SAXONY

SAXONY. The kingdom of Saxony has been formed out of the principality of the same name. The duchy from which the sovereign dignity arose was no part of the ancient duchy, but a Vandal province, which Albert, Margrave of Saltzwedde, seized and transmitted as an inheritance to his son Bernard. This Bernard received the ducal rank from the Emperor Frederick, usually distinguished by the name of Rothbar, or Redbeard; and his territories were spread out from the Weser to the Rhine, and from Westphalia to the borders of Bohemia. In these turbulent times power was necessary to preserve the

dominion possessed by the petty sovereigns; and divisions arising between different branches of the family, the other Saxon duchies were formed into independent states, leaving to the descendants of Bernard the sovereignty over the Margravate of Meissen, and that of Saxony in a contracted state; whilst the houses of Gotha, of Weimar, of Coburg, and some others, inherited the whole of the western parts, which Albert had seized. Meissen and the remaining part of Saxony was then formed into one independent state, on which the electoral dignity was conferred by the Emperor Charles V. because of the adverse conduct of the Elector of the house of Weimar, the oldest branch of the family, in the wars which arose from the reformation of Luther.

From that period till the war of the French Revolution, though its territories had been occupied, and its capital taken by Frederick of Prussia, Saxony had experienced but little alteration. When France attacked Prussia in 1806, the Elector of Saxony took part with the latter power, but the reverse occasioned by the battle of Jena compelled him to join the conqueror. An alliance was formed between Buonaparte and the Elector, who, as the Empire of Germany was dissolved, and the electoral dignity annihilated, assumed, under the sanction of the Ruler of France, the rank and title of King. The newly created King maintained with good faith the alliance, which necessity had compelled him to form, till the overthrow of the French armies, in the decisive battle of Leipsic, occasioned in part by the defection of his troops; on which event he was taken prisoner by the allied sovereigns in that city, and his dominions placed under sequestration. When, at length, he was reinstated on his throne, nearly one-half of his subjects were forced to transfer their allegiance to the Prussian monarch, to whose kingdom was added the duchy of Saxony itself, comprising the most fertile part of his dominions.

The kingdom of Saxony, in its present state, is a compact and connected territory. It extends from 28° 5' to 51° 31' east longitude, and from 50° 10' to 51° 31' north latitude. It is bounded on the north and north-east by Prussia; on the south-east and south by Austria; on the south-west by Bavaria; on the west by the principality of Reuss and the duchy of Saxe Gotha, and on the north-west by Prussia. Its square extent is about 7150 miles, or 4,625,000 English acres.

It is divided into five circles or provinces, and these are subdivided into Amts or Baliwichs.

This state of the population is drawn from a census taken in 1817.

Face of the Country. The northern part of the kingdom of Saxony is, for the most part, a level, or an undulating country; but on the south it is very mountainous. The mountains rise in three successive ridges, denominated the Vorgeberg, Mithelgeberg, and Hochgeberge; the southernmost of these, bordering on Bohemia, is the loftiest. The highest points of these mountains are those of the Fichtelberg, 3730 feet; Auersberg, 2931 feet; the Lausche, 2400 feet; and Hochwald, 2299 feet.

Saxon Switzerland. A part of this mountainous district, betwixt Dresden and Bohemia, usually denominated Saxon Switzerland, has peculiar charms for the lovers of picturesque scenery. It is about 28 miles in length, and 23 in breadth, displaying deep chasms bordered by perpendicular rocks, some naked, and others clothed with every variety of trees. Rapid streams pour from declivities, forming cascades in some parts, and in others, in deep vales, meander through verdant meadows, without their issue or their egress being discoverable by the observer from the precipices which enclose such recesses, and from whence he can see no path by which the vales can be reached. Through this mass of mountains the river Elbe has worn itself a passage, by a most tortuous course, and washes the bases of rocks, in some parts of near one thousand feet perpendicular height, from whose summit that stream appears to the beholder as an insignificant rivulet. From the surface of this mountain plain rise the pinnacles of rocks, on which castles, in the feudal times, were erected, some of whose ruins add to the romantic grandeur of the prospect; whilst others, such as Koenigstein and Litherstein, have had applied to them all the arts of modern fortification, and are the most impregnable fortresses in the Saxon dominions. Koenigstein especially, though, from its great height, it appears to terminate in a point, has on its apex strong walls, surrounding buildings in which the treasures of the crown are secured in times of danger, with ground to yield potatoes enough to feed the garrison, as that vegetable grows there to perfection; though, from being 1400 feet high, the rigid cold of winter is most severely felt. This fortress, and that of Lillienstein on the opposite side of the Elbe, are considered to be the keys to Bohemia. Few spots in Europe create greater interest in the geologist, the botanist, or the lover of picturesque scenery, than this portion of the country so appropriately denominated Saxon Switzerland.

Rivers. The principal river of Saxony, and that to which almost all the others contribute their streams, though not till it has left this kingdom, is the Elbe. It enters from Bohemia, and is navigable for barges through

Saxony. the whole of its Saxon course. The other rivers are the Black Elster, which rises in Lusatia, and soon enters the Prussian territory; the Spree, which comes out of Bohemia, divides itself into two branches near Bautzen, and then passes into Prussia. These rivers fall into the Elbe on its right bank. On the left bank it receives the Moldau, which has two sources in Bohemia, and in Saxony unites with the Zwichau, and runs parallel to the Elbe till it joins that stream at Dessau. The White Elster rises in Voightland, with many curvatures, reaches the suburbs of the city of Leipzig, and, receiving there the small river Pleisse, falls into the Saale, and ultimately is lost in the Elbe, above Magdeburg. The only river that does not run to the Elbe is the Neisse, which rises in the eastern corner of the kingdom, and, passing into Silesia, at length is emptied into the Oder. There are no lakes in Saxony, nor any canals, except such as are used in the mining districts for conveying the ore to the mills.

Agriculture. As compared with most parts of Germany, the agriculture of Saxony is much advanced. Wherever the soil is capable of cultivation, it is worked with diligence; and the more hilly and poorer soils have a good herbage, and yield pasture to numerous flocks and herds. The sides of the mountains towards the Elbe, from Pirna to Meissen, are covered with vines which yield both red and white wine; the former from the vicinity of Pilnitz and Loschwitz, and the latter from Hoflasnitz, are the most valued; but the great portion of the Saxon wine is of a very indifferent quality. The best of them are produced from the vineyards belonging to the king; and though they are sold at the highest prices, it is very doubtful if the expences of cultivation, and the rent which might be obtained for the land, does not exceed what is produced by the sale of the wine.

The whole of Saxony is highly productive of fruit, and the care and skill exercised in its cultivation is amply rewarded. Great destruction to the fruit trees took place during the tremendous military conflicts of which the country was the theatre; but still the orchards and gardens are very extensive, and new trees, planted since the wasting warfare of 1813, are beginning to yield their products. The calamities which were injurious to the fruit trees have lessened the number of cattle of every description; in the year 1817, in many districts of the circle of Meissen, not a single head of cattle was to be found. The bee-hives were destroyed by the same events; and it will yet require some years before Saxony can, as in past periods, supply the neighbouring countries with meat, hides, honey, and wax. The sheep were better preserved than the other kinds of animals, being mostly driven to the mountainous districts. These have increased, and great attention having been paid to breeding them so as to produce the finest wools, they have succeeded to such an extent, that their fleeces are now superior to those of Spain, and furnish the chief agricultural article which is exported.

The arable land is chiefly cultivated on a three course system, consisting of a fallow, winter sown grain, and spring sown grain. In some cases there is a fallow crop of flax, hemp, or potatoes. The

Saxony. winter corn that succeeds is generally rye, and sometimes, though less extensively, wheat; the summer corn which follows is chiefly oats and sometimes barley. The greater part of the arable land is in common fields, held under a feudal tenure, over which the lord of the manor has the right of depasturing his flocks between the harvest and the next seed time. The farming occupations are generally very small, and the increase of grain through the whole kingdom is said not to average more than five for one. The culture of potatoes has been very much extended of late years, and forms almost exclusively the food of the labouring classes in the mountainous districts. Tobacco, hemp, flax, wood, hops, and chicory, are grown in some parts of the kingdom, but neither of them to the extent which the consumption of the country requires. The woods of the kingdom, since the separation of its best portions, are insufficient to furnish the inhabitants with the necessary fuel; and though abundance of coal is found near Dresden, it is of so sulphureous a nature as to be deemed unwholesome, and is used only by those who are unable to pay the high price for wood which its scarcity has created.

before almost exclusively supplied. It would include almost the whole catalogue of European manufactures to enumerate all the respective kinds of goods made in Saxony. Woollens, linens, cottons, and silks for clothing; iron, brass, and copper wares; paper, leather, earthenware, hats, musical instruments, and turnery-ware; various chemical and dyeing preparations; clocks, watches, swords, guns, and pistols, are all comprehended in the list of Saxony manufactures.

The commerce of a country, whose inhabitants are chiefly occupied in manufactures, and produce an insufficiency of food for their own consumption, must be extensive. The trade of Saxony chiefly centres in the city of Leipzig, from whence, at the time of the two annual fairs, the greater part of the manufactures are disposed of, and contracts are made for such foreign commodities as the supply of the country demands. As the fairs of Frankfurt on the Maine precede, and those of Frankfurt on the Oder follow, the fairs of Leipzig, some portion of the trade is carried on by those channels. The roads leading to Leipzig are generally good, and trains of waggons, loaded with goods, are to be seen proceeding to and from that place at all times; many of which come from Flanders, Holland, Hamburg, and Brunswick, on one side, and from Russia, Poland, and even Turkey, on the other. At the fairs of Leipzig, the new books printed in most parts of Germany are brought for publication. There the publishers meet and exchange the works of one part of the country, where the German language is spoken, with those of another. So extensive is this trade, that it is said the commissions on it to the brokers and merchants of Leipzig amount to more than 40,000 rix-dollars a year. The whole sales at the fairs in that city are estimated, including exports and imports, at about 20,000,000 rix-dollars, or more than £3,000,000 Sterling. Saxony disposes, in this way, of sheep's wool, fine woollen goods, linen and thread lace, yarn and worsted, ironmongery, cutlery and braziers, and books. It receives in return, corn, wine, salt, wood, and colonial wares. Although the river Elbe is navigable from the ocean to the interior of Saxony, it is only used for the conveyance of the heaviest goods, and for them but partially. It is found that the tolls on that river, with the risk of damage and of robbery, make it more advantageous to convey commodities by land than by water.

The government is a monarchy hereditary in the Saxon Albertine line, and in failure of that, on the Ernestine, or Saxe Weimar branch of the family. The monarchy may be called limited; but the limitations are of such a nature that the liberties of the people have been more secured by the mildness of the reigning family than by any restrictions that the states have or could exercise. The king enjoys the whole executive power, confirms pardons, bestows commissions, nominates the supreme judges, and enjoys the power of making peace and war, and of concluding all treaties. In making new laws, and in imposing new taxes, the states have the right to be consulted. According to the ancient constitution, which is still adhered to, the states are constituted of various ele-

Saxony abounds in minerals, and though the veins, in general, are far from being of great thickness, the ore is tolerably rich; which, added to superior skill and economy in working the mines, and separating the metals, makes them very beneficial to the crown, to whom the greater portion of them belong. The mineralogical school of Freyberg has had a wonderful influence, not only in Saxony, but in all parts of the world, in increasing the knowledge and improving the practice of the operative labourers in the mining art. The annual produce of the silver mines is about 400,000 ounces; besides this, they yield copper, lead, tin, iron, sulphur, quicksilver, bismuth, arsenic, and coal. Gold is found in very small quantities.

In no part of the continent has manufacturing industry been carried to so great an extent, or occupied so large a proportion of the population, as in Saxony. Before the separation from it of the most productive agricultural provinces, it was calculated that two-fifths of the inhabitants were employed in manufactures; but since that unfortunate event, it is estimated that three-fifths are occupied in commerce and manufactures, and only two-fifths in agriculture. It is only by the extent of its manufactures that the country can be furnished with the means of paying for those articles of the first necessity, of which a sufficiency is not now produced within it. The provinces which supplied corn, fuel, and salt, have been ceded to Prussia, and those articles must be paid for by the sales of the minerals and manufactures. During the continuance of Buonaparte's continental system, the Saxon manufacturers enjoyed a most extensive trade, and the encouragement thus obtained gave an impulse which directed the efforts and the capital of the country towards their perfection; but the division of labour was not carried to such an extent, nor was the application of machinery so generally adopted, as to enable them to withstand the competition with the British goods, which peace introduced into many of those markets which they had

ments; and, in fact, are an amalgama of various corporations, each of which thinks only of its own peculiar interests, and contrives to cast the weight of all public burdens from the cities and the nobles, who are represented, to the country people who have no voices. The assembly consists, 1st, Of members chosen by the provincial representatives of the nobility; 2dly, Of the representatives of the prelates, who, before the Reformation, had seats; but who have since been chosen by the higher class of nobles in right of their possessing certain estates of which the prelates were deprived; and, 3dly, The university of Leipsic. These states represent only the circles of Meissen, Leipsic, Erzgebirge, and Voightland; for that of Lusatia has its own peculiar assembly of states, which differs but little from those of the other four, except that the members from the land possessors must have at least sixteen quarterings in their coats of arms. When the king pleases these states are convoked; but, as it has not been found necessary to impose new taxes, or to make great alterations in the laws, they have seldom been assembled, and their session has usually been very short. The administration is conducted by a Cabinet Council, under which, through the medium of the privy council, orders are communicated to the departments of Finance, War, Domains, Police, and Foreign Affairs.

Revenue,
Taxes, and
Debt.

The revenue at present amounts to about L.1,250,000 Sterling annually. This revenue is derived in a great degree from royal domains, possessed by the government by ancient grants from the imperial court, or obtained by having been mortgaged and foreclosed for non-payment, or purchased by the ancestors of the present monarch. The royalties belonging to the crown furnish also a considerable share of this revenue; they consist of the mines, the forests, the fisheries, and of interest on money lent. The direct taxes are on land, on trades, various excise duties, stamp taxes, and tolls on roads, rivers, and bridges; the greater part of which fall exclusively on those who have no voice in the states. The whole public debt, including the cash notes (Kassenbillets), which did amount to L.550,000, but are now reduced to L.450,000, and circulate as freely as cash, is somewhat less than L.4,000,000; the interest on which is regularly paid, and a portion of the principal is annually discharged. The credit of no government stands higher than that of Saxony,

and nearly the whole debt is due to its own subjects.

The regular army of Saxony at present is reduced to 10,000 men, including cavalry, infantry, and artillery. Since the year 1817, when the regulars were thus reduced, there has been a register kept of the single men between 18 and 31 years of age, who form a kind of militia, and from among whom the troops of the line are chosen; from this conscription, however, the privileged orders are exempt. There are military academies in Dresden for instructing both the cadets of the line and those of the artillery.

Although the royal family profess the Catholic religion, and are zealous in discharging its injunctions, the established faith is the Lutheran, and, until the year 1811, no person of any other sect was eligible to seats in the several corporations in the provincial or general assembly of the states. At that period all sects were placed on the same footing. The whole number of Catholics is about 40,000, some of whom are attached to the royal household; but most of them are found among the inhabitants of the province of Lusatia. The number of Protestants dissenting from the established church, including Moravians and Calvinists, is not supposed to exceed two thousand. The Lutheran church is regulated by four Consistories or Assemblies of divines; differing in the number of superintendents, but comprising together twenty-four of that order. The Catholics in Lusatia are regulated by the Abbot of Bautzen, on whom the Pope generally bestows the title of Bishop in partibus infidelium.

Education is well conducted in the university of Leipsic, and in the endowed classical schools of Meissen, Wurzen, and Grimma, as well as in several gymnasiums. The popular education is not so well managed as in the other Protestant German states; and some recent efforts to improve the system have not been attended with good practical results. The fine arts have been cultivated with considerable success; and both statuary and painting receive valuable assistance from the fine productions of both which the collections of Dresden contain.

See Leonhardi Erdbeschreibung der Kurfürstliche und Herzogliche Sächsischen Länder. Sachsen dargestellt, von K. F. Mosch. Pölitz Geschichte und Statistik der Königreich Sachsen. Jacob's View of Germany. (w. w.)