LEVEL is an instrument which enables us to find a line parallel to the horizon, or concentric with the circumference of the earth, and to continue it to any distance:—to form a surface exactly level, having all its parts at equal distances from the earth's centre, or to find the difference of ascent between several places for the purpose of making roads, conducting water, draining low grounds, rendering rivers navigable, forming canals, &c. &c.
Among the great variety of instruments which have been invented for these purposes, the following are the most important and useful.
Air-Level, that which shows the line of level by means of a bubble of air enclosed with some liquor in a glass tube of an indeterminate length and thickness, whose two ends are hermetically sealed. When the bubble fixes itself at a certain mark, made exactly in the middle of the tube, the plane or ruler wherein it is fixed is level. When it is not level, the bubble will rise to one end. This glass tube may be set in another of brass, having an aperture in the middle, through which the bubble of air may be observed. The liquor with which the tube is filled is oil of tartar, or aqua secunda; these not being liable to freeze as common water, nor to rarefaction and condensation, as spirit of wine is. This application of a bubble of air was the invention of Dr Hooke.
There is one of these instruments made with sights, which is an improvement upon that last described, and which, by a little additional apparatus, becomes more commodious and exact. It consists of an air level (fig. 1.), about eight inches long, and seven or eight lines in diameter, set in a brass tube 2, with an aperture in the middle, C. The tubes are supported by a straight ruler a foot long; at whose end are fixed two sights, 3, 3, exactly perpendicular to the tubes, and of an equal height, having a square hole, formed by two fillets of
Level. of brass crossing each other at right angles, in the middle of which is drilled a very small hole, through which a point on a level with the instrument is observed. The brass tube is fastened on the ruler by means of two screws; one of which, marked 4, serves to raise or depress the tube at pleasure, for bringing it towards a level. The top of the ball and socket is rivetted to a little ruler that springs, one end whereof is fastened with a screw to the great ruler, and at the other end has a screw, 5, serving to raise and depress the instrument when nearly level.
The instrument just described, however, is still less commodious than the following one; for though the holes be ever so small, they will take in too great a space to determine the point of level precisely.
The instrument alluded to consists of an air-level, with telescopic sights. This level (fig. 2.) is like the last; with this difference, that, instead of plain sights, it carries a telescope to determine exactly a point of level at a great distance. The telescope is a little brass tube, about 15 inches long, fastened on the same ruler as the level. At the end of the tube of the telescope, marked 1, enters the little tube 1, carrying the eyeglass and a hair placed horizontally in the focus of the object-glass, 2; which little tube may be drawn out, or pushed into the great one, for adjusting the telescope to different sights: at the other end of the telescope is placed the object-glass. The screw 3, is for raising or lowering the little fork, for carrying the hair, and making it agree with the bubble of air when the instrument is level; and the screw 4, is for making the bubble of air, D or E, agree with the telescope: the whole is fitted to a ball and socket. M. Huygens is said to be the first inventor of this level; which has this advantage, that it may be inverted by turning the ruler and telescope half round; and if then the hair cut the same point that it did before, the operation is just.
It may be observed, that one may add a telescope to any kind of level, by applying it upon, or parallel to, the base or ruler, when there is occasion to take the level of remote objects.
Dr Desaguliers contrived an instrument, by which the difference of level of two places, which could not be taken in less than four or five days with the best telescopic levels, may be taken in as few hours. The instrument is as follows. To the ball C (fig. 3.) is joined a recurve tube BA, with a very fine bore, and a small bubble at top A, whose under part is open. It is evident from the make of this instrument, that if it be inclined in carrying, no injury will be done to the liquor, which will always be right both in the ball and tube when the instrument is set upright. If the air at C be so expanded with heat, as to drive the liquor to the top of the tube, the cavity A will receive the liquor, which will come down again and settle at D, or near it, according to the level of the place where the instrument is, as soon as the air at C returns to the same temperament as to heat and cold. To preserve the same degree of heat, when the different observations are made, the machine is fixed in a tin vessel EF, filled with water up to , above the ball, and a very sensible thermometer has also its ball under water, that one may observe the liquor at D, in each
experiment, when the thermometer stands at the same height as before. The water is poured out when the instrument is carried; which one may do conveniently by means of the wooden frame, which is set upright by the three screws, S, S, S, (fig. 4.), and a line and plummet PP, (fig. 5.). At the back part of the wooden frame, from the piece at top K, hangs the plummet P, over a brass point at N; M m are brackets to make the upright board KN continue at right angles with the horizontal one at N. Fig. 6. represents a front view of the machine, supposing the fore part of the tin vessel transparent; and here the brass socket of the recurve-tube, into which the ball is screwed, has two wings at H, fixed to the bottom, that the ball may not break the tube by its endeavour to emerge when the water is poured in as high as .
After the doctor had contrived this machine, he considered, that as the tube is of a very small bore, if the liquor should rise into the ball at A (fig. 3.) in carrying the instrument from one place to another, some of it would adhere to the sides of the ball A, and upon its descent in making the experiment, so much might be left behind, that the liquor would not be high enough at D to show the difference of the level; therefore, to prevent that inconveniency, he contrived a blank screw, to shut up the hole at A, as soon as one experiment is made, that in carrying the machine, the air in A may balance that in C, so that the liquor shall not run up and down the tube, whatever degree of heat and cold may act upon the instrument, in going from one place to another. Now, because one experiment may be made in the morning, the water may be so cold, that when a second experiment is made at noon the water cannot be brought to the same degree of cold it had in the morning; therefore, in making the first experiment, warm water must be mixed with the cold, and when the water has stood some time, before it comes to be as cold as it is likely to be at the warmest part of that day, observe and set down the degree of the thermometer at which the spirit stands, and likewise the degree of the water in the barometer at D; then screw on the cape at A, pour out the water, and carry the instrument to the place whose level you would know; then pour in your water, and when the thermometer is come to the same degree as before, open the screw at top, and observe the liquor in the barometer.
The doctor's scale for the barometer is ten inches long, and divided into tenths; so that such an instrument will serve for any heights not exceeding ten feet, each tenth of an inch answering to a foot in height.
The doctor made no allowance for the decrease of density in the air, because he did not propose this machine for measuring mountains (though, with a proper allowance for the decreasing density of the air, it will do very well), but for heights that want to be known in gardens, plantations, and the conveyance of water, where an experiment that answers two or three feet in a distance of 20 miles, will render this a very useful instrument.
Artillery. Foot-LEVEL is in form of a square, having its two legs or branches of an equal length; at a juncture thereof is a little hole, whence hangs a thread and
Level. and plummet playing on a perpendicular line in the middle of a quadrant. It is divided into twice 45 degrees from the middle. Fig. 7.
This instrument may be used on other occasions, by placing the ends of its two branches on a plane; for when the thread plays perpendicularly over the middle division of the quadrant, the plane is assuredly level. To use it in gunnery, place the two ends on the piece of artillery, which you may raise to any proposed height, by means of the plummet, whose thread will give the degree above the level.
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Carpenters and Pavers level. Carpenters and Pavers LEVEL, consists of a long ruler, in the middle of which is fitted, at right angles, another somewhat larger. At the top of this is fastened a thread, which, when it hangs over a fiducial line at right angles with the base, shows that this base is horizontal. Sometimes this level is composed of one board. See fig. 8.
Fig. 8.
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Gunnery level. Gunnery LEVEL, for levelling cannons and mortars, consists of a triangular brass plate, about four inches high, (fig. 9.) at the bottom of which is a portion of a circle, divided only into 45 degrees; as this number is sufficient for the highest elevation of cannons and mortars, and for giving shot the greatest range. On the centre of this segment of a circle is screwed a piece of brass, by means of which it may be fixed or screwed at pleasure. The end of this piece of brass is made so as to serve for a plummet and index, in order to show the different degrees of elevation of pieces of artillery. This instrument has also a brass foot, to set upon cannons or mortars, so that when those pieces are horizontal, the instrument will be perpendicular. The foot of this level is to be placed on the piece to be elevated, in such a manner, as that the point of the plummet may fall on the proper degree; this is what they call levelling the piece.
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Masons level. Masons LEVEL, is composed of three rules, so joined as to form an isosceles triangle somewhat like a Roman A. At the vertex of this triangle is fastened a thread, from which hangs a plummet, that passes over a fiducial line, marked in the middle of the base, when the thing to which the level is applied is horizontal; but declines from the mark, when the thing is lower on the one side than on the other.
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Plumb or pendulum level. Plumb or Pendulum LEVEL, that which shows the horizontal lines by means of another line perpendicular to that described by a plummet or pendulum. This instrument, (fig. 10.) consists of two legs or branches, joined together at right angles. The branch which carries the thread and plummet is about a foot and a half long; and the thread is hung towards the top of the branch, at the point 2. The middle of the branch where the thread passes is hollow, so that it may hang free everywhere: but towards the bottom, where there is a little blade of silver, on which is drawn a line perpendicular to the telescope, the said cavity is covered by two pieces of brass, making as it were a kind of case, lest the wind should agitate the thread. For this reason the silver blade is covered with a glass G, in order that it may be seen when the thread and plummet play upon the perpendicular. The telescope is fastened to the other branch of the instrument, and is about two feet long; having a hair placed horizontally across the focus of the object-glass, which determines the point of the level. The telescope must be fitted
at right angles to the perpendicular. It has a ball and socket, by which it is fixed to the foot, and was invented by M. Picard.