SOCRATES, the greatest of the ancient philosophers, "the very founder of philosophy itself," as the earl of Shaftesbury calls him, was born at Alopece, a small village of Attica, in the fourth year of the 77th olympiad, or about 467 years before Christ. His parents were very mean; Sophroniscus his father being a statuary or carver of images in stone, and Phænareta his mother a midwife. However, he is observed to have been so far from being ashamed of his parents, that he often took occasion to mention them. Plutarch says, that as soon as he was born, Sophroniscus his father, consulting the oracle, was advised to suffer his son to do what he pleased, neither compelling him to what he disliked, nor diverting him from what he was inclined to; in short, to be nowise solicitous about him, since he had one guide of life within him, meaning his Genius, who was better than 500 masters. But Sophroniscus, regardless of the oracle's direction, put him to his own trade of carving statues; which, though contrary to the inclination of Socrates, yet afterwards stood him in good stead: for his father dying, and his money and effects being lost by being placed in bad hands, he was necessitated to continue his trade for ordinary subsistence. But being naturally averse to this profession, he only followed it when necessity compelled him; and upon getting a little before-hand, would for a while lay it entirely aside. These intermissions of his trade were bestowed upon philosophy, to which he was naturally addicted; and this being observed by Crito, a rich philosopher of Athens, Socrates was at length taken from his shop, and put into a condition of philosophising at his ease and leisure.
The first master of Socrates was Anaxagoras, and then Archelaus: by the last of whom he was much beloved, and travelled with him to Samos, to Pytho; and to the Ilthmus. He was scholar likewise of Damon, whom Plato calls a most pleasing teacher of music, and of all other things that he himself would teach to young men. He heard also Prodicus the sophist; to which must be added Diotyma and Aspasia, women excellently learned. Diotyma was supposed to have been inspired with a spirit of prophecy; and Aspasia taught him rhetoric. Of Euenus he learned poetry; of Ichiomachus, husbandry; of Theodorus, geometry.
At length he began himself to teach; and was so eloquent, that he could lead the mind to approve or disapprove whatever he pleased; but never used this talent for any other purpose than to conduct his fellow-citizens into the path of virtue. As to his school, and the particular method of his teaching, Plato mentions the academy Lycæum, and a pleasant meadow without the city on the side of the river Illyssus, as places frequented by him and his auditors. Xenophon affirms, that he was continually abroad; that in the morning he visited the places of public walking and exercise; when it was full, the forum; and that the rest of the day.
Socrates. day he fought out the most populous meetings, where he disputed openly for every one to hear that would: and Plutarch relates, that he did not only teach when the benches were prepared, and himself in the chair, or in set hours of reading and discourse, or at appointments in walking with his friends; but even when he played, or eat, or drank, or was in the camp or market, or finally when he was in prison: thus making every place a school of virtue. His method of rousing the soul, and enabling her to recollect her own original ideas, was twofold; by irony, and induction. He is said to have exceeded all men living in irony. His way was, to lessen and detract from himself in disputation, and to attribute somewhat more to those he meant to confute; so that he always dissembled with much gravity his own opinions, till he had led others, by a series of questions, called induction, to the point he aimed at. He professed only to know this, "That he knew nothing;" and used modestly to say, that his skill resembled that of his mother, "he being nothing more than a kind of midwife, who assisted others in bringing forth what they had within themselves." However, he was, as Xenophon represents him, excellent in all kinds of learning. Xenophon instances only in arithmetic, geometry, and astrology: Plato mentions natural philosophy; Idomeneus, rhetoric; Laertius, medicine. Cicero affirms, that by the testimony of all the learned, and the judgment of all Greece, he was, as well in wisdom, acuteness, politeness, and subtlety, as in eloquence, variety, and richness, in whatever he applied himself to, without exception, the prince of all. As to his philosophy, it may be necessary to observe, that having searched into all kinds of science, he noted these inconveniences and imperfections: first, that it was wrong to neglect those things which concern human life, for the sake of inquiring into those things which do not; secondly, that the things men have usually made the objects of their inquiries, are above the reach of human understanding, and the source of all the disputes, errors, and superstitions, which have prevailed in the world; and thirdly, that such divine mysteries cannot be made subservient to the uses of human life. Thus esteeming speculative knowledge, so far only as it conduces to practice, he cut off in all the sciences what he conceived to be of least use. In short, remarking how little advantage speculation brought to mankind, he reduced her to action: and thus, says Cicero, "first called philosophy away from things involved by nature in impenetrable secrecy, which had yet employed all the philosophers till his time, and brought her to common life, to inquire after virtue and vice, good and evil." See Socratic Philosophy.
That Socrates had an attendant spirit, genius, or demon, which diverted from dangers, is testified by Plato, Xenophon, and Antisthenes, who were his contemporaries, and confirmed by innumerable authors of antiquity; but what this attendant spirit, genius, or demon was, or what we are to understand by it, neither ancient nor modern writers have been able to determine. There is some disagreement concerning the name, and more concerning the nature of it: only it is agreed, that the advice it gave him was always dispositive; "never impelling," says Cicero, "but often restraining him." It is commonly named his dæmon,
by which title he himself owned it. Plato sometimes calls it his guardian, and Apuleius his god; because the name of dæmon, as St. Austin tells us, at last grew odious. As for the sign or manner in which this demon or genius foretold, and by foretelling guarded him against evils to come, nothing certain can be collected about it. Plutarch conjectured, first, that it might be some apparition; but at last concludes, that it was his observation of some inarticulate unaccustomed sound or voice, conveyed to him by some extraordinary way, as we see in dreams. Others confine this foreknowledge of evils within the soul of Socrates himself; and when he said, that "his genius advised him," interpret him as if he had said, that "his mind foreboded and so inclined him." But this is said to be inconsistent with the description which Socrates himself gives of a voice and signs from without. Lastly, some conceive it to be one of those spirits that have a particular care of men; which Maximus Tyrius and Apuleius describe in such a manner, that they want only the name of a good angel: and this Laetantius has supplied, when having proved, that God sends angels to guard mankind, he adds, "and Socrates affirmed, that there was a demon constantly near him, which had kept him company from a child, and by whose beak and instruction he guided his life."
It is observed by many, that Socrates little affected travel; his life being wholly spent at home, excepting when he went out upon military services. In the Peloponnesian war, he was thrice personally engaged: first, at the siege of Potidæa; secondly, at Delium, a town in Bæotia, which the Athenians took; and thirdly, at Amphipolis, when it was taken by Brasidas the Lacedæmonian general. We are told in Plutarch's Symposium, and in the person of Alcibiades, that "he outwent all the soldiers in hardiness: and if at any time, (saith Alcibiades), as it often happens in war, the provisions failed, there were none who could bear the want of meat and drink like Socrates; yet, on the other hand, in times of feasting, he alone seemed to enjoy them: and though of himself he would not drink, yet being invited, he far out-drank every body, and (which is most strange) was never seen drunk."—He forbore to accept any office in the commonwealth, except in his latter years that of senator: either, as Ælian faith, because he saw the Athenian government approaching to a tyranny; or, as himself professeth, because he was dissuaded by his demon from meddling in public affairs.
To this great philosopher Greece was principally obliged for her glory and splendour. He formed the manners of the most celebrated persons of Greece, as Alcibiades, Xenophon, Plato, &c. But his services and the great qualities of his mind could not secure him from envy, persecution, and calumny. The 30 tyrants forbade his instructing youth; and as he desired the plurality of the Pagan deities, he was charged with impiety. The day of trial being come, Socrates made his own defence, without procuring an advocate, as the custom was, to plead for him. He did not defend himself with the tone and language of a suppliant or guilty person, but, as if he were master of the judges themselves, with freedom, firmness, and some degree of contumacy. Many of his friends also spoke in his behalf; and lastly, Plato went up into the chair, and began
Socrates. began a speech in these words: "Though I, Athenians, am the youngest of those that come up into this place"—but they stopped him, crying out, "of those that go down," which he was thereupon constrained to do; and then proceeding to vote, they cast Socrates by 281 voices. It was the custom of Athens, as Cicero informs us, when any one was cast, if the fault were not capital, to impose a pecuniary mulct; when the guilty person was asked the highest rate at which he estimated his offence. This was proposed to Socrates, who told the judges, that to pay a penalty was to own an offence; and that, instead of being condemned for what he stood accused, he deserved to be maintained at the public charge out of the Prytanæum. This was the greatest honour the Grecians could confer: and the answer so exasperated the judges, that they condemned him to death by 80 votes more.
The sentence being passed, he was sent to prison: which, says Seneca, he entered with the same resolution and firmness with which he had opposed the 30 tyrants; and took away all ignominy from the place, which could not be a prison while he was there. He lay here in fetters 30 days; and was constantly visited by Crito, Plato, and other friends, with whom he passed the time in dispute after his usual manner. He was often solicited by them to an escape; which he not only refused, but derided; asking, "If they knew any place out of Attica whither death would not come?" The manner of his death is thus related by Plato, who was an eye-witness of it. "Socrates, the day he was to die, had been discoursing to his friends upon the immortality of the soul; and "when he had made an end of speaking, Crito asked him, if he had any directions to give concerning his sons or other things in which they could serve him? I desire no more of you, saith Socrates, than what I have always told you: if you take care of yourselves, whatsoever you do will be acceptable to me and mine, though you promise nothing; if you neglect yourselves and virtue, you can do nothing acceptable to us, though you promise ever so much." That, answered Crito, we will observe; but how will you be buried? "As you think good," says he, "if you can catch me, and I do not give you the slip." Then with a smile applying himself to us, "I cannot persuade Crito," says he, "that I am that Socrates who was haranguing just now, or any thing more than the carcass you will presently behold; and therefore he is taking all this care of my interment. It seems that what I just now explained in a long discourse, has made no impression at all upon him; namely, that as soon as I shall have drunk the poison, I shall not remain longer with you, but depart immediately to the seats of the blessed. These things, with which I have been endeavouring to comfort you and myself, have been said to no purpose. As therefore Crito was bound to the judges for my appearance, so you must now be bound to Crito for my departure; and when he sees my body burnt or buried, let him not say, that Socrates suffers any thing, or is any way concerned: for know, dear Crito, such a mistake were a wrong to my soul. I tell you, that my body is only buried; and let that be done as you shall think fit, or as shall be most agreeable to the laws and customs of the country." This said, he arose and retired to an inner room, taking Crito with him, and leaving us, who like
Socrates. orphans were to be deprived of so dear a father, to discourse upon our own misery. After his bathing, came his wife, and the other women of his family, with his sons, two of them children, one of them a youth; and when he had given proper directions about his domestic affairs, he dismissed them and came out to us. It was now near sun-set, for he had staid long within; when coming out he sat down, and did not speak much after. Then entered an officer, and approaching him said, Socrates, I am persuaded that I shall have no reason to blame you, for what I have been accustomed to blame in others; who have been angry at me and loaded me with curses, for only doing what the magistrate commands, when I have presented the poison to them. But I know you to be the most generous, the most mild, the best of all men that ever entered this place; and am certain, that if you entertain any resentment upon this occasion, it will not be at me, but at the real authors of your misfortune. You know the message I bring: farewell; and endeavour to bear with patience what must be borne. "And (said Socrates to the officer, who went out weeping) fare thee well: I will. How civil is this man! I have found him the same all the time of my imprisonment: he would often visit me, sometimes discourse with me, always used me kindly; and now see how generously he weeps for me. But come, Crito; let us do as he bids us: if the poison be ready, let it be brought in; if not, let somebody prepare it." The sun is yet among the mountains, and not set, says Crito: I myself have seen others drink it later, who have even eat and drank freely with their friends after the sign has been given; be not in haste, there is time enough. "Why, yes, (says Socrates): they who do so, think they gain something! but what shall I gain by drinking it late? Nothing, but to be laughed at for appearing too desirous of life; pray, let it be as I say." Then Crito sent one of the attendants, who immediately returned, and with him the man who was to administer the poison, bringing a cup in his hand; to whom Socrates said, "Prithee, my good friend, for thou art versed in these things, what must I do?" Nothing, said the man, but walk about as soon as you shall have drunk, till you perceive your legs to fail; and then sit down. Then he presented the cup; which Socrates took without the least change of countenance, or any emotion whatever, and swallowed the draught with the greatest ease. Many of us, who till then had refrained from tears, when we saw him put the cup to his mouth and drink off the poison, were not able to refrain any longer, but gave vent to our grief; which Socrates observing, "Friends, (saith he), what mean you? I sent away the women for no other reason but that they might not disturb us with this; for I have heard, that we should die with gratulation and applause: be quiet then, and behave yourselves like men." These words made us with shame suppress our tears. When he had walked a while, and perceived his legs to fail, he lay down on his back, as the executioner directed; who in a little time looking upon his feet, and pinching them pretty hard, asked him if he perceived it? Socrates said, "No." Then he did the same by his legs; and showing us how every part successively grew cold and stiff, observed, that when that chillness reached his heart, he would die. After ly-
Socrates. ing a while, he stretched himself forth; when the executioner uncovering him found his eyes fixed, which were closed by Crito. 'This, says Plato, was the end of the best, the wisest, and the justest of men.' And this account of it by Plato, Tully professes, he could never read without tears.
He died, according to Plato, when he was more than 70 years of age. He was buried with many tears and much solemnity by his friends, among whom the excessive grief of Plato is observed by Plutarch: yet as soon as they had performed that last service, fearing the cruelty of the 30 tyrants, they stole out of the city; the greater part to Megara, to Euclid, who received them kindly; the rest to other places. Soon after, however, the Athenians were awakened to a sense of the injustice they had committed against Socrates; and became so exasperated, that nothing would serve them but that the authors of it should be put to death; as Melitus was, while Anytus was banished. In further testimony of their penitence, they called home his friends to their former liberty of meeting; they forbade public spectacles of games and wrestlings for a time; they caused his statue, made in brass by Lysippus, to be set up in the Pompeium; and a plague ensuing, which they imputed to this unjust act, they made an order that no man should mention Socrates publicly and on the theatre, in order to forget the sooner what they had done.
As to his person, he was very homely; was bald, had a dark complexion, a flat nose, eyes sticking out, and a severe downcast look. In short, his countenance promised so ill, that Zopyrus a physiognomist pronounced him incident to various passions, and given to many vices; which when Alcibiades and others that were present laughed at, knowing him to be free from every thing of that kind, Socrates justified the skill of Zopyrus, by owning, that "he was by nature prone to those vices, but suppressed his inclination by reason." The defects of his person were amply compensated by the virtues and accomplishments of his mind. The oracle at Delphi declared him the wisest of all men, for professing only to know that he knew nothing: Apollo, as Tully says, conceiving the only wisdom of mankind to consist in not thinking themselves to know those things of which they are ignorant. He was a man of all virtues; and so remarkably frugal, that how little soever he had, it was always enough. When he was amidst a great variety of rich and expensive objects, he would often say to himself, "How many things are there which I do not want?"
He had two wives, one of which was the noted Xantippe; whom Aulus Gellius describes as an accursed forward woman, chiding and scolding always, by day and by night. Several instances are recorded of her impatience and his long-suffering. One day before some of his friends, she fell into the usual extravagancies of her passion; when he, without answering a word, went abroad with them: but he was no sooner out of the door, than she, running up into the chamber, threw water down upon his head; upon which, turning to his friends, "Did not I tell you (says he), that after so much thunder we should have rain?" Another time she pulled his cloak from his shoulders in the open forum; and some of his friends advising him to
beat her, "Yes, (says he), that while we two fight, you may all stand by, and cry, Well done Socrates; to him, Xantippe!" He chose his wife, we are told, for the same reason that those who would excel in horsemanship choose the roughest and most spirited horses; supposing if they are able to manage them, they may be able to manage any other. It is doubtful whether Socrates ever convinced any one beside himself by this reasoning; or whether he owes any part of his reputation for wisdom, to this rule for choosing a wife!
They who affirm that Socrates wrote nothing, as Cicero, Plutarch, and others, mean only in respect to his philosophy; for it is attested and allowed, that he assisted Euripides in composing tragedies, and was the author of some pieces of poetry. Dialogues also, and epistles, are ascribed to him. His philosophical disputations were committed to writing by his scholars; by Plato and Xenophon chiefly. Xenophon set the example to the rest in doing it first, and also with the greatest punctuality; as Plato did it with the most liberty, intermixing so much of his own, that it is not easy, if possible, to distinguish the master from the scholar. Hence Socrates, hearing him recite his Lysis, cried out, "How many things doth this young man feign of me?"