THEOLOGY

T H E O L O G Y; Or, The Study of RELIGION. TO ascend by a chain of reasoning from things visible to things invisible, from palpable to impalpable, from terrestrial to celestial, from the creature even up to the Creator, is the business of theology: it is not surprising, therefore, that the union of many doctrines is necessary completely to form such a science. To understand, and properly to interpret, the scriptures or revelation, demands not less sagacity than assiduity. The gift of persuasion is also essential to the ministers of the gospel. And lastly, the civil government has committed to their care certain functions of society, which relate, or seem to relate, either to the doctrines or morality of the gospel. They assemble, for example, in bodies to form consistory; they judge in matrimonial cases; they carry consolation and hope to the souls of the sick; they prepare for death those criminals which justice sacrifices to public safety; they take upon themselves the charge of Ephori, with the inspection of some pious foundations: they distribute alms; they administer the sacraments, &c. To discharge fully so many duties, the theologian has need, 1. Of several preparatory studies; 2. Of some theoretic sciences; and, 3. Of many doctrines which have for their object his ministerial office. The first are, 1. The languages; and among these, (a) His native language, in which he is to preach and exercise his ministry, and with which he ought to be perfectly acquainted. (b) The Latin language, which is the language of the learned world in general. (c) The Greek language, in order to understand the new Testament. (d) The Hebrew language, of which the Talmudian and Rabbinical idioms are a part. (e) The Arabic language. (f) The Syriac language. (g) The French language. And, (b) The (b) The English language. The two latter of which now appear necessary to every man of letters, and particularly to a theologian, on account of the excellent works which are wrote in those languages. The principal parts of philosophy; as, Logic. Metaphysics. Moral philosophy. Rhetoric and eloquence, or the art of speaking correctly, of writing with elegance, and of persuasion. To which may be added, The elements of chronology, and universal history. The study of the Jewish antiquities. He who would devote himself to the important employment of a theologian, and has the noble ambition to excel in it, should early impress on his mind these truths: that the years which are passed at an university are few; that they run rapidly away; that they are entirely engrossed by the theoretic sciences; and that he who does not carry with him to the university a fund of knowledge in the preparatory parts of learning, commonly brings very little away, when his age or his parents oblige him to quit it. The theoretic sciences of a theologian are, The dogmatic, or the theory of theology; which some Latin authors name also thetica, or systematica. The exegesis, or the science of attaining the true sense of the holy scriptures. The hermeneutic, or the art of interpreting and explaining the scriptures to others. This differs in general but little from the exegesis, and in some respects is quite the same. Polemical theology, or controversy. Natural theology. Moral theology. The history of the church under the Old and New Testaments. The practical sciences are, Homiletic theology. Catechetical theology. Casualistic theology. We do not here particularly name the patristic theology, (theologia patrum seu patristica), because all Christian communions are not agreed in their opinions concerning the degree of authenticity and infallibility that is to be attributed to these ancient fathers of the church. The Protestants believe, that these primitive theologians were liable to error in their sentiments as well as those of our days; and, in all probability, that they were less skilful, less learned, less clear, and less accustomed to close reasoning, than the latter, as philosophy was then more imperfect. But as we find in the writings of these fathers, many elucidations of the doctrine of the primitive apostles, and many irrefragable testimonies of the authenticity of divers remarkable events, which serve to establish the truth of Christianity; and as we there see, moreover, the origin of errors, of arbitrary ceremonies, and of many doctrines that have been introduced into the Christian church; the reading and the study of these fathers cannot but be of great utility to the theologian. To a virtuous citizen, who unites such various sciences, and employs them in pointing out to his fellow-citizens the path that leads to temporal and eternal felicity; in a word, to a wise theologian, what veneration is not due? SECT. I. Of the DOGMATIC. UNDER the general term of dogmatic, we comprehend that part which the different writers on theology have called sometimes theoretic, sometimes systematic, and sometimes thetic theology, &c. The term dogmatic appears to us the most general, and the most just, to express the subject that we intend, as it comprehends an entire system of all the dogmas or tenets that each religion professes: whether it teach these dogmas by the way of thesis, as articles of faith; by public lecture; by catechising; or any other manner whatever. Every positive religion must naturally have a system of certain points of doctrine to propose to its followers; otherwise each one would form a particular system according to his own fancy: there would be as many different religions as there are individuals on the earth, and each society would consist of a confused mass of fantastic opinions; as the different modes of thinking, and the different degrees of discernment, are varied and compounded by mankind to infinity; but truth, on the contrary, is uniform and invariable. The Christian religion is as compound in its dogmas as it is simple in its moral principle. It includes, The dogmas founded on the lights of reason. Those drawn from the Old Testament and the law of Moses. Those taken from the New Testament and the doctrine of JESUS CHRIST. Those that the fathers of the church have drawn from the Holy Scriptures. Those that the church under the New Testament has prescribed to Christians by ecumenical and other councils assembled in different ages. The dogmas that the popes, in quality of heads of the church, have established by their bulls: and to these must be added, on the part of the Protestants, The dogmas that the reformers, especially Luther and Calvin, have taught. The decisions of synods; and lastly, the tenets that are maintained by the different sects, as Socinians, Anabaptists, Quakers, &c. Each of these particular religions or sects pretend to support their dogmas both by reason and revelation: we do not here offer a work of controversy, and are very far from attempting to determine on which side truth and reason are to be found. Our zeal, however, for the Christian religion in general, which we regard as perfectly divine, and as the only religion adapted to promote the happiness of mankind in this world, and to secure it in the next, and the desire we have that it may endure to the end of time, compels us to make in this place one important reflection; which is, that simplicity is ever an essential attribute of perfection, as complexity is of imperfection. Now, it cannot be denied, without doing violence to truth, that among the different dogmas of which we have been speaking, there are several that seem to be founded on speculations very abstruse, on subtleties very intricate, and on interpretations very ambiguous. God certainly never intended that all mankind should be theologians; he has not given them his divine word to be the cause of discord among men, nor that they should pass their whole lives in a painful search after objects of belief and articles of faith; faith; and that they should forego, in that pursuit, the necessary offices of life, and their duties as citizens. The dogmas, then, essentially necessary to the welfare of mankind, ought to consist of a small number, and to bear the marks of simplicity and perspicuity; without which they must be imperfect, and consequently the work of man. Our intention, in making this remark, is, to extend our voice, if it be possible, even to posterity, whom we would conjure not to injure our religion, so holy and so admirable, by a multiplicity of dogmas. It is necessary, however, that the divine, who makes it his study and his profession, should be thoroughly acquainted with the theory of this science, in order that he may be able to instruct the sincere Christian, and to explain the nature of each particular dogma, as well as the solidity of its proofs; and to this it is that the study of the dogmatic leads; of which we shall now continue the analysis. The dogmatic is then nothing but a succinct exposition of all the dogmas of the Christian religion, in a natural and philosophical order. By the word philosophical, we do not here precisely mean the method of mathematicians, in the manner the late M. Wolff has applied it to philosophy; every subject is not capable of a demonstration so exact and rigid; but a regular order is required in the arrangement of the general system, and a connection is to be preserved in the several matters that form it: the definitions should be just; the divisions exact; the arguments solid; the proofs clear; the citations conclusive; the examples striking; and, in a word, every thing should be adduced that appertains to so important a discipline. It is very essential, moreover, in the dogmatic, at the beginning of each thesis, to explain the several terms that are peculiar to it, and that use has established in treating of theology; to draw from each definition certain axioms, and from thence to form propositions, and to illustrate them by solid reasoning. Lastly, we should not neglect, in such a system, to make use of the expressions used in the symbolic books that have been received by the whole Christian church, and which cannot be rejected or altered, without causing a confusion in our ideas, and in the general system of the Christian religion. But before we make the least advance in the study of Christian theology, it is indispensably necessary to examine the proofs by which the truth, the authenticity, and the divinity of the sacred and canonical books are established; for this is the foundation of all the dogmas, and the axis on which its whole doctrine turns. The systematic part of the Christian religion, among the great number of its dogmas or theses, has three principal, from which all the rest are derived, and which form the basis of its whole doctrine: 1. The existence of one God in three persons. 2. The necessity of a Mediator or Redeemer. 3. The real appearance of the Mediator or Messiah on the earth. Whoever writes, professes, or teaches the dogmatic, should be, above all things, careful well to establish these important truths; to evince them by the strongest and most evident proofs, drawn partly from the lights of reason, and partly from revelation: and he will then see with what facility all other theses flow from, and how easy it will be to prove them by, these. The infinite variety that is found among mankind in their manner of thinking, and in their method of treating subjects; the frequent changes that have happened in the exterior form of philosophy, and in the method of treating it; the oppositions that have been raised at all times against divers doctrines of the Christian religion; all these have produced among theologians, different systems of the dogmatic. Sometimes they have combined positive theology with morality, and have formed a system that they call theologia theoretico-practica, or theologia thetico-moralis, &c.: sometimes they have refuted the arguments that others oppose to certain theses; and from thence has arose a system that they call theologia thetico, or dogmatica, or positive-polemica: sometimes they have joined to natural theology that of revelation; and have formed a dogmatic, called philosophico-theologica: and so of the rest. But, besides that these distinctions and denominations are in themselves pedantic, it is at all times more eligible, in every science, to avoid confounding with each other the several branches of which it consists. The different dogmas, morality, philosophy, and controversy, are separate articles; and when each of these parts of theology are separately treated, they are disposed with more order in the mind, and a greater light is diffused over their several subjects. It appears, moreover, from the simple enumeration that we have made above, of the different principles on which the dogmas of the Christian religion are founded, that, to be thoroughly acquainted with its whole theory, the theologian should also apply himself to the study of the symbolic books of its communion, and especially should be well versed in the Creed of the Apostles; that of Nice and St Athanasius; the book called Formula Concordia; the Theses of the council of Trent; the Catechisms of Luther; the Confession of Augsburg; the Articles of Smalcalden; the Catechism of Heidelberg, &c. That he should be well acquainted with that part of theology that is called patristica: that is to say, that he should be well read in the fathers of the church; that he should not be ignorant even of scholastic theology; that he should at least know the frivolous subtleties and the complicated method of the ancient scholastic divines, which was derived from the philosophy of Aristotle and the schools; that he should make a serious study of the sacred history of all ages, the councils and synods; that he should, above all, never lose sight of natural theology; and lastly, that it is indispensably necessary that he should procure a good bibliotheca, or treatise of ecclesiastical writers (A), which he may consult occasionally, and learn from thence to know the best guides. The more a theologian applies himself to all these subjects, the more ability he will acquire in this science, and the more perfect he will be in the theory of that religion which it is his duty to teach to others. Revealed religion being founded (at least in great part) on natural religion, and philosophy being the source from whence the principles and the knowledge of the latter are derived, it is evident that philosophy is intimately connected with theology: nevertheless, the aid of the former is to be employed with precaution, and is not to be regarded as the foundation of the theological dogmas, but only as a mean by which they may be explained and enforced. The Holy Scrip- (A) Those of Du Pin and William Cave are most celebrated. tures constitute perpetually the true basis of revealed theology: philosophy effectually concurs, however, to prove the existence and the attributes of the Supreme Being; the necessity of the creation of the universe by Almighty God, in opposition to every other possible manner of its being produced: it furnishes, moreover, plausible conjectures concerning the intention of the Almighty in creating this world; it proves the necessity of a perpetual power to preserve it; it supposes, that as God could not produce any thing that was not perfect in its kind, he could not have created man as he now is; it vindicates the conduct of the Supreme Being, in appointing chastisements for transgressions, by showing that moral evil was not introduced into the world by absolute necessity, but by the abuse of liberty, the most noble prerogative of the human soul; it determines the necessity of a Mediator; it furnishes arguments for the belief of the immortality of the soul, and of a future state that has a relation to the moral actions of this life; and lastly, it inspires a love of God as a Being of sovereign perfection, a gratitude towards him as our Creator and Preserver, and a submission to his will as our Supreme Ruler and Director; motives of all others the most powerfully conducive to a virtuous conduct. It is this use which theology makes of philosophy, that has given occasion to divide the theses of the dogmatic into pure and mixed; that is, into theses that are founded entirely upon revelation; and such as arise from an union of reason with revelation. Of the first sort are, 1. The article of the Holy Scripture itself; which treats of its divine origin, its authority, and its efficacy. 2. The dogma of the Trinity. 3. That of the origin of evil, or of original sin. 4. The whole article of Jesus Christ. 5. The dogma of the efficacy and operations of the Holy Ghost. 6. That of the sacraments. 7. That of repentance. 8. That of the belief in Jesus Christ. 9. That of good and bad angels. 10. That of the end of the world, and the last judgment. 11. That of the church, &c. The mixed dogmas or theses are, 1. The doctrine of a Supreme Being in general; his being, his attributes, and his works. 2. That of the creation. 3. That of providence, or the conservation of the world. 4. Of sin, as a transgression of the laws of God. 5. Of rewards and punishments after death, &c. He that attentively studies, thoroughly comprehends, and well digests, all these theses, will have reason to rest content with his knowledge of the dogmatic. SECT. II. Of the EXEGESIS and the HERMENEUTIC. The term Exegesis is derived from the Greek verb exe'gonstai, which signifies to relate or explain; and that of Hermeneutic from hermeneuein, which means to search into; and, in a figurative sense, thoroughly to examine and interpret. The learned, but especially the theologians, make use of these words, sometimes as synonima, to express the same thing, and sometimes (as there are scarce any terms that are perfectly synonymous) to denote a small difference between two parts of learning of the same nature. By the word Exegesis they mean, that science which teaches clearly to investigate the true sense of the original text of the Holy Scriptures; and by the Hermeneutic, the art of interpreting and explaining the Holy Scriptures to others (B). (A) The Exegesis is a kind of rational grammar. The Hermeneutic is the art of interpreting entire passages. This distinction is so subtle, that it becomes almost frivolous. They are, in fact, the same science; the one is only an explication of the other, and for that reason we think we are authorised to treat of them together in this place. In order to the true understanding of the sacred text of all the books contained in the Holy Bible, whether of the Old or New Testament, it is absolutely necessary that the theologian be thoroughly acquainted, not only with the languages in which these books were originally wrote, but likewise with the history and antiquities of those remote times in which their authors lived. With regard to researches into the history of the Jewish nation, their antiquities, their morals, and their customs, it will be found advantageous to pursue it as far as the nature of the subject will admit, without, however, engaging in critical subtleties that lead to a labyrinth to which there is no end, and have spread more clouds over theology than even the scholastic controversies have formerly done. He who would successfully interpret any work whatever, should first consider the spirit in which it is wrote: he should attentively reflect on the general design of that work, and the particular motives that induced the author to undertake it; his genius, his passions, his taste; the time, the place, and the people for whom it was written. These considerations are, above all, necessary, when we would undertake the explication of the Holy Scriptures. Independent of those reflections which the theologian will of himself naturally make on the subject, the excellent commentaries which we have on the Bible, in which the greatest men of every age have exercised their genius, may serve him as a guide in this course. The critical historians will likewise afford great aid, and throw admirable lights on this matter. Clear ideas, an acute discernment, and a solid judgment, will complete the work. Furnished with ideas from such sources, the theologian may venture to investigate the true sense of those passages of Holy Scripture that may appear to him obscure, contradictory, or difficult, and to interpret them to others: but he will be more wise and less vain than to attempt to impose his decisions on mankind, at all times, as authentic and infallible. The human discernment is ever confined and imperfect; and God has not granted to any man, to any theologian, or assembly of divines, an exclusive power of interpreting his divine word: he has moreover denounced his anathema against all those who shall add or take away a single word thereof. But to explore the true sense of any passage, and to explain it to others, cannot certainly be deemed either adding or retrenching. SECT. III. Of MORAL THEOLOGY. If it were allowable to compare the Saviour of the world to a weak mortal, we would say, that the conduct of Jesus Christ resembled that of Socrates, who has left us no part of his doctrine in writing, but whose whole instructions (as well as the particulars of his life) have been collected, digested, and published, by his disciples. The evangelists are the only historians of the Messiah: it is to their labours that we owe the knowledge of his actions upon earth, and his divine doctrine. The four Evangelists, and the Acts of the Apostles wrote by St. Luke, contain therefore 43 C alone Moral Theology. alone the history of the life of Jesus Christ, and the doctrine that he taught. His apostles and disciples began by paraphrasing his doctrine, as well by their evangelic sermons as in the epistles they addressed to the faithful of several Christian churches: they have given explications, and have added pastoral instructions, which are in effect admirable; but which, nevertheless, form not the original text of the discourses of our Saviour. The bishops of the apostolic century, the fathers of the church in all succeeding centuries, the other bishops and ecclesiastics, the councils, the synods, the doctors of theology, the popes, the confessories, the reformers likewise, and an infinity of theologians, have drawn from the Gospel, and sometimes also from the letters of the apostles, and from other commentaries on the gospel, various tenets; which, united, form at this day the general system of the Christian religion. The theologians who devote themselves to the service of the altar, study this system in the dogmatic: the laity learn it by means of catechisms; and after they have made confession of their faith, solemnly adopt it when they are received into the bosom of the church. It is not the same with regard to the morality of Jesus Christ, which every one may read in the Gospel; and to know which, it is not necessary to become learned, nor to study a complicated system. If the dogmatic were not armed with a thousand arguments to establish the divinity of Jesus Christ, yet would the morality of his gospel sufficiently prove it; seeing that it is perfectly holy, entirely simple, strictly just, and most completely adapted to promote the felicity of the human race in this world, and in that which is to come. The Saviour of the world has not enjoined any part of mankind to engage in disputes or abstract refinements: the sole command that he has given them is, to believe in his gospel; and that is comprised in one word only, Love: the grand and only principle on which the whole of his sacred doctrine is founded. To produce the greatest effects possible by the least efforts, is the highest perfection in nature, and at the same time the true characteristic of divinity. God has given to all the beings that compose the universe, one simple principle alone, by which the whole, and every part, is connected and perpetually supported; and that is Love. The attraction of the celestial bodies, as well as of those of which our globe is formed, is a species of Love; a mutual tendency toward each other. The uniform generation, by which all beings are perpetuated, is founded in Love. This is the true minimum, the true system of the least action, which includes something so divine. It appears to be the will of God to establish by the mouth of the Messiah, the same simple principle in morality, that is, in the rule of human actions, by saying Love: in a word, it was his will, that in the conduct of mankind, as in every other part of nature, there should be no other principle than that of Love. That in the different systems of ethics of the ancient heathen philosophers many maxims and precepts of admirable morality are to be found, cannot be denied; but, beside that these philosophers are almost continually contradicting each other in their maxims, no one of their systems is founded on the true principle. In searching after it, they have discovered some excellent truths; but it has been by chance, and they are at best imperfect. Jesus Christ has alone taught mankind perfect morals, by deducing them from this true principle. Every principle should be simple: the idea of a compound principle implies at once an imperfection. Every principle should be comprehensive, even universal, in its effects. Every principle, whose effects are limited, is imperfect. God himself is uniform in his principle, and infinite in his effects. His doctrine, or his law, should be the same. Jesus Christ has made known to mankind this principle, simple and universal. He has therefore been, in this sense also, the true Saviour of the world. He has preached to mankind; and his only doctrine has been that of love. By the word Love, with regard to bodies in general, is meant a tendency, a mutual inclination, that urges them to join and to coalesce; and with regard to men in particular, a lively affecting pleasure that possesses the mind on contemplating the perfections of any object. This pleasure is always accompanied with a desire either to possess that object, or to render it propitious. By adopting therefore this principle, and this last definition of Love, it follows, that all the duties of man consist, 1. In the love of God in preference to all other objects. 2. In the love of himself. 3. In the love of his own species. 4. In the love of every other creature to a certain degree. The doctrines of Jesus Christ are, in these respects, the most explicit. From this principle flows our duty towards God, towards ourselves, our neighbour, and to those beings that are subject to our power. The first rule is, to communicate to all those, whom it is our duty to love, all the good, and to preserve them from all the evil in our power. The second, to do to no one what we would not have done to ourselves in similar circumstances. The third, which is the simple effect of love, is to endeavour to please the object that we ought to love. The fourth, to endeavour to render the pleasures that we communicate to others, as lively as possible, and those inevitable evils, which we are sometimes constrained to do to them, as supportable as we can; and so of the rest. The whole evangelic doctrine of our Saviour is replete, from beginning to end, with admirable precepts for these purposes; and these precepts, with their applications, general and particular, we learn from that science which we call moral theology. This doctrine we distinguish from moral philosophy, or the simple doctrine of Ethics; because Jesus Christ has made known, in his divine morality, a far greater degree of perfection than is discoverable by the mere light of human reason. For the renouncing of self-interest, and private pleasure; the forgiveness of offences; the love of his enemies; the triumph over destructive passions; and many other like virtues, the Christian is alone indebted to the doctrine of Jesus Christ. A second difference between Christianity and philosophy consists in this, That the first adds to the second still new motives to the practice of virtue. That of redemption and pardon, obtained by Jesus Christ, is not one of the least. Its argument is this: If God has so loved mankind, as to afford them the means Polemical Theology. means by which the evil, caused by their own fault, may be abolished, it would be the greatest of all ingratitude and malice towards himself, if man should not endeavour to acknowledge this love, to merit it, and to embrace the means of pleasing God. A third motive, taken also from the merit of Jesus Christ, here offers itself as an auxiliary to the two former. According to the Christian doctrine, man has not by nature the power to practise all those virtues which are agreeable to God: but the same doctrine teaches, on the other hand, the conditions by which it is possible to please that most holy and perfect Being; and gives the Christian hope also that he shall never labour in vain. Lastly, the Christian morality is of far greater efficacy in adversity than philosophy: it carries with it a wonderful consolation in misfortune, and even in the hour of death; for the Christian may say, with the Apostle, that godliness (or the practice of evangelic morals) is in all things profitable, having the promise of the present life, and that which is to come. SECT. IV. Of POLEMICAL THEOLOGY, or CONTROVERSY. We cannot sufficiently lament, that the church of the God of peace should be a church-militant; and that a doctrine so simple and clear as that of the Gospel should be the cause of discord even among Christians themselves. Nevertheless, as the truth is so difficult to discover in all things, and especially in matters of religion; as it is so frequently covered with the clouds of interest and ambition; as the same object appears so different to different men; and as error in the face of the world constantly assumes the mask of truth; it is but just that the true religion be furnished with arms to combat error, and to pluck off that deceitful mask by which so many poor mortals are seduced. The theologian, who has made the proper preparatory studies, who is thoroughly instructed in natural religion, in the dogmatic and the hermeneutic, and who joins to these sound logic, is already well prepared for this spiritual combat: he is armed, but he is still to learn how to use these arms: he must also be made acquainted with the enemies he is to encounter, to know their force, and the arts they will use against him. It is plain enough, we suppose, that we here speak of spiritual arms; of those with which we are furnished by reason and the Holy Scripture: evil be to him that employs any other: force is ever an infallible proof of the want of argument. The propagation of a religion by the sword, after the manner of Mahomet; persecutions, either secret or open; constraint, violence, every sort of religious war, is so atrocious, so contrary to the spirit of the Gospel, in a word, so detestable, that every true Christian must avert his sight from such infamous horrors. Controversy is conducted either from the pulpit or chair, by way of harangue, by conversation, or by writing. The first quality that is necessary to a disputant is reason, and the next moderation; in what manner soever the contest is conducted, these two qualities should constantly be manifest, during the whole course of altercation. There are some errors that attack the system of religion, and there are others that attack even its morality. In order properly to oppose an error, we must begin by finding out its real meaning: we must therefore study the different systems of other religions, and the principal heresies, if we would successfully refute them. We do not mean by this, that the theologian should know all the errors that spring up in the brain of each individual; we speak only of those that are professed by whole sects. They who attack our religion, found their opinions either on the interpretation of the sacred text, or on philosophy or history; and we should always oppose them with the same arms with which they pretend to defeat us. It is necessary to begin by divesting ourselves of all prejudice, in order the better to show others those prejudices by which they are deluded. We should never make use, but especially when we oppose weak minds, of opprobrious terms in the course of the debate, nor contend about words or expressions, nor attack incidental circumstances that may attend erroneous principles; but bend our whole force against the root of the tree, the principal error; to uncover it, to dig it up, to destroy it. Polemical theology is taught in universities by two methods, according to the views of the student. If he learn it merely in order hereafter to defend his parishioners against the most prevalent errors, he is only to examine the principal controversies according to the systematic order of theology; and may content himself with knowing their true meaning, together with the arguments of those that oppose them. But if it be his intention to teach this science to others, or to engage in controversy, either by conversation or writing; in short, if he aspire to renown in it, he should study the origin and history of each controversy, he should make himself a complete master of the arguments for and against it, the exceptions that it makes, its interests, its different revolutions and actual state, &c. These follow, in this study, either the order established in the dogmatic, or that which is used in symbolic books, that is, such as treat on articles of faith. In order the better to elucidate the method to be observed in this sort of study, we shall say, that to acquire a complete knowledge of theological disputes, the student should, 1. Make the examen of each religion, and even of each controversy. 2. He should thoroughly examine his system in the symbolic books, and likewise the sources of his religion. 3. He should precisely determine the principal and capital error of each religion, sect, or individual; that which is the source from whence all the other errors flow. 4. Search into the political causes of each error, and each controversy, from history. 5. Examine the natural order according to which all the errors have taken their rise, the one from the other: and lastly, 6. Confront the respective arguments, the answers, and exceptions, that each party has made to defend its cause. To all this is to be added, 7. What they call collegium disputatorium; an exercise by which all that is learned in the closet and in the schools is called forth and animated, under the inspection of a professor; and the mind is accustomed to think, and the tongue to speak, with facility and efficacy. The principal contests in which the theologian may be engaged, are, 1. Against those who admit of no revealed religion; as the atheist and deist. 2. Against those who admit of a revealed religion, but adopt not the true Revelation; as the Heathens, the Mahometans, &c. 3. Against those who believe only a part of the true Revelation; as the Jews. 4. Against those who add to the true Revelation matter foreign to it; as traditions, &c. 5. Against those who make a false interpretation of the sacred text, and draw from it erroneous systems; as the heretics and the schismatics, &c. And lastly, 6. Against those who make a wrong use of certain expressions of Revelation, and build on whimsical notions, ridiculous systems; the Fanatics, &c. According to this division, the theologian will have to combat principally with, 1. The Atheists, with Spinoza at their head. 2. The Deists. 3. The Heathens and Idolaters. 4. The Mahometans. 5. The modern Jews. 6. The Arians and the Manicheans, or rather those who in these days follow their ancient errors. 7. The Socinians. 8. The Catholics, opposed to the Protestants. 9. The Protestants, opposed to the Catholics. 10. The Molinists, opposed to the Janfenists. 11. The Janfenists, opposed to the Molinists. 12. The Reformed, opposed to the Lutherans. 13. The Lutherans, opposed to the Reformed. 14. The Arminians. 15. The Anabaptists. 16. The Quakers. 17. The Fanatics, at the head of whom is Jacob Bohm. 18. The Pietists. 19. The Moravian Brethren, or the Hierenhuters, &c. Now, as each of the religions, communions, or heresies above-mentioned, have not scrupled to publish to the world their dogmas and creeds, the theologian ought carefully to instruct himself in those symbolic books, in which each of them have comprised its system; to study and to make a good analysis of them; and to prepare such arguments as are the most just, the most weighty, and proper to confute them. Before we quit this subject, there is one remark to be made, or rather one caution that is very essential, which we would offer to the young theologian; which is, that the polemic is useful, and even necessary, in the study of theology in general; but that it is a discipline which ought to be treated with great prudence and moderation. Disputation in general is a dangerous art; and religious disputation is a deceitful art, and of infinite peril. The student will do right well to remember, that there is no sect, no communion on earth, that is perfectly true in all its dogmas without exception; that there are some small errors in all religions; that infallibility never was, nor ever will be, the portion of humanity. He should likewise remember, that the masters who teach him, or the books that he reads, are constantly partial to the religion they profess; and that when he has supported a thesis, and confuted his adversaries in a collegial dispute, (where his adversaries, as well as his preceptors, are of the same side of the question, and will not fail to adjudge him the victor), he should be persuaded, that the victory would not have been so easily obtained had he contended with able adversaries of the opposite religion: he should remember, that we triumph without glory when we combat without danger; and let him not be vain of his laurels, nor imagine himself some wonderful scholar, seeing that it is very possible that he may go off victorious from such a dispute, that he may receive vast applause from his professors and his colleagues, and at the same time have reasoned like a dolt. On the other hand, the most able theologians, and the most consummate professors in this science, ought to be constantly on their guard against the abuse of polemical theology; which frequently serves less to clear and confirm the truth of the dogmas of a communion, than to establish perpetual discord and hatred among Christians. Every theologian should also remember, that, by the nature of the subject, it is not possible to produce demonstration in support of his theses and opinions; but that his arguments will be only valid, and preponderate in proportion to their degree of evidence; and lastly, that it is a ridiculous and insufferable vanity to imagine, that every man, who does not think precisely as we do, is guilty of palpable error. SECT. V. PASTORAL THEOLOGY. HAVING described the theoretic sciences of theology, we now come to those which regard the practice. It would be to bury the talents that God has given him, and the studies that he has made, if the theologian did not employ them to the edification of his neighbour and the prosperity of the church. His office in society is attended with constant and anxious labours. He is charged with the cure of souls, with the instruction of youth, with preaching of the Gospel, the conduct of his flock, and the administration of the sacraments, with visitations to the sick and the dying, with calming the terrors of weak minds, with administering comforts to afflicted souls, and many other functions equally difficult and important. As the homily makes a part of eloquence, it is unnecessary to say any thing of it in this place, but treat the others in their order. It is in vain that a son of the church possesses all the sciences that belong to his profession, that he is an agreeable and even a renowned preacher, if he do not give a life, an efficacious spirit, to his ministry, by a good example; for that is the first precept in pastoral theology. He is at the head of a flock, and ought to be their guide: but how absurd, if his words and his actions be at continual variance with each other! How scandalous, if he be not the first to practise these lessons of wisdom that he preaches! How indecent, if, while he edifies by his discourses, he disguises by his morals! What baseness, if he should even glory in his irregularities! It is less shameful for a soldier to relate that he has tamely suffered an affront, than for an ecclesiastic to boast of his debaucheries! Both the one and the other is a disgrace to his profession. But this exemplary conduct should be free from all affectation in the external behaviour. A singularity of dress, and an air of austerity; the head declined, the eyes turned up to heaven, the hands constantly clasped, a plaintive tone of voice, and a solemn gait; a scrupulosity in things indifferent, and a dogmatic and clerical manner of deciding in the common affairs of life; a ridiculous inclination to discover iniquity in innocent actions; to confound pleasure with vice, and to be an enemy to joy, the greatest boon that God has bestowed on man; and a hundred other like fopperies there are, with which the religious make a parade, that Catechetical Theology. that is shocking both to good sense and the evangelical morality, and which render their ministry, in the eyes of sensible people, more contemptible than respectable. These are rocks on which the young theologian is much too liable to run, and of which he cannot be sufficiently cautioned. After this candid caution and brief introduction, we pass to the examen of the different parts, the union of which composes the system of the pastoral, the most important article perhaps in all theology. The design of Revelation was, without doubt, to conduct man by faith to a virtuous life. It is not the opinions or the learning of weak mortals that can determine their intrinsic merit; it is their wisdom, their regularity of conduct, that must stamp their value. Experience shows, that a man of great genius and learning may be also a great villain; one who is unable to please God or his neighbour: the virtuous Christian, on the contrary, must be agreeable to both: it follows therefore, that the practical part of theology, which leads mankind to a virtuous conduct, is of all its parts the most important. SECT. VI. CATECHETIC THEOLOGY. By Catechetical Theology is meant, The art of teaching youth, and ignorant persons, the principal points of the Evangelical Doctrine, as well with regard to belief as practice. This application of the theoretic sciences of theology ought to be conducted in the most simple manner possible. It is not every one who is possessed of the talent of properly composing and delivering catechetical instructions: and it is an art that is very necessary in the Christian church. The greatest difficulty consists in separating the articles of faith that are absolutely essential and indispensable to the salvation of mankind, from those that are subtle and speculative, more liable to contradiction, and less necessary to such as do not make theology their profession. However, as children do not always remain children, and as the church is composed of persons of both sexes and of all ages, it is necessary that, in the explanations of the catechism, there should be employed different degrees of simplicity, proportioned to the age and capacity of those that are to be instructed. It is expedient for young people to retain in their minds the first principles of religion, such as are contained in good catechisms; and that they be explained to them in particular lectures; which is the most usual and most natural method of enabling youth to give an account of their faith. The sermons that are given in the Catholic churches on controversy, and in Protestant churches on the catechism, serve to instruct those who are of riper years and have their judgment more formed. These sermons compose, at the same time, a sort of course of the dogmatic and the polemic theology. Both in private catechising, and in sermons that are purposely intended to explain the catechism, the theologian should avoid, as much as possible, the use of technical terms; or (which is still better) he ought to begin by explaining those terms, of which he should give such clear and determinate definitions, that no person of a moderate capacity can possibly mistake them. In a word, he should endeavour more to prove than to persuade; and as eloquence sometimes persuades at the expense of truth, he should cautiously avoid that sort of delusive persuasion, and in its room substitute clear and solid argument. SECT. VII. Of CASUISTIC THEOLOGY. By casuistic theology is meant, the science that decides in doubtful cases of moral theology, and that calms the scruples of conscience which arise in the Christian's soul during his sojourn in this world. The studies relative to these objects, which the theologian is supposed to have made, and the confidence that the common rank of Christians place in their pastors, afford them the means and the opportunities of rendering signal service to those of their fellow-citizens who have need of their counsel and consolation: for where there is one man of a philosophic spirit, one Christian of a well-grounded knowledge in theology, there are in a society a thousand that are not, and who are yet desirous of being instructed, guided, comforted, established. It is therefore both just and important that he who devotes himself to the service of the altar, should early study all those sciences that will enable him worthily to perform this important part of his ministry. God forbid, however, that we should countenance the abuse that is made, in some Christian countries, of the duties that we have here explained. To reduce these matters into a political system; to make the direction of consciences a profession, a regular trade; to provide each house with a spiritual director, as with a butcher or baker, a steward or porter, who by that means may insinuate himself into the confidence of families, and become the depository of all their secrets; may sometimes sow discord between husband and wife, or the nearest relations; who may avail himself of the confidence of his devotees, to direct them constantly in matters of a worldly, and sometimes even of a criminal, nature; to efface the legitimate and sacred authority of the father of a family, and in its place to substitute a foreign power; to undermine the confidence, the union and concord of families, in order to confirm and render necessary this secondary authority; to captivate the spirit, and oft-times the heart, of a wife or daughter, and in general of weak minds; to enjoin them ridiculous mummeries that lead to fanaticism, and a thousand dangerous superstitions, or to religious exercises that divert them from their domestic duties; in a word, to assume an absolute authority over the consciences of mankind, is a pernicious invention, contrary to the evangelical moral, to the welfare of society, to the interest of the state, and to the sovereign authority; and well deserves an exemplary punishment. But the cure of souls, faithfully intended, and properly limited, differs totally from this despotic power. He who is charged with it by a lawful vocation, should remember that there are four classes of men with whom he will be engaged: 1. With those of weak minds; of little knowledge and little ability. 2. With those whose spirits are afflicted by some great reverse of fortune. 3. With those of nice and timorous consciences, who suffer by their scruples, whether they be vain or rational. 4. And lastly, the wicked, the hardened and incorrigible sinner. The grand art here consists in representing to each of these classes of men, the truth, in a manner so clear, so strong and full, that they they can no longer retain any doubts that conviction must take place, and consolation or conversion be the consequence. Truth is in its nature highly problematic: each one, however, is persuaded that he knows it, that he possesses it, and is guided by it; every man thinks himself in the right. We should therefore begin by discovering the truth in the subject before us, and in placing it upon a solid foundation. This business of demonstrating the truth to others, is attended in the mean time with infinite difficulty. Every mind is not capable of discovering it at the first glance; nor can all discern it from the same point of view. Sometimes men require conviction by abstract or philosophical arguments, and sometimes by the express decisions of the Holy Scripture. Sometimes by authority, sometimes by gentle remonstrance, and sometimes by dreadful menaces. Sometimes they are to be reclaimed by properly exposing the necessary and fatal consequences that result from their conduct; and at others, by the alluring promises of the gospel. Now vice is to be boldly confronted; and now the transgressor is to be conducted into the right path by artful turnings: now the sinner's crimes are to be painted in the strongest colours; and now a veil is to be lightly cast over them; and sometimes we should even indulge a favourite inclination, in order to induce them to abandon a more pernicious passion: and so of the rest. As it is impossible that the books which have been wrote on this subject, though of an immense quantity, can contain every case that daily occurs in the ministry of the gospel; and as these cases are not always justly decided by these authors; and, if they were, the consulting of such enormous works would take up too much of a theologian's time, and divert him from his other studies; and as these casuistic writers contain, moreover, a number of puerile subtleties and wretched chimeras; it is highly proper that the minister of the altar, whom we suppose to have a masterly knowledge of the principles, the dogmas, and moral of the Christian religion, should endeavour to draw from the true source the means that he is to employ on each occurrence, and not have recourse to books for their decisions. For which purpose it is necessary, 1. That he accustom himself to reason according to the rules of sound logic. 2. That he learn to know the human heart, under its different disguises; the characters of men, their arts, and ruling passions. 3. That he do not attempt to gain or convince by little pious frauds, or by lucky sophisms artfully represented. 4. That he do not inflict what are called penances, which are the height of absurdity. 5. That he do not enjoin mummeries, pilgrimages, austerities, and a thousand like matters, which can never carry with them a real conviction, and only serve to divert men from their labours and the duties of society. But, 6. That he constantly present, as we have before said, and cannot too often repeat, the truth, in all its native force and purity. This truth, however, is no enemy to sacred eloquence; on the contrary, the latter serves to introduce the former into the mind of the auditor, and there to give it such strong impressions, as neither time, the dissipations of the world, nor the distractions of fortune, are able easily to efface. The whole ministerial function consists in teaching, preaching, administering the sacraments of the church, visiting the sick and the dying, comforting the afflicted, and affording the spiritual aids to all those who have need of them. Eloquence is of the greatest efficacy in all these functions; and, without affecting it, the minister of the gospel should never neglect it. There are some professors in universities who give their auditors a complete systematic course on pastoral theology, which may be attended with many advantages. T H E THEOPHILUS, the sixth bishop of Antioch; was raised to that see in 169, and instructed his church till about the year 182. There are still extant his three books, written in Greek, against the calumniators of the Christian religion, addressed to Autolycus. They were printed at Oxford in 1684, in duodecimo, under the inspection of Dr Fell. There are also other works attributed to him; but these are written by later authors.