MEASURES, (Encycl.) It is necessary, for the convenience of commerce, that an uniformity should be observed in weights and measures, and regulated by proper standards. A foot-rule may be used as a standard for measures of length, a bushel for measures of capacity, and a pound for weights. There should be only one authentic standard of each kind, formed of the most durable materials, and kept with all possible care. A sufficient number of copies, exactly corresponding to the principal standard, may be distributed for adjusting the weights and measures that are made for common use. There are several standards of this kind both in England and Scotland. See the article WEIGHTS and MEASURES, (Encycl.) If any one of the standards above-mentioned be justly preserved, it will serve as a foundation for the others, by which they may be corrected, if inaccurate, or restored, if entirely lost. For instance, if we have a standard foot, we can easily obtain an inch, and can make a box, which shall contain a cubical inch, and may serve as a standard for measures of capacity. If it be known that a pint contains 100 cubical inches, we may make a vessel five inches square, and four inches deep, which will contain a pint. If the standard be required in any other form, we may fill this vessel with water, and regulate another to contain an equal quantity. Standards for weights may be obtained from the same foundation; for if we know how many inches of water it takes to weigh a pound, we have only to measure that quantity, and the weight which balances it may be assumed as the standard of a pound. Again, if the standard of a pound be given, the measure of an inch may be obtained from it: for we may weigh a cubical inch of water, and pour it into a regular vessel; and having noticed how far it is filled, we may make another vessel of like capacity, in the form of a cube. The side of this vessel may be assumed as the standard for an inch; and standards for a foot, a pint, or a bushel, may be obtained from it. Water is the most proper substance for regulating standards; for all other bodies differ in weight from others of the same kind; whereas it is found by experience that spring and river water, rain, and melted snow, and all other kinds, have the same weight; and this uniformly holds in all countries when the water is pure, alike warm, and free from salt and minerals. Thus, any one standard is sufficient for restoring all the rest. It may further be desired to hit on some expedient, if possible, for restoring the standards, in case that all of them should ever fall into disorder, or should be forgotten, through the length of time, and the vicissitudes of human affairs. This seems difficult, as no words can convey a precise idea of a foot-rule, or a pound weight. Measures, assumed from the dimensions of the human body, as a foot, a handbreadth, or a pace, must nearly be the same in all ages, unless the size of the human race undergo some change; and therefore, if we know how many square feet a Roman acre contained, we may form some judgment of the nature of the law which restricted the property of a Roman citizen to seven acres; and this is sufficient to render history intelligible; but it is too inaccurate to regulate measures for commercial purposes. The same may be said of standards, deduced from the measure of a barley-corn, or the weight of a grain of wheat. If the distance of two mountains be accurately measured and recorded, the nature of the measure used will be preserved in a more permanent manner than by any standard; for if ever that measure fall into disuse, and another be substituted in its place, the distance may be measured again, and the proportion of the standards may be ascertained by comparing the new and ancient distances. But the most accurate and unchangeable manner of establishing standards is, by comparing them with the length of pendulums. The longer a pendulum is, it vibrates the slower; and it must have one precise length in order to vibrate in a second. The slightest difference in length will occasion a difference in the time; which will become abundantly sensible after a number of vibrations, and will be easily observed if the pendulum be applied to regulate the motion of a clock. The length of a pendulum which vibrates seconds in London is about 39\frac{1}{2} inches, is constantly the same at the same place; but it varies a little with the latitude of the place, being shorter as the latitude is less. Therefore, though all standards of weights and measures were lost, the length of a second pendulum might be found by repeated trials; and if the pendulum be properly divided, the just measure of an inch will be obtained; and from this all other standards may be restored. 1. Measures of length. Lineal measure is regulated by the yard. The use of this measure was established by Henry I. of England, and the standard taken from the length of his own arm. It is divided into 36 inches, and each inch is supposed equal to 3 barley-corns. When used for measuring cloth, it is divided into 4 quarters, and each quarter subdivided into 4 nails. The English ell is equal to a yard and a quarter, or 45 inches, and is used in measuring linens imported from Germany and the Low-Countries. The Scots clawand was established by king David I. and divided into 37 inches. The standard is kept in the council-chamber of Edinburgh, and being compared with the English yard, is found to measure 37\frac{1}{2} inches; and therefore the Scots inch and foot are larger than the English, in the proportion of 180 to 185; but this difference being so inconsiderable, is seldom attended to in practice. The Scots ell, though forbidden by law, is still used for measuring some coarse commodities, and is the foundation of the land-measure of Scotland. A hand in horsemanship is 4 inches. A span 9 inches. A geometrical pace 5 feet. A fathom, chiefly used in measuring depth, 6 feet. Itinerary measure is regulated by Table IX. (see ARITHMETIC, p. 655.) both in England and Scotland. The length of the chain is 4 poles, or 22 yards; 80 chains make a mile. The old Scots computed miles were generally about a mile and a half each. The reel for yarn is 2½ yards, or 10 quarters, in circuit; 120 threads make a cut, 12 cuts make a half or hank, and 4 hanks make a spindle. 2. Land measure. This, in England, is regulated by Tab. VII. (see ARITHMETIC, p. 655.) Because the length of a pole is 5 yards and a half, the square of the same contains 30¼ square yards. A square mile contains 640 square acres. In measuring fens and woodlands, 18 feet are generally allowed to the pole, and 21 feet in forest-lands. A hide of land, frequently mentioned in the earlier part of the English history, contained about 100 arable acres; and 5 hides were esteemed a knight's fee. At the time of the Norman conquest, there were 243,600 hides in England. Scots land-measure is founded on the Scots ell, and regulated by Tab. VIII. (See ARITHMETIC, p. 655.) The proportion between the Scots and English acre, supposing the feet in both measures alike, is as 1369 to 1089, or nearly as 5 to 4. If the difference of the feet be regarded, the proportion is as 10,000 to 7869. The length of the chain for measuring land in Scotland is 24 ells, or 74 feet. A husband-land contains 6 acres of sock and scythe land, that is, of land that may be tilled with a plough or mown with a scythe: 13 acres of arable land make one ox-gang, and 4 ox-gangs make a pound-land of old extent. 3. Liquid measure. The English gallon was originally founded on the Troy weight. It was appointed that 8 lb. Troy of wheat, gathered from the middle of the ear, and well dried, should make a gallon. When averdupois weight came into use, another gallon was formed from it in the same manner; which therefore is greater than the former, in the same proportion that the lb. averdupois exceeds the lb. Troy. The wine-gallon is now appointed to contain 231 inches; and a cylindrical vessel, 7 inches diameter and 6 inches deep, which answers almost exactly to that capacity, is also appointed to be a legal wine-gallon. This measure is used for wine, spirits, vinegar, oil, cider, perry, and honey. The ale-gallon is appointed to contain 282 inches; and is used in selling malt-liquors of all kinds, and in collecting the revenue of excise. Table of Wine Measure. 2 pints = 1 quart2 quarts = 1 bottle3 bottles = 1 gallon10 gallons = 1 hanker18 gallons = 1 runlet3½ gallons = 1 barrel42 gallons = 1 tierce2 bar. or63 gallons = 1 hoghead Table of Ale Measure. 2 pints = 1 quart2 quarts = 1 bottle2 bottles = 1 gallon8 gallons = 1 firkin ale9 gallons = 1 firkin beer2 firkins = 1 kilderken4 firkins = 1 barrel2 barrels = 1 hd.2 hds. = 1 butt 84 gallons = 1 puncheon2 hds. = 1 pipe or butt2 butts = 1 ton The barrel for ale in London is 32 gallons, and the barrel for beer 36 gallons. In all other places of England, the barrel, both for ale and beer, is 36 gallons. For the Scots measures, see PINT, (Encycl.) 4. Dry measures. The standard for measuring corn, salt, coals, and other dry goods, in England, is the Winchester gallon, which contains 272¼ cubic inches. The bushel contains 8 gallons, or 2178 inches. A cylindrical vessel, 18½ inches diameter, and 8 inches deep, is appointed to be used as a bushel in levying the malt-tax. A vessel of these dimensions is rather less than the Winchester bushel of 8 gallons, for it contains only 2150 inches; though probably there was no difference intended. The denominations of dry measure commonly used, are given in Tab. V. (see ARITHMETIC, p. 655.) Four quarters corn make a chaldron, 5 quarters make a wey or load, and 10 quarters make a ton. In measuring sea-coal, 5 pecks make a bushel, 9 bushels make a quarter or vatt, 4 quarters make a chaldron, and 21 chaldrons make a score. There was formerly only one measure of capacity in Scotland; and some commodities were heaped, others straked, or measured exactly to the capacity of the standard. The method of heaping was afterwards forbidden, as unequal, and a larger measure appointed for such commodities as that custom had been extended to. The wheat-firlet, used also for rye, pease, beans, salt, and grass-seeds, contains 21 pints 1 mutchkin, measured by the Stirling jug. The barley-firlet, used also for oats, fruit, and potatoes, contains 31 pints. A different method of regulating the firlet was appointed, from the dimensions of a cylindrical vessel. The diameter for both measures was fixed at 19½ inches, the depth 7½ inches for the wheat-firlet, and 10½ for the barley-firlet. A standard constructed by these measures is rather less than when regulated by the pint; and as it is difficult to make vessels exactly cylindrical, the regulation by the pint has prevailed, and the other method gone into disuse. If the Stirling jug contain 103½ inches, the wheat-firlet will contain 2109 inches; which is more than 2 per cent. larger than the legal malt-bushel of England, and about 1 per cent. larger than the Winchester bushel: and the barley-firlet will contain 3208 inches. The barley-boll is nearly equal to six legal malt bushels. In Stirlingshire, 17 pecks are reckoned to the boll: in Invernesshire, 18 pecks: in Ayrshire, the boll is the same as the English quarter. And the firlets, in many places, are larger than the Linlithgow standard. 40 feet hewn timber make a load.50 feet unhewn timber make a load.32 gallons make a herring barrel.42 gallons make a salmon barrel.1 cwt. gun-powder makes a barrel.256 lb. soap make a barrel.10 dozen candles make a barrel.12 barrels make a last. Medicine MEDICINE, n° 494. See further the article SEX-PENT, in this APPENDIX. Mine.