes eat fresh fish, and, when possible, a little bread and cheese with them. It is reported by some, that they do not eat any fish till it is quite rotten; this report perhaps proceeds from their being fond of it when a little tainted: they however frequently eat fish which is quite fresh, though, in the same manner as the rest of their food, often without salt.

Their common beverage is milk, either warm from the cow, or cold, and sometimes boiled: they likewise use butter-milk with or without water. On the coasts

celand. coasts they generally drink blanda and four milk; which is sold after it is skimmed, at two fifths of a rixdollar per cask: some likewise send for beer from Copenhagen, and some brew their own. A few of the principal inhabitants also have claret and coffee. The common people sometimes drink a kind of tea, which they make from the leaves of the dryas ostepetala, and the veronica officinalis.

17
employ-
ment, ma-
nufactures,
On the coasts, the men employ themselves in fishing, both summer and winter. On their return home, when they have drawn and cleaned their fish, they give them to their wives, whose care it is to dry them. In the winter, when the inclemency of the weather prevents them from fishing, they are obliged to take care of their cattle and spin wool. In summer, they mow the grass, dig turf, provide fuel, go in search of sheep and goats that were gone astray, and kill cattle. They prepare leather with the spiraea ulmaria instead of bark. Some few work in gold and silver; and others are instructed in mechanics, in which they are tolerable proficient. The women prepare the fish, take care of the cattle, manage the milk and wool, sew, spin, and gather eggs and down. When they work in the evening, they use, instead of an hour-glass, a lamp with a wick made of epilobium dipt in train oil, which is contrived to burn four, six, or eight hours.

Among the common people of Iceland, time is not reckoned by the course of the sun, but by the work they have done, and which is prescribed by law. According to this prescription, a man is to mow as much hay in one day as grows on 30 fathoms of manured soil, or 40 fathoms of land which has not been manured; or he is to dig 700 pieces of turf eight feet long and three broad. If as much snow falls as reaches to the horses bellies, a man is required daily to clear a piece of ground sufficient for 100 sheep. A woman is to rake together as much hay as three men can mow, or to weave three yards of wadmal a-day.

The wages of a man are fixed at four dollars, and 12 yards of wadmal; and those of a woman at two dollars, and five yards of wadmal. When men are sent a-fishing out of the country, there is allowed to each man by law, from the 25th of September to the 14th of May, six pounds of butter, and 18 pounds of dried fish every week. This may seem to be too great an allowance; but it must be remembered that they have nothing else to live upon. When they are at home, and can get milk, &c. every man receives only five pounds of dried fish and three quarters of a pound of butter a-week.

18
diseases.
The food and manner of life of the Icelanders by no means contribute to their longevity. It is very rare indeed to see an inhabitant of Iceland exceed the age of 50 or 60; and the greater part are attacked by grievous diseases before middle age. Of these the scurvy and elephantiasis or leprosy are the worst. They are also subject to the gout in their hands, owing to their frequent employment in fishing, and handling the wet fishing-tackle in cold weather. St Anthony's fire, the jaundice, pleurisy, and lowness of spirits, are frequent complaints in this country. The small-pox is also exceedingly fatal, and not long ago destroyed 16,000 persons. By these diseases, and the frequent famines with which the country has been afflicted, the

inhabitants are reduced to a much fewer number than they formerly were, inasmuch that it is computed they do not in all exceed 60,000.

The exports of Iceland consist of dried fish, salted mutton and lamb, beef, butter, tallow, train-oil, coarse woollen cloth, stockings, gloves, raw wool, sheep-skins, lamb-skins, fox-furs of various colours, eider down, feathers, and formerly sulphur; but there is no longer a demand for this mineral. On the other hand, the Icelanders import timber, fishing-lines and hooks, tobacco, bread, horse-shoes, brandy, wine, salt, linen, a little silk, and a few other necessaries, as well as superfluities for the better sort. The whole trade of Iceland is engrossed by a monopoly of Danes, indulged with an exclusive charter. This company maintains factories at all the harbours of Iceland, where they exchange their foreign goods for the merchandise of the country; and, as the balance is in favour of the Icelanders, pay the overplus in Danish money, which is the only current coin in this island. All their accounts and payments are adjusted according to the number of fish: two pounds of fish are worth two skillings in specie, and 48 fish amount to one rixdollar. A Danish crown is computed at 30 fish: what falls under the value of 12 fish, cannot be paid in money; but must be bartered either for fish or roll-tobacco, an ell of which is equal to one fish. The weights and measures of the Icelanders are nearly the same with those used in Denmark.

The Icelanders being neither numerous nor warlike, and altogether unprovided with arms, ammunition, garrisons, or fleets, are in no condition to defend themselves from invasion; but depend entirely on the protection of his Danish majesty, to whom they are subject.

The revenues which he draws from this island consist of the income of divers estates, as royal demesne, amounting to about 8000 dollars per annum; of the money paid by the company for an exclusive trade, to the value of 20,000 dollars; and of a fixed proportion in the tythes of fish, paid in some particular districts.