MAMMALUKES, MAMALUCS, Mamelukes, or Mamluks, were a dynasty that reigned for a considerable time in Egypt, and of which some account has been given in that article (Encycl.). A fuller account of them must, however, be acceptable to our readers, as, since the expedition of Buonaparte, they have attracted the attention of all Europe.
They were first introduced into Egypt, as we have already observed, by Saladin, who, when he had it in contemplation to besiege Jerusalem, very naturally endeavoured to collect the most forcible means to accomplish so desirable an end; and, in consequence, observing that the ancient inhabitants of Egypt were, from their effeminate mode of education, and the quiet and tranquil habits of their lives, much fitter for those occupations in which they delighted, namely, the arts, merchandise, and mechanics, than military tactics and military toil, he resolved, as little as possible, to employ or depend upon them.
This resolution stimulating him to procure a harder race of soldiers, he therefore commissioned agents to treat with the Circassians, by the Lake of Mezotis, near Tawrica Cherfonicias, whence, about the year 1176, they purchased more than a thousand slaves. Men inured to hardship, nurtured in the lap of toil and danger, and bred from their infancy to war, which was to them rather an instinct than a science, as the continual incursions of the Tartars rendered self-defence, in their situation, absolutely necessary.
These slaves Saladin trained to military discipline, and, at the same time that he made them renounce Christianity, had them instructed in the Mahometan religion; and although he prohibited them from marrying, he allowed them an unbounded licence with respect to desultory gallantry. What progress they made in the doctrines of the Alcoran, whether the tenets of that sacred volume effectually eradicated all their first principles, is uncertain; but it is certain, that in time they became excellent soldiers, and that the military glory of Saladin, which was feebly supported by the native Egyptians, expanded in the hands of the Mamelukes, who extended their conquests on every side, until, pervading the Holy Land, they entered in the plain of Aiskelon.
These Mamelukes, who were continually adding to their numbers, in process of time became naturalized
to the country; and, as it has been observed, they excelled the Egyptians in strength of body, in military discipline, in their skill in horsemanship, and in courage; so they, by the liberality of their generals, and the plunder of cities and provinces, also excelled them in wealth. In fact, their mode of education fitted them for the most dangerous and adventurous enterprises, and, from being the slaves, enabled them in time to become the masters of even the Turks, by whom they had originally been purchased.
After the death of Saladin, who left the kingdom to his brother, they rose to still greater importance than they had acquired during his reign, and continued, if not absolutely to govern, yet, like the Roman soldiers in the time of Pertinax, Alexander, and Valerian, to awe the monarch.
This influence continued through the reigns of five successive Caliphs, until that of Melachfala, the last of the posterity of Saladin, who being at war with the Arrilians, and, at the same time, wishing to repress the enormous power of the Mamelukes, purchased slaves from all the surrounding countries, whom, in imitation of his ancestor, he armed and appointed to defend his dominions. The event of this measure was exactly what might have been expected. Melachfala was, in consequence of a conspiracy betwixt his new and his old soldiers, slain; and Turquemenus, the leader of this mutiny and rebellion, hailed by the title of Great Sultan of Egypt. With him began the government of the Mamelukes, about the year 1250; which had the next year gathered such strength, that it was thought necessary, in order to repress those exuberances to which new formed governments are liable, and bring it nearer to a system, to cause the following articles, in the form of a charter, to be subscribed to by their principal leaders, as an act of the whole people:—1st, That the Sultan should be chosen from the body of Mamelukes; 2dy, That none should be admitted into the order that were by birth either Jews or Turks, but only Christian captives; 3dy, That the native Egyptians should not be permitted to use, or have, any weapons, except the instruments of agriculture.
Turquemenus, as is frequently the practice with those that experience a sudden elevation, endeavoured to kick down the ladder by which he had been raised; or, in other words, his carriage was so haughty and disdainful to his former companions, that he was by them, or rather by one of them named Clotho, suddenly slain; for which the murderer was rewarded with his sceptre. After him succeeded a long race of princes, many of whom were as eminent for their talents as for their valour; among whom, the name of Caibcius has been transmitted to us as that of the greatest statesman and general of his age; but, as every one who considers the materials of which the government was composed, must rather wonder that it existed so long, than that it should, through almost the whole course of its operation, be exposed to all the various evils and distresses arising from a long train of sedition and tumults, so he must lament that it should expire in the reign of one of their wisest and best monarchs: yet it is some consolation to reflect, that Campson, the last Sultan of the Mamelukes, was not murdered by his own subjects, but having for many years governed the kingdoms of Egypt, Judea, and Syria, in a manner that has excited the praise of
of the historic pen, he, oppressed with age and disease, and encumbered with his armour, sunk upon the field of battle, and, with his last breath, yielded the victory to the fortunate Selim.
With this monarch, who expired January 20, 1516, ended the government of the Mameloucs, after it had continued 276 years; for although an attempt was made by Tomumby to get himself declared Sultan, in which attempt he actually succeeded so far as to be invested with the title, yet he was soon after defeated by the victorious Selim. He was then forsaken by his troops, taken and executed; while the Mameloucs, broken and dispersed, it was the policy of Selim to rally, and, by offers too tempting to be by them refused, engage in his service. The use of these soldiers soon became sufficiently apparent to the Turkish Emperors, to stimulate them to augment their number, enlarge their sphere of action, and combine them closer to the state, by the allowance of still greater privileges and advantages than they had before enjoyed.
The Beys were ordained to be chosen from among them; and the Pasha, or chief governor for the Porte, was to share his power with those Beys, and even to continue in office no longer than should be agreeable to their collective will. At first the power of the Pasha was very extensive; but, by the intrigues and ambition of the Beys, it has been reduced almost to a cipher. It was rather of a civil than military nature. He was always president of the Divan, which was held in the castle where he resided. But that council now commonly meets in the palace of one of the chief Beys; except when a firman or mandate is received from Constantinople, when the Beys are summoned to the castle, to hear the commands of the Porte. The few who attend, as soon as the reading is finished, answer, as is usual, "Esmana veustawa." "We have heard, and we obey." On leaving the castle, their general voice is "Esmana son avufina." "We have heard, and shall disobey."
In the year 1791, Salah-Aga, a slave of Murad Bey, was deputed from the government of Egypt to negotiate their peace with the Porte. He carried presents of horses, rich stuffs, &c. A spontaneous tribute, which the Porte was in no condition to enforce, implied obligation on the part of the latter. He was well received, and afterwards was appointed Wakil es Sultan, agent or attorney to the Sultan in Cairo. It is probable, this office was given him to incline him to second the efforts of the Court in disuniting the Beys; but it was ineffectual. These had formerly experienced the evils of division, and now were united by common interest, grown rich, and well provided with slaves; so that no tribute has since that time found its way to Constantinople.
The Mameloucs remain, as they have ever been, military slaves, imported from Georgia, Circassia, and Mingrelia. A few have been prisoners, taken from the Austrians and Russians, who have exchanged their religion for an establishment. The Beys give general orders to their agents at Constantinople, to purchase a certain number every year; and many are brought to Egypt by private merchants on speculation. When the supply proves insufficient, or many have been expended, black slaves from the interior of Africa are substituted, and, if found docile, are armed and accounted like the rest.
Particular attention is paid to the education of these favoured slaves. They are instructed in every exercise of agility or strength, and are, in general, distinguished by the grace and beauty of their persons. The gratitude of the disciples is equal to the favour of their masters, whom they never quit in the hour of danger. If they have a disposition for learning, they are taught the use of letters, and some of them are excellent scribes; but the greater part neither can read nor write. A striking example of which deficiency is observable in Murad Bey himself.
The inferior Mameloucs constantly appear in the military dress, and are commonly armed with a pair of pistols, a sabre, and a dagger. They wear a peculiar cap of a greenish hue, around which is wreathed a turban. The rest of their dress resembles that of other Mohammedan citizens, and is restricted to no particular colour; but another singularity is, their large drawers of thick Venetian cloth, of a crimson colour, to which are attached their slippers of red leather. On horseback they add to their arms a pair of large horse pistols, and the dubbus or battle-axe. In battle, many of them wear an open helmet, and the ancient ring armour of interwoven links of steel, worn under part of their dress, and thus concealed. These are dear; sometimes costing 500 piastres, or about L. 40. Some of them are made at Constantinople, others in Persia. Their horses are of the finest Arabian breed, and are often purchased at three or four purses, L. 150 to L. 200 sterling.
They have no pay, as they eat at a table in the house of their master the Bey, Caski, or other officer. Any military officer may purchase a slave, who becomes, isfo fasso, a Mamelouc. The name, from mallek, to possess, implies merely a person who is the property of another. After a proper education, the candidate thus constituted a Mamelouc, receives a present of a horse and arms from his master, together with a suit of clothes; which is renewed every year in the month Ramadan. The generosity of their masters, and rewards or extortions from others, afford them supplies of money, either for avarice or debauchery. Some of them, admitted to peculiar favour by the Beys, as chainadars, or purse-bearers, &c. acquire great wealth. They are rather gay and thoughtless than insolent, fond of show, and unprincipled in their means of acquiring it. They seldom marry till they acquire some office.
Though born of Christian parents, they seem highly satisfied with their condition, which they have been known to refuse to exchange for freedom. The majority are regarded by the Arabs as little strict in the principles or duties of Mohammedism. It is worthy of remark, that though the Mameloucs, in general, be strong and personable men, yet the few who marry very seldom have children. As the son, even of a Bey, is not honoured with any particular consideration, the women, perhaps, procure abortions. Of eighteen Beys, with whose history Mr. Browne was well acquainted, two only had any children living.
Hardy, capable of every fatigue, of undunted courage, and eminent skill in horsemanship and the use of the sabre, the Mameloucs may be regarded as by far the best troops in the East. But in a regular battle, conducted by manoeuvres, and large or rapid movements, they are equally inferior to European troops.
Being distinguished by favouritism or merit, the Mamelou becomes a Caskief, and in time a Bey. The chief cause of preference arises from political adherence to some powerful leader.
The government of Cairo, and Egypt, in general, is vested in 24 Beys; each of whom is nominally chosen by the remaining 23, but, in fact, appointed by one of the most powerful. The Yenk-tchery, Aga, and several other officers, are enumerated among the 24 Beys.
Besides being governors of certain districts of Egypt, several of the Beys receive other dignities from the Porte: Such are the Shech el Bellad or governor of the city; the Defterdar, or accountant-general; the Emir el Hadj, or leader of the sacred caravan; and the Emir es Said, or governor of the Upper Egypt. These two last offices are annual. These officers have also revenues allotted them by the Porte, ill defined, and liable to much abuse.
Of the other Beys, each appoints all officers and governors within his district, putting into it some slave of his own, who is compelled to render an account of the receipts, of which a great part passes to support the grandeur of his master. An opulent Bey may have from 600 to 1000 purses annually; the revenue of Murad Bey more than doubles that sum. The inferior Beys may have 300 purses, or £. 15,000.
Every Bey sits in judgment on cases of equity. These personages are very observant of their respective jurisdictions; and no Bey will imprison a man liberated by another. Though sometimes too impetuous, they nevertheless display great neatness and knowledge of characters. This government, at least, possesses every advantage of publicity, as every Bey is a magistrate.