PERU

THE name of this country has been so long associated, in the minds of Europeans, with the idea of prodigious wealth, that it has created an interest very far beyond its real importance, either as a colony of Spain, or as the future theatre of a great independent state.

The early history of the conquest of Peru by Pizzaro and his associates, the vast plunder which was shared amongst them, the dissensions which prevailed after the extirpation of the family of the former sovereigns, and the ultimate tranquillity into which the country settled under the colonial administration of Spain, have been fully narrated in the Encyclopædia; and there only remains in this Supplement the duty of communicating such statements of the more recent and actual state of Peru, as shall bring down to the present period the account given of it in that work; and to correct those errors which a paucity of materials, in general circulation, were likely to produce.

When Peru was first reduced to the obedience of the Crown of Spain, it was the largest of any of the governments founded in America. It has since been reduced, at two periods, in order to give such extension to other provinces, as should entitle them to the rank of vice-royalties. In the year 1718, the province, or, as it is sometimes called, the kingdom of Quito, was separated from Peru, and added to the government of New Granada. In the year 1778, when the Court of Madrid had resolved on erecting the province of Buenos Ayres into a vice-royalty, the province of Potosi, the district surrounding it, the cities of La Paz, La Plata, and the fertile district of Cochabamba, were separated from Peru, to form a part of the newly extended government. As, during the civil wars, which have raged from 1810 to the present time, those provinces have been wrested from the dominion of Spain, they are likely, in future, to appertain to that division of South America which will be included in the territories of Buenos Ayres or La Plata, rather than to that which will include either Peru or Chili.

The present boundary of Peru to the north is the small river Tumbez, in latitude 3° 26' south, and longitude 80° 6' west from Greenwich; which river divides it from New Granada. To the south the boundary is the chain of mountains of Vilca-Nota, which terminates at the river Loa in latitude 15°. The extent of the coast of Peru is thus about 700 geographical miles, but as the sinuities of the shore are

considerable, the whole frontage to the ocean is upwards of 1000 miles. The eastern boundaries of Peru are not clearly defined. They extend to the vast plains claimed by Portugal, as a part of Brazil, denominated the Pampas del Sacramento, and farther north to Colonna, or the Land of the Missions, inhabited by unreclaimed Indian tribes. The medium breadth is about 80 leagues, according to Humboldt, who estimates the whole area of Peru to be 30,000 square leagues.

The lands of Peru may be divided into three First Dis- classes, according to their height above the sea. A trict. narrow strip of sandy plain bounds the whole western coast, with intervals of many leagues between the different towns and cities, in which neither inhabitant nor any traces of vegetation are visible. It is only where the torrents from the high lands form rivers, which are few in number, and of short course, that any agricultural productions are raised. Under this sandy soil, however, springs are in general to be found, whilst the surface is most strongly impregnated with nitre. As far as the cultivation of this district extends, it is powerfully aided by a species of manure which is peculiar to the coast of Peru, whose fertile qualities seem to be derived from the singular circumstance of no rain falling there. On the islands, which are the resting-places of millions of aquatic birds, their dung has accumulated in the course of ages, so as to form hills of more than 100 feet in height, close to the shore; from whence it is conveyed by small vessels to the parts of the mainland where cultivation is practised. The dung thus collected, not having its salts washed by rain, and being but slightly affected by the rays of the sun, has retained, as appeared by the analysis of Sir Humphrey Davy, a greater portion of ammonia than any substance that has been applied to the purposes of manuring land. The quantity that is administered by the Peruvians is minutely small, and unless diluted, never suffered to come in contact with the roots of the plants which are designed to be raised. Its fructifying powers, as described by those who have witnessed its effects, especially when applied to the different species of capsicums, which form the chief food of the more numerous classes, exceed every thing that has been related of any other stimulant.

On the track of land we are describing, varying in breadth from six to about twenty leagues, little or

no rain ever falls, and thunder and lightning are unknown. The lofty mountains to the eastward intercept the clouds from the Atlantic Ocean, and the constant winds from the south drive the clouds that collect in the Antarctic Circle beyond the limits of Peru before they discharge their waters. Although no rain falls in this district, commonly distinguished as "Lower Peru," the dew that descends during the night is very heavy, and uniform. The constant evaporation that is thus going on produces a haziness in the atmosphere, and the sun seldom appears with that brilliancy which it displays in the higher levels. The heat is seldom so intense as to prevent the labourers from working in the open air, and the thermometer rarely rises to above 75 degrees. The medium height through the year, in which there is little variation, is about 64°.

In this district are produced most of the tropical plants. The plantain, banana, pine-apple, sugar-cane, vine, cocoa, olive, coffee, and cotton, as well as the most delicious fruits, some, such as the chiremoya and the frutilla, peculiar to the country, arrive at great perfection.

The next division of Peru consists of that range of the Andes nearest to the Pacific Ocean, commencing generally with hills of moderate elevation, but in some parts with bold projecting and abrupt precipices. The sides of these hills are covered with forests, rendered almost impenetrable by the numerous parasitical plants which twine round the lofty trees; and whilst, by their verdure, they give beauty to the scenery, prevent the access of visitors until a path is cut by severe labour. These forests afford acacias, mangle trees, arborescent brooms, and ferns; aloes and other succulent plants; cedars, cotton, or Cuba trees of gigantic magnitude, many kinds of ebony, and other useful woods, many species of palms, and the maria, a tree of enormous size, used in ship-building. The valleys between these hills afford most of the trees which are natives of the tropics; few of them are well calculated for the purposes of building.

The district called Higher Peru, commencing at the termination of the sands on the shore, continues increasing gradually in height towards the eastward, till the ridge of the Andes or the Cordilleras is attained.

The line of perpetual snow is about 14,000 feet above the level of the sea, and from that line upwards vegetation necessarily ceases; below it the plants, by regular gradations, display the nature of the climate, and its adaptation to the various families of vegetables; and, in different parts, exhibit every species of production which can be found from the dwarf plants of Lapland, to the odoriferous spices of Sumatra.

This portion of Peru contains the sources of those vast rivers which traverse the whole continent of South America. Their streams, for the most part, run to the Atlantic Ocean. The few that run to the Pacific are of short course, and do not yield copious supplies. It has been said, with what degree of accuracy it would be difficult to determine, that the river Thames conveys to the sea a greater supply of water than is emptied into the Pacific by all the rivers of Peru. The rivers, on the other hand,

which empty themselves into the Atlantic, are the greatest on the face of the globe. The Magdalena, the Meta, the Orinoco, and the Amazons, commence in this portion of the Andes, take varying and most tortuous courses in descending from the heights, and, having collected in their progress augmented supplies, at length reach the vast plains through which they flow to the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.

Though many of the plains in this mountainous district possess most fertile soils, and climates admirably adapted to raise food for man; yet, from the difficulty of access to them, and the consequent expense of conveyance, they are merely cultivated to a sufficient extent to provide food for the inhabitants of their immediate vicinity. Although Lower Peru is nearly destitute of wheat, and deficient in other grain, instead of drawing the supply it needs from the more temperate regions of the vice-royalty, it is chiefly fed with corn sent by sea from Chili.

This mountainous district is the chief seat of the mineral wealth of Peru. The mines are, for the most part, situated at great elevations, and consequently in a climate so severely cold, as to be unfavourable both to the health of the labourers, and to the raising food for their subsistence. The most abundant silver mines, those of Pasco and Huancavelica, are between 13,000 and 14,000 feet above the level of the sea.

The third district of Peru commences on the east-
ern summit of the Andes, and proceeds eastward till it reaches the territories of Portugal, towards their northern part; and the provinces of La Plata, or Buenos Ayres, towards the south. The descent from the Andes, on the eastern, is much more abrupt than on their western side. They terminate in vast plains called sometimes Pampas del Sacramento, or more usually, collectively, Colonna, or the Land of the Missions. The Jesuits succeeded in collecting in villages many of the rude inhabitants of this country; and, according to the relation of one of that body, Father Girval, the tribes are numerous, small, and scattered; with as many various languages as tribes, and differing much from each other in the degree of civilization to which they had attained. These Pampas are represented as being covered with trees and verdure, and yielding balsams, oils, gums, resins, cinnamon, cocoa, cascarilla, and many valuable drugs, spices, and other rare productions. The trees are lofty, and form impenetrable forests, in which wander all the animals peculiar to the torrid climate of America. The heat is excessive, and accompanied with such humid fogs, as to be a most miserable residence for these missionaries, whose zeal for the conversion of the natives led them to penetrate into such wilds.

Amidst the various circumstances which distinguish Peru, there are some, of the most calamitous and terrific nature, of which all parts partake, and in a long series of years in almost equal degrees. The whole country is subject to the most violent convulsions of nature. Earthquakes are frequently felt in every part; and are sometimes accompanied with most extensive and fatal effects. The lofty chain of the Andes is a collection of volcanos, some in constant activity, others occasionally ejecting inflamma-

Peru. ble substances; while there are many whose fires, in
Population. the lapse of ages, seem to have been burnt out.
The annexed TABLE, taken from an ecclesiastical

census, contains a view of the population of Peru,
and of the classes into which it is divided; exhibit-
ing also the proportions of the sexes.

This table is confirmed by one returned to the Viceroy in 1803; as the difference does not amount to more than 850 souls. Although the number of Spaniards is stated at 136,311, nearly one-eighth of the whole population; it must be considered, that in this number is included those who, after five mixtures with the white race, acquire the privileges of whites, though their complexions are as dark as those of the Indians or Negroes. Of those denominated Spaniards, it is not estimated, that one-tenth are natives of Europe. The great mass of the population consists of the original Peruvians, usually called Indians by the Spaniards; and of the descendants of their females by white fathers, called Mutes. The former of these, for the most part, live in towns or villages by themselves, or when they are established in the larger places, have separate quarters assigned to them. They have magistrates, and usually clergy of their own race. They are not subject to the Inquisition, pay none of the taxes to which the other inhabitants are liable, nor have any duties imposed on them, except that of furnishing a certain number of labourers for the mines; for which they are so well paid, that the employment is rather an object of desire than aversion; and those who are once destined to it, most commonly become constant miners. They pay, indeed, a small capitation tax, which exempts them from all other imposts, and is considered rather as a mark of distinction betwixt those settled among the Spaniards, and those unclaimed tribes who are denominated Indios infideles. The average net amount of the Indian tribute is about 520,000 dollars, a little more than L.100,000 annually.

The Peruvians seem to have degenerated since their subjection. They appear timid, dispirited, and melancholy in their temperament, but severe and rigid in the exercise of their authority; wonderfully indifferent to the general concerns of life, and neither anxious nor careful to avoid death. They stand

in awe of their white masters, but secretly dislike and shun their society. They are reputed to be of a distrustful disposition, and though robust, and capable of enduring great fatigue, excessively indolent. Their habitations are miserable hovels, destitute of every convenience and accommodation, and disgustingly filthy. Their dress is poor and mean; their food coarse and scanty; and their greatest gratification seems to be an excessive indulgence in the use of spirituous liquors. They observe with docility the external rites and ceremonies of the Catholic worship, though it is said they indulge in secret an attachment to the ancient superstitions of their nation.

The language of Peru is still retained by this the greater portion of the inhabitants, who discover so strong an aversion to that of their conquerors, that the clergy and the other Spaniards settled among them learn and commonly use their dialect, with the addition of such Castilian words as signify things not known in Peru at the period of the conquest. The language, called the Quichan, or language of the Incas, is said to be harmonious, and its grammar as variegated and artificial as that of the Greek, though the sounds b, d, f, g, and r, are not to be found in it. A grammar of the tongue has been composed for the instruction of the clergy who are destined to labour in their conversion.

The numbers of the Peruvians had been gradually declining from the period of the conquest till within a few years. The introduction of the small-pox, and the free use of spirits, had a desolating effect; but it is said that their numbers have somewhat increased, especially since the practice of vaccination has been extended to the whole of them.

The agricultural productions of Peru are barely sufficient for the subsistence of its inhabitants. In the interior, corn is grown to feed the population; but on the coast, the supply has been in a great measure drawn from Chili. Sugar, cocoa, coffee, rice, maize,

and the various fruits, suffice for the consumption; but there is no surplus, nor any stimulus to produce it, since in all the countries to which the Peruvians can have access the markets can be as well, if not better, supplied from their own soils. Nearly as much wine is produced as is needed, though some is imported from Chili. Oil, brandy, and rum, are made. The former is, however, generally rancid, from the olives being suffered to become too ripe before they are expressed. The spirituous liquors are strong, fiery, and impure, being distilled in the rudest manner. The various kinds of capsicums are cultivated with more attention and skill than any other plants; and, dressed in various ways with garlic, form the most important article of food to the greater portion of the inhabitants. The common beverage is from the leaf of a plant called matte, the tea of Paraguay, an infusion of which, as hot as it can be borne, is drank, or rather sucked through a pipe, by all classes of the inhabitants. As a substitute for drink, the Indians make use of the leaf of a very pungent plant, called coca. A small portion of quicklime is wrapped up in it, and carried in the mouth. The pungent qualities of these two substances excite a most abundant flow of saliva, and serve to allay the thirst of those who travel over the mountains, or the vast plains of sand, where, for days in succession, no water can be obtained. The natives are so much attached to this mode of allaying thirst, and have such confidence in the general salubrious effect of the plant, that they will not commence the labours of mining till they are satisfied that their employers have in store a quantity sufficient for their use.

The demand for animal food is but small, and hence but little attention has been paid to the breeding, and none to the fattening, of cattle. Neither cows nor sheep are numerous: what are found in the country are the progeny of those brought originally from Europe. In the mountainous districts, between Guamanga and Cuzo, both butter and cheese are made; but in the lower country, oil is the universal substitute for the former. Pigs are bred in great numbers in the more hilly districts. The whole coast is well stored with fish of every kind. The natives of the Indian villages on the shore are very dexterous in catching them; and with the addition of capsicum and garlic, they form the chief part of their subsistence.

The chief riches of Peru have been derived from its mines, especially those of silver. Since the separation of Potosi and La Paz from this viceroyalty, the quantity they have yielded has been gradually diminishing; and, especially since the year 1810, when the civil war with Buenos Ayres and Chili, on one side, and with New Grenada on the other, commenced, the annual produce, both of gold and silver, has most rapidly declined. The mining in Peru has been much injured by the competition of Mexico, where capital is more abundant, where more skill in the operations of extracting and amalgamating is exercised, where provisions, and consequently labour, are cheaper, and where the mines are situated in a much more salubrious climate than those of Peru. Another cause to which the declension of the silver mines may be attributed is the difficulty of procuring mercury; for, having within the viceroyalty, at Guancavelica,

mines of that indispensable mineral, too much dependence has been placed on their produce, which is found insufficient for the consumption. Whilst care has been taken to supply Mexico with quicksilver from the mines of Spain and of Istria, the mother country has overlooked their more remote mining possessions on the shores of the Pacific Ocean.

The quantity of gold produced in Peru arises partly from some mines in the province of Tarma, where it is found in veins of quartz traversing primitive rock, and partly from washings established on the banks of the rapid mountain torrents. These last, like the washings in Brazil, have been found to yield less return for the labour employed on them than the common operations of husbandry, and have, in consequence, in many instances, been abandoned. On an average of several years to the year 1800, the produce of silver was 321,165 marks of Castile, each being nearly eight ounces, and of gold 6793 marks. On the average from 1800 to 1810, the silver yielded was 444,229 marks, and the gold 4255 marks. Since that period, the decline is generally asserted to be very great; and from 1810 to 1820, the supply is estimated to fall short by more than one-half of the quantity yielded in the ten preceding years.

Cobalt, antimony, and especially rock salt, abound in Peru; but as they are, except the latter, chiefly found in the mountainous districts, the distance, and the want of roads, render their conveyance too expensive for them to be advantageously carried to any market of consumption. There are a few mines of copper and of lead, which, from the same causes, are worked on a very contracted scale.

The manufactures of Peru are inconsiderable, and consist chiefly of those homely articles which are required by the poorer classes of the community. On the high land, where warm clothing is necessary, the want is chiefly supplied by a species of long-woolled baize, made from the fleeces of the aboriginal sheep, and in some instances from the wool of sheep of the European breed. In the valleys, and on the coast, where the heat forbids the use of woollens, cotton cloths are made; but of a very inferior texture, from there having yet been no gins introduced, which effectually clear the cotton wool from the seeds of the plant. In dyeing the cloths, whether of woollen or cotton, the natives make use of plants that are scarcely known in Europe, or at least have not been applied to the same purpose. They have a root called reilbon, resembling madder, but with a smaller leaf, an infusion of which dyes a good red. A plant called poquel, a kind of female southernwood, with green chequered leaves, is used for dyeing yellow, as is also the stem for dyeing green, both of which are fast colours. A wild indigo yields them a blue dye, and the panque a good black. The dress of the natives is very simple; consisting of a square cloth, with a hole in the centre, through which the head is thrust, and which falls before and behind so as to defend the whole body. The head is generally covered with a hat made of the straw of the maize, which is as large as, and serves the purpose of, an umbrella.

The commerce of Peru, as may be seen by the small surplus of its productions, is very inconsider-

Peru. able. With the province of Buenos Ayres a trade was carried on by exchanging for the matte or tea of Paraguay, coined dollars, some brandy, and a few of the coarse woollens made in Cuzo. By the same channel some few European goods arrived, as well as the small number of negro slaves that were needed for domestic servants, in which capacity they are chiefly employed. By sea, a trade was carried on with Chili, which consisted in exchanging the wheat, wine, and copper of that country, for sugar, coffee, cotton, and silver. A vessel or two arrived from Manilla with the productions of the East Indies, for which silver only was paid. The luxuries for the few of the richer class were drawn chiefly direct from Spain, or by a contraband intercourse with English or North American traders. The annual imports from Spain, on an average of years, amounted to 4,180,000 dollars; of which about 1,950,000 consisted of Spanish, and 2,230,000 of foreign productions. The annual exports from Peru, in the same period, consisted of money, silver, and gold, amounting to 4,962,700 dollars, and other commodities amounting only to 726,800. The chief exports of goods were Peruvian bark and cocoa, the latter of which had been previously imported from Guyaquil. The ships from Europe that have sailed to the ports of Peru have found no productions there which would pay any return freight; and they have almost uniformly, after discharging their outward cargoes, proceeded to the port of Guyaquil, where a return cargo of cocoa could be generally obtained on such moderate terms as to pay a profit in Spain, where the demand for that commodity is very extensive.

Navigation. The Pacific Ocean is by no means favourable to commerce. On the whole extent of coast in Peru there is no harbour except that of Callao, the port of Lima, which can be entered by a vessel of such a size as is fit for the navigation from Europe round Cape Horn. As the wind constantly blows from the southward, varying only as the coast trends, wherever there is a high projecting headland there is shelter, and sometimes good anchorage to the northward of it; as at Ylo, Iqueque, and some other parts. On every part of the shore, the uninterrupted swell from the sea causes such a tremendous surf on the beach, that no communication can be had with the shore, by any such boats as are carried by European ships. The natives have long ago contrived a means of passing this surf, on what is called a Balsa, whose buoyancy is such as to carry them over the most terrific breakers in perfect security. It is constructed of two skins of the largest sized seals, which are inflated and lashed side by side. On a small platform fixed on them, the native sits, with a pipe made of the entrails of the seal, communicating to each of the inflated skins, with which he fills them by his breath, as frequently as the evaporation of the wind makes it necessary. On these contrivances, which resemble two enormous bladders, the natives fear no waves or breakers, and frequently proceed to such a distance as to lose sight of land. By the assistance of a paddle, and occasionally of a small sail, these vessels become perfectly manageable at sea, and they have the advantage of being easily car-

ried to their own habitations when not employed on the ocean.

A species of vessels, called by the same name, is used for longer voyages. These consist of an unequal number of trees of light wood, merely squared, and securely lashed together, but so loosely as to admit the action of the waves between them, like the catamarans at Madras. The centre tree is longer than the others, and serves the purpose of a prow. These vessels, some of which are more than 100 feet in length, have huts constructed upon them for the crew, and pass with security from the shores of Peru to the ports of Guyaquil and Panama. The deficiency of stores for naval equipment on the shores of the Pacific is such, that substitutes are used, which alarm a European sailor till he becomes familiar with the smooth surface and uniform winds that prevail on that sea. Instead of water casks, jars are fastened in the hold to contain that necessary element. The rigging is made of white rope, as the only tar they have burns the hemp, and is only fit to be applied to the bottoms of ships. The sails are made of narrow strips of cotton cloth, very clumsily fastened together. With such equipment, however, they make secure voyages; but not with much celerity when proceeding to the north, and with a most protracted delay when, on returning to the south, they are under the necessity of tacking.

Although, in the present unsettled state of Peru, the amount of its revenues, and the armed force which it maintained, become matters of but little importance, yet it may be noticed, that, under the colonial government of Spain, the revenues of the crown amounted communibus annis to about 6,000,000 dollars, and the expenditure to about 3,200,000; the balance was annually remitted to the parent state. The armed force consisted of the regulars, who were 2200, including 280 cavalry and 40 artillery. The disciplined militia were 8000 infantry, 2280 cavalry, and 490 artillery. Besides these there were 85 regiments, known as provincial militia, amounting to 21,700 men; but these had no arms, were rarely mustered, and then exercised only with sticks instead of muskets, and were of little use except as the means of gratifying the vanity of the natives by conferring on them the military titles of colonels, majors, captains, &c., as is said, to the great emolument of the Viceroy and the officers of his establishment.

The intendency of Lima is chiefly remarkable for containing within its limits the capital of the vice-royalty, from which it derives its name, and the excellent port of Callao, the chief mart for the commerce of Peru. The capital is situated in latitude $12^\{\backslash circ\}\; 2\text{'}\; 25\text{'}\text{'}$ south, and in longitude $77^\{\backslash circ\}\; 7\text{'}\; 15\text{'}\text{'}$ west from Greenwich. The inhabitants amounted to about 54,000, of whom 19,000 are proprietors of estates or mines, clergy, lawyers, physicians, civil and military officers, and various traders; the remainder are slaves, domestics, or labourers. The city is surrounded with walls, but they scarcely merit the name of fortifications. The buildings are spacious but low, having but one story; they are built of wooden frame work, interlaced with canes, plastered over with clay, and painted to imitate stone. This

mode of building prevails, from the frequency of earthquakes, whose force, such erections are more capable of bearing than solid buildings of stone or brick. It is supplied with fresh water by a rapid stream that passes through it, which is received into reservoirs and fountains in various parts of the city. The Viceroy's palace, the cathedral, the town-house, and archiepiscopal palace, form a square, and are said to be magnificent piles. In former times, the entrance of a new Viceroy was celebrated by a display of ingots of silver, with which one of the streets was completely paved; and the quantities of the precious metals displayed in the churches, and in their religious processions, are said to have exceeded what was to be seen in any of the Catholic countries of Europe. The country immediately around the city, being well irrigated, is fruitful in tropical productions; the sea supplies abundance of fish, and, as the elevated mountains approach near to it, the varieties of climate which their different elevations create, allow of cultivating most of the plants of the temperate zone, and of producing good meat and poultry.

Lima is the seat of the Royal Audiencia, or Chief Court of Justice. It is the see of an archbishop, whose income was 30,000 dollars, and who has four bishops under his superintendence within the viceroyalty, viz. Traxillo, Gumanga, Cuzco, and Arequipa, and four others, within the limits of New Granada, viz. Panama, Quito, Maynas, and Quenca.

Callao, formerly called Bellavista, is the port of Lima, and, as has been before mentioned, the only good harbour in Peru. It is defended from the winds, which blow always from the south, by the Island of St Lawrence; to the north of which, in smooth water, is good anchorage, under the protection of the guns of the strong forts. The depth of water is sufficient for the largest ships; the means of loading and discharging them are easy; and as the river Rimac empties itself into the sea at this place, the shipping easily obtain a supply of fresh water. As there is but little rise of tide, there are no docks; and vessels that need repair can only be careened. It is in south latitude $12^\{\backslash circ\}\; 3\text{'}\; 42\text{'}\text{'}$, and west longitude from Greenwich $77^\{\backslash circ\}\; 14\text{'}$.

The other towns are Guara, Chancay, Canete, Ica, Pisco, and Nasca, none of which, except Ica, contain more than 1500 inhabitants, of all descriptions. There are few mines in the intendency of Lima that are worked; the chief is that of Conchapatu, in the mountains of Guarachiri, which yields some silver, and which would also, if the roads would allow of it, supply the capital with coals. Antimony and cobalt are likewise to be found in the same district.

The intendency of Cuzco lies on both sides of the Andes, and partakes of that great variety of climates which is produced by the different elevations and aspects of that prodigious range of mountains. Though the cold is so intense as to forbid human residences on the summits, or cordilleras, yet the chief places which are inhabited enjoy a mild and temperate climate. It is bounded on the north by the great river Apurimac, on the east by unreclaimed countries, on the west by the provinces of Tarma, Guancavelica, and Gumanga, and on the south by Arequipa and the viceroyalty of La Plata. This is

the chief seat of what manufactures of woollens and of leather exist in Peru; as both sheep and cows are here more abundant than in any other part of it. The district of Cunnas is celebrated for breeding mules; of which animals more than 30,000 are annually sent to the towns on the coast. The agricultural productions generally partake rather of the character of those of the temperate than the torrid zone; wheat, barley, and other European grains, forming the chief articles of cultivation. There are many silver mines, and some few washing places for gold. The principal of the former are at Carahuasi, near the capital, in the district of Cotabamba, in Condonoma, Aymaraez, and especially in the province of Lampa.

The chief city of the intendency, Cuzco, was the seat of the Peruvian monarchy when visited first by Europeans, and the situation of it, as well as its climate, were well chosen. It is in south latitude $13^\{\backslash circ\}\; 25\text{'}$, and west longitude $71^\{\backslash circ\}\; 15\text{'}$. It is surrounded by the mountains of Sanca on its north and west sides, and has a beautiful plain to the south, through which the river Guatanay, which passes the city, runs. On the mountain to the north of the city are the remains of the fortress of the Incas, intended to be rendered impregnable by the height of the wall, and the steepness of the passes which it was designed to defend. The internal works are in ruins, but a great part of the wall is still standing. Some of the stones prepared for this work are of such a size, as to create wonder in what manner they could have been moved by people so unacquainted with powerful machinery, as the Peruvians certainly were. Though the palace of the Incas has been destroyed, yet a subterranean passage, communicating between it and the fortress, may still be traced. Cuzco is at this time a large city, containing 32,000 inhabitants, three-fourths of whom are Indians, who are industriously employed in the manufactures of woollen baize, of cotton, and of leather. The number of Spanish families is small, and they have of late declined as compared with the Indians and Mustees. It is the see of a bishop, whose revenues amounted to 20,000 dollars, of a Royal Audiencia, a mint, a university, and of a college, specially appropriated for the education of the children of the Caziques. The cathedral is a noble pile of building, of stone, and there are also six parish churches, nine convents, and four nunneries. The church belonging to the Dominican Convent stands on the identical spot which was formerly covered by the Temple of the Sun, and is built of the stones which composed that edifice. The high altar fills the place in which once was fixed the image of that luminary which was the object of worship to the idolatrous aborigines. The dwellings of private individuals are substantially built of stone, and if not furnished with much attention to comfort, are decorated in a costly manner. The other towns are very small, as most of the inhabitants lead a rural life, occupied in cultivation and in breeding cattle. The chief of those towns are Abancay, Urcos, Calca, Cotabambas, Tinta, and Lampa, none of which contain so many as 1500 inhabitants. The difficulty of communication between these places is such as to forbid much intercourse. The rapid streams descending from the Andes have worn such

Peru. numerous and such deep ravines, as are only to be crossed, with great risk, by bridges of ropes; and frequently are passed by suspending the travellers in large baskets from cables stretched across fissures, along which they descend from the higher to the lower banks of the tremendous precipices.

Arequipa is an intendancy stretching along the borders of the Pacific, but extending sufficiently inwards to contain a large mountainous district within its limits. Its southern boundary is the inhospitable desert of Atacama, the passage over which to Chili has proved fatal to many travellers. Few of the provinces of South America contain within them a greater portion of vegetable and mineral wealth than Arequipa. Its plantations yield maize, sugar, and coffee. The vineyards are extensive, especially those of Moquehua, which produce a delicious red wine, and the brandy distilled in this district supplies an extensive circle of the mountainous countries. The most celebrated of the silver mines are situated on the southern part of this intendancy; those of Huantajaya, near the small port of Yquique, are surrounded with vast beds of rock salt, in a district totally destitute of water, and where provisions are scarce, but as the silver is found in native masses, it has produced usually about 100,000 marks annually. The district of Caylloma contains several mines of silver, but they are very imperfectly worked. They are in a very high elevation, and consequently in a climate most intensely cold. The surrounding country produces but few means of subsisting the labourers; and though there is an office for distributing quicksilver to the miners, the situation has proved an impediment to successful operations, and the expence has equalled, and, in some instances, exceeded the amount of the metal that has been produced.

In Condesuyos are mines both of gold and silver, though slightly worked; as many of the inhabitants have found more profitable labour than mining, by raising silk-worms, and by breeding the cochineal insect.

The city of Arequipa, the capital of this intendancy, is situated in the beautiful valley of Quilca, about 60 miles due east from the port of Atranta. It is in 16° 16' of south latitude, and 71° 58' west longitude. The buildings are substantially constructed of stone. The public edifices are a cathedral, six convents, a college, a hospital, and revenue office. It is well watered by the river Chile, which serves extensively the purpose of irrigating the surrounding lands. The climate is healthy, and though frosts are sometimes experienced in the night, they disappear as soon as the sun rises. The inhabitants amount to about 24,000, one-third of which are said to be Spaniards. This city has been repeatedly laid waste by earthquakes, and once by an eruption of the volcano Guayna-Patina, which is in its immediate vicinity. The other towns of most consideration are Camana, Ocana, a small bad port, Caylloma, Moquehua, Arica, and Tacna, none of which are either populous or rich, and are chiefly inhabited by Indians.

The intendancy of Truxillo is the most northern, as well as the most extensive, division of Peru. It is chiefly remarkable for being the first port in which Pizarro and his followers landed. The face of the

greater part of the district has all the predominant features of the Arabian desert. From Tumbes, the boundary, to the capital of its department, Piura, a distance of more than 200 miles, there is but one small Indian village. No water is to be found in any other place, and that indispensable article must be conveyed in skins, on mules, for the use of travellers. In this sandy desert, the most experienced guides sometimes lose their way, and the bodies of passengers are occasionally buried under the waves of shifting sand. There are, however, some spots within the intendancy that enjoy a high degree of fertility; of this description is the district of Caxamarca, situated between two ridges of the Andes. Corn of all kinds, various fruits, and esculent vegetables, are abundantly produced, as well as cows, sheep, and hogs, in the latter of which, salted, a considerable trade is carried on with the warmer districts. At this place are the remains of the ancient Palace of Atahualpa, from whence Pizarro directed his operations, and where that monarch was killed. It is situated on the western declivity of the Andes, about 9000 feet above the level of the sea, 70 miles from the Pacific Ocean, in latitude 8° south, and longitude 76° 10' west from Greenwich. A family descended from the Incas, reduced to a state of comparative indigence, occupies this ancient residence of their royal ancestors. In the vicinity of Piura, and around the city of Truxillo, the tropical productions, sugar, coffee, and cotton, are cultivated; there are also some vineyards which afford wine and brandy.

The chief mines within the intendancy are those of Chota, near the limit of perpetual snow, being 13,800 feet above the level of the sea; of Micuipampa, 12,000 feet; and some at Pataz which yield both gold and silver.

There are two cities in the intendancy. Truxillo, the capital, is the see of a bishop, and the seat of the courts of justice. The inhabitants are about 6000, principally rich Spaniards, who indulge in considerable show and luxury. Piura contains about 7000 inhabitants, chiefly Indians. The other towns, Tumbes, Lechura, Payta, Lambayeque, scarcely contain 1000 inhabitants each, who are in a low state of indigence.

Guamanga, or Huamanga, is an intendancy wholly internal, surrounded by other parts of Peru. From its elevation on the sides of the Andes, it enjoys a mild and temperate climate. It is much intersected with streams, or rather torrents, which have worn deep chasms in the friable soil, and prevent easy communication between its several districts. It yields excellent corn and fruits, and the wool of the sheep is here made into baize for clothing the inhabitants of the colder districts. In the mountains are found herds of huanucos, or Peruvian camels, employed as beasts of burden in the colder regions, and whose wool is used in the manufactures. There are also many cows and sheep of the European breeds, reared within the district. It is the chief country for the growth of the coca, which serves to the natives of Peru the same purpose as the betel does to those of the East Indies. There are mines of lead, gold, and silver; but their working has declined of late years, so that the supplies from them are dwindled to very insigni-

nificant quantities. The capital, Guamanga, situated in south latitude $12^\{\backslash circ\}\; 50\text{'}$, and west longitude $77^\{\backslash circ\}\; 56\text{'}$, is a well built city, of considerable extent. Its population amounts to about 26,000, of whom the greater part are Indians. It is the see of a bishop, contains a cathedral, a university, well endowed, and several churches and convents. There is no other place in the intendancy meriting the name of a town, as three-fourths of the inhabitants are either occupied in cultivation or in pasturage.

The whole of the intendancy of Guancavelica, or, as it is sometimes spelt, Huancavelica, is situated in the mountains in a climate severely cold, which may account for the paucity of its population. The chief value of this intendancy is derived from the important mines of quicksilver which it contains, and which, if properly conducted, would make the mines of silver in Peru equal in their product to those of Mexico. The celebrated mine of Santa Barbara is 13,800 feet above the level of the sea. In the process of excavating it, three stories of galleries, one over the other, have been constructed, which penetrate the mountain in different directions, according as the veins of the mineral are found to run. The lowest of these was found to contain red and yellow sulphureted arsenic, which, proving fatal to many of the labourers, was forbidden to be worked. The chief produce of the mine has been obtained in the form of cinnabar, from which, by distillation, the mercury is extracted at the rate of one pound of mercury from every fifty pounds of cinnabar. The upper of the three stories, called the brocal, furnished by far the largest part. This branch, however, has been nearly destroyed, either from the negligence or the avidity of the managers. The roof of the mine was supported by pillars, left at intervals, which consisted of the ore. As the ore became rather scarce in the interior of the mine, these pillars were gradually thinned away till they became incapable of sustaining the weight that rested on them; they gave way at length to such an extent as to fill the mine with masses of the superincumbent rubbish, which has intercepted all communication with the interior. Some ineffectual attempts have been made to remove the impediments, but the silver mines are chiefly supplied with their mercury from small veins in the same chain of mountains, which yield an insufficient quantity, and at a dear rate. The capital, which gives name to the intendancy, is in south latitude $12^\{\backslash circ\}\; 45\text{'}$, and west longitude $74^\{\backslash circ\}\; 46\text{'}$. It was, when the mine was actively worked, a populous place, but at present contains only 5000 inhabitants. It is built almost wholly of tufa, which is found in abundance in its vicinity. The surrounding country is highly picturesque, abounding in torrents and cascades; but the climate is prejudicial to the human constitution, from the great and sudden changes of the temperature. There are scarcely any places that deserve to be called towns; as the few inhabitants are scattered at great distances from each other in thinly peopled villages or hamlets.

The intendancy of Tarma is chiefly situated on the Andes, and generally partakes of the severity of climates which lofty elevation creates. The small portion of it which is on the plain yields wine, but the great portion of the inhabitants are supplied with

animal and vegetable food from the mountainous regions, which, at a moderate height, produce corn and potatoes, and at a greater elevation breed considerable flocks and herds. The mines most productive of silver are within this intendancy. The most eminent are those of Lauricocha, or, more properly called, collectively, the Mines of Pasco. Nearly one-half of the silver which Peru yields is extracted from these mines. They are at an elevation of 13,000 feet above the sea. The veins of the mineral are near the surface, the shafts being only from 90 to 400 feet in depth; below that water is found, the expence of clearing which is the chief drawback from the profit of the proprietors. The metalliferous bed is stated to be more than 15,000 feet in length, and upwards of 7000 in breadth, and is capable of yielding more silver than any even of the mines of Mexico.

The favourable circumstances attending these mines, and the belief, that, if the water could be cleared by a steam-engine, the profits would be immense, induced a party of Englishmen to convey a powerful engine to the spot. After many interruptions and much delay, it at last reached these mines; but the country was in too turbulent a state to admit of the operations being carried on; which, with the unpopularity attached to the undertaking, from supposing it would lessen the employment of labourers, has caused it to miscarry, and the water has so gained, that the produce has declined very much since the commencement of the civil wars. There are many other mines in different parts of this intendancy, of which the greater part are neglected, or very feebly worked. The greatest portion of the gold found in Peru is taken from the mines of Pataz and of Huiliches in this province. Tarma, the city which gives its name to the intendancy, is in $11^\{\backslash circ\}\; 35\text{'}$ south latitude, and $75^\{\backslash circ\}\; 17\text{'}$ west longitude. It contains about 5500 inhabitants, some of whom find employment in making baize. No other place contains as many as 1000 people.

No country, perhaps, ever enjoyed so long a period of freedom from hostilities as Peru has experienced. Though occasionally, when at war with England, a few places on the coast have suffered from predatory attempts, and the navigation may have been interrupted by our cruisers, yet, in the interior, tranquillity has been undisturbed during the whole period that elapsed between the suppression of the revolt of Gonzales, by Pedro de la Gasca, in 1548, till the year 1781, when an Indian insurrection of a most alarming kind suddenly burst forth.

Jose Gabriel Condercanqui was a descendant of the last sovereign of the Peruvian race. He had been carefully educated by his father, and exhibited considerable talent. The title of Marquis of Oropesa had been conferred on one of his ancestors. On the death of his father, he petitioned to have that title renewed in him, but being refused, he retired to the mountains, and announced himself by the name of Tupac Amaru, which the last of the Incas had borne, as the true sovereign of Peru. The Indians flocked to him in crowds, the sacred fillet was bound on his brow, and he was proclaimed emperor, by the title of Tupac Amaru the Second. An overwhelming army was speedily collected by him, which subdued the country and invested Cuzco. At the com-

Peru. mencement of his reign, though he declared vengeance against every native of Old Spain, he professed to favour equally the ecclesiastics, and all of the white race who were born in America. Adhering to this system, he continued to prosper, but his followers, elated with the success that everywhere attended them, and being in an undisciplined state, commenced a war of extermination against all who were not of the Peruvian race; which was attended with scenes of the most horrid barbarity. Diego his brother, and Andres his nephew, favoured the cruel disposition of the Indians, and perpetrated deeds which Jose Gabriel vainly strove to prevent. The insurrection continued two years, and extended over most of the districts around Cuzco; but the proceedings against the Whites, Mustees, Mulattoes, and Negros, at length united these casts against the Indians. Jose was surprised, and, with his family, taken prisoner; and shortly after, the whole were executed in the city of Cuzco. So great was the veneration in which this Tupac Amaru was held by the Peruvians, that, when he was led to execution, they prostrated themselves in the streets, and uttered the most piercing shrieks and execrations, whilst the last of the Children of the Sun was torn to pieces by his executioners. With this event terminated the struggles of the Peruvians for independence; and on late occasions they are reported to have shown more disposition to adhere to the government of Spain than to the newly created independent states that have sprung up around them.

During the period in which the surrounding dominions of Spain in South America were torn by intestine wars, Peru, though engaged in hostilities, has not been the theatre in which the contest was conducted. Allegiance to Spain was maintained through all her changes of government, and the Viceroy of Peru continued to exert himself to subdue the other countries that had revolted from it. When the revolution in New Granada began, the first steps were such as threatened no disturbance to the neighbouring provinces; but its spirit at length approaching the confines of Peru, the Viceroy dispatched an army towards Quito, under the command of General Molina, who had been nominated President by the Junta of Cadiz. As the revolutionists were divided among themselves, he easily gained that city; but practising some most cruel measures, according to the accounts of the insurgents, and we have no other, the army was compelled to retreat before the different partisans, who were previously at variance, but who had united in their operations against the Peruvians. After a bloody contest, they were driven from the viceroyalty of New Granada by the republican general Marino; but as his attention was strongly engaged in watching the events in the north, he could not follow up his victory by pursuing the royalists; who, on their part, had such calls for their exertions towards the frontiers of Buenos Ayres, and in Chili, that, without any formal treaty, hostilities ceased between Peru and New Granada in 1814, and have not been since renewed.

As soon as the inhabitants of Buenos Ayres had formed an independent government, an army of 5000 men was marched to invade Peru, under the command of General Balcarce. He was opposed be-

fore he had reached the frontiers by Goyneche, a royalist commander. Before hostilities were begun, a treaty for an armistice was made, but soon broken, when the Peruvians repulsed their invaders, became invaders in their turn, and overran the country as far as Salta; having in their possession, in 1812, the rich mining countries of Potosi and La Paz; while the republicans, being embroiled among themselves, and invaded by the Portuguese, had no means of recruiting, till early in the year 1813, when their general Belgrano attacked the royalists near Salta, and gained a complete victory, which compelled them to abandon their conquests, and retire within their own territory. In November of the same year, the Peruvians, being reinforced, fought another battle on the frontiers, near Potosi, with such decided success, that they again occupied those rich districts, which, in the early part of the year, they had been compelled to abandon. The unfortunate republican general Belgrano was, in 1814, superseded by the celebrated San Martin, who collected the fugitives, organized a new army, formed various corps of Guerillas, and compelled the royalist general Pezuela once more to retreat from the contested country, and concentrate his forces in High Peru. In the year 1815, the contests among the different parties of republicans having weakened their army on the frontiers, Pezuela again attacked them, on the 14th November; gained a hard-fought battle at Sipe-sipe; and, in consequence of it, the mining districts of Buenos Ayres, for the third time, came into the hands of the royalists. The calls on the Viceroy of Peru for troops to maintain the royal cause in Chili weakened his frontier forces at the time that San Martin was collecting his army to invade that country on the part of the republicans. By the course of events, the theatre of the war thus became changed. The republicans kept up a small force to watch the motions of the royalists, whose troops and stores were so much diminished, that they ultimately withdrew from the conquered countries; which, by the operations of the remorseless contest, had become reduced to the extreme of misery, and the mines, once so highly productive, had nearly ceased to be worked.

Chili had thrown off the government of Spain, and declared its independence. It was torn by factions, violently irritated against each other, and a civil war had commenced. The Viceroy of Peru thought the occasion favourable for bringing it again under the royal authority. A force of 4000 men, under General Paneja, was dispatched to that country. He landed at Talcahuano early in the year 1813, and took possession of Concepcion and Chillan. The Spanish troops appear to have remained in the positions they occupied, in a state of great inactivity; whilst the Chillians, divided into rancorous factions, were exhausting their means, and impoverishing their country. The Spanish commander availed himself of the circumstances to make an attempt on the capital, in the beginning of March 1814; but, not succeeding, entered into a treaty for evacuating the country. Before the treaty was concluded, General Osorio arrived, as commander from Lima, with considerable reinforcements. This changed the face of affairs. The Chillians were wearied with the evils they had experienced; the forces of the King gave them confidence;

and after a few skirmishes, rather than battles, with the different parties, who never ceased hostilities towards each other, the whole country submitted to Osorio, who entered the capital in October 1814. The royalists were in quiet possession of Chili till the beginning of the year 1817. The fugitive republicans had retreated over the Andes, and found an asylum in Mendoza. There others joined them, in the following years. The government of Buenos Ayres supplied them with stores, and at length General San Martin, with the addition of some tolerably disciplined troops, was appointed to the command. This force passed the Cordilleras in January 1817, and descended towards the level country; and, after a most complete victory over the Peruvian army at Chacabuco, in which their commander was made a prisoner, and his troops dispersed, occupied, with little difficulty, the whole of Chili. The government there having assumed a more consistent and regular form than before, became a collecting point to which adventurous spirits, from Europe and from America, resorted. Armaments were equipped there, both naval and military. The former were successful in making prizes, and, in combination with the latter, Valdivia, the only remaining fortress in Chili, under the command of the Viceroy of Peru, and ultimately Lima itself was captured.

The conquest of Peru seemed to be indispensably necessary to the preservation of that independence, and those republican institutions which the inhabitants of Chili had established. It had early attracted their regards, and the project for achieving it, which was widely circulated, drew to them many of those military adventurers who, by the peace in Europe, were deprived of occupation. Among others, Lord Cochrane and several English officers who had distinguished themselves in the naval service, found employment in the fleet which was speedily equipped, and which, in discipline, though not in force, soon attained such a superiority over the navy of Spain as to give it the command of the navigation of the South Sea. Being to windward of the Spanish ports, it was easy at any time to choose the point of attack. An army of 5600 men was formed, under San Martin, which, with the fleet, consisting of one ship of 64 guns, one of 50, one of 36, and one of 32, besides some corvettes and transports, sailed from Valparaiso, in the latter end of 1820, and reached Lima in February of the following year. The troops were landed to the north of Callao, and continued, without any great exertion, till May, when the garrison of Lima being much straitened, an armistice was concluded.

Pezuela, then the Viceroy of Lima, was opposed by the Audiencia and the Municipality, who censured him for not adopting measures sufficiently energetic to repel the invaders. The same disposition to censure prevailed among the officers of the army; and at length they resolved to depose Pezuela. He made no resistance, but quitting the government and country, the command was placed in the hands of Don Jose de La Serna on the 29th January 1821.

The troops of La Serna were not much superior to the invaders numerically, but some of them having gone over to San Martin, gave the latter a supe-

riority. Lima continued to be straitened by the general, and Callao to be blockaded by Lord Cochrane, who performed one of those acts of desperate valour which struck astonishment into the Spaniards. With the boats of his little squadron he entered the port of Callao, and, under the guns of its tremendous batteries, boarded, captured, and carried off one of their largest ships of war, with more men on board than were in all the boats that attacked her.

After some months had elapsed, a convention was agreed on, when La Serna with his army marched out, and San Martin with his forces entered Lima. A garrison was, however, left by the royalists in Callao. The protracted operations had given time to remove the most valuable property, which, with the females of the best families, and the non-combatants, reached the mountainous districts. San Martin, in the possession of Lima, was in the same condition as La Serna had been for some months before; with many mouths besides those of his army to fill, and his intercourse with the country that furnished provisions intercepted; but he had the advantage of naval superiority, and could draw supplies from the coast, though, till Callao was taken, the difficulty of landing made the arrival of such supplies precarious. At length the garrison of Callao agreed to evacuate, on being allowed to join La Serna, which was effected. San Martin was thus in full possession of the capital and its port, when a dispute between him and Lord Cochrane, about the division of the insignificant plunder, caused the latter to sail to some unascertained destination, and leave the commander of the land forces to secure his conquest. He there assumed the sovereignty, and acted the part of an absolute monarch, uniting in himself the legislative, judicial, and military power.

La Serna, after uniting with the garrison of Callao, retired towards the mountains, where he intercepted all communication between Lima and the mining districts, and drew supplies of men and stores from the countries in his rear. The whole of the treasure captured in Lima did not exceed 300,000 dollars, not a tenth part of what was usually to be found in that city. Cochrane having carried away the money, his coadjutor was soon compelled to have recourse to violent measures to subsist his army. He stamped paper dollars to pay his troops, and issued decrees commanding the inhabitants to take them in payment. A civil war is thus existing, which, as far as the latest intelligence reaches, leaves it doubtful if the conquerors or the conquered are in the worst condition. Whatever may be the ultimate issue, it must probably be a long time before tranquillity can be restored, to such a degree as to give that security to property which is more essential to mining than to any other of the operations of human industry. In whatever manner the present contest may terminate, it is not possible to conceive, that in future Peru, or any part of South America, will be subjected to the condition of a Spanish colony.

See Helm's Journey through Peru, from Buenos Ayres to Lima; El Viagero Universal, por Estalla; Feyjoo Relacion de la Ciudad de Truzillo; Mercurio Peruano, and Guia de Peru, por Hipolito Unanitia; Humboldt's Works; and Bonnycastle's Spanish America. (ww.)