SCOTLAND. The reign of Edward II. affords no particulars of great moment. Being a prince of a weak understanding, though endowed with no remarkable bad qualities, his reign was one continued series of quarrels with his turbulent subjects. His favourites were the most general causes of discontent. The first of these was one Piers Gavelston, the son of a Gascon knight of some distinction, who had honourably served the late king, and who, in reward for his services, had obtained an establishment for his son in the family of the prince of Wales.—To be the favourite of any king whatever, is no doubt in itself a sufficient offence to the rest of the courtiers. Numberless faults were therefore found with Gavelston by the English barons. When the king went over to France to espouse the princess Isabella, to whom he had been long contracted, Gavelston was left guardian of the realm, with more ample powers than had usually been conferred in such a case. But when the queen, who was of an imperious and intriguing spirit, arrived, Gavelston had the misfortune to fall under her displeasure also, on account of the ascendancy he had acquired over the king. A conspiracy was therefore soon formed against the favourite; at the head of which were the queen, and the earl of Lancaster, cousin-german to the king, and the most opulent and powerful nobleman in England. The king, unable to resist such a combination, was at last obliged to banish Gavelston; but recalled him some time after. This was sufficient to spread an alarm over the whole kingdom: a civil war ensued; and the nobility having got Gavelston into their hands, soon freed themselves of any farther apprehensions from him, by putting him to death.
After the unfortunate defeat at Bannockburn, King Edward chose a new favourite named Hugh le Despenser. He was a young man of a noble English family, some merit, and very engaging accomplishments. His father was a person of a much more respectable character than the son; but the being admitted to a share of King Edward's favour was a sufficient crime. The king imprudently dispossessed some lords of their estates, in order to bestow them upon this favourite; and this was a sufficient pretence for openly attacking both the father and son. The earls of Lancaster and Hereford flew to arms. Sentence was procured from parliament of perpetual exile against the two Spensers, with a forfeiture of all their estates. At last the king took the field at the head of 30,000 men, and pressed the earl of Lancaster so closely, that he had not time to collect his forces together; and, flying from one place to another, he was at last stopped in his way towards Scotland, and made prisoner. He was immediately condemned by a court-martial; and executed on an eminence near Pomfret, with circumstances of the greatest indignity.
Spenser now triumphed for some time over his enemies; most of the forfeitures were seized for his use,
and he is said to have been guilty of many acts of rapine and injustice. But he was soon opposed by a more formidable enemy. Queen Isabella fled to France, and refused to return to England till Spenser was removed from the royal presence, and banished the kingdom, where she made herself popular in England, where Spenser was universally disliked; and she had the pleasure of enjoying the company of a young nobleman named Mortimer, upon whom she had lately placed her affections. The queen's court, therefore, became a sanctuary for all the malecontents who were banished their own country, or who chose to come over. When she thought matters were ripe for her purpose, she set sail from Dart harbour, accompanied by 3000 armed men. She landed without opposition on the coast of Suffolk, on the 24th of September 1326; and the no sooner appeared, than there seemed to be a general revolt in her favour. The unfortunate king found the spirit of disloyalty spread over the whole kingdom. He had placed some dependence on the garrison of Bristol, which was under the command of the elder Spenser; but they nutinied against their governor; and that unfortunate favourite was delivered up, and condemned by the tumultuous barons to the most ignominious death. He was hanged on a gibbet in his armour; his body was cut in pieces and thrown to the dogs; and his head was sent to Winchester, where it was set on a pole, and exposed to the insults of the populace. Young Spenser did not long survive his father. He was taken, with some others who had followed the fortunes of the wretched king, in an obscure convent in Wales. The queen had not patience to wait the formality of a trial; but ordered him to be immediately led forth before the insulting populace, and seemed to take a savage pleasure in beholding his distress. He was executed on a gibbet 50 feet high; his head was sent to London, where it was received by the citizens with brutal triumph, and fixed on the bridge.
In the mean time the king, who hoped to find refuge in Wales, was quickly discovered, and delivered up to his adversaries, who insulted him in the grossest manner. He was conducted to the capital amidst the insults and reproaches of the people, and confined in the tower. A charge was soon exhibited against him; in which no other crimes but his incapacity to govern, his indolence, his love of pleasure, and his being swayed by evil counsellors, were objected against him. His deposition, however, was quickly voted by parliament; he was assigned a pension for his support; his son Edward, a youth of 14, was chosen to succeed him, and the queen was appointed regent during the minority. The deposed monarch did not long survive the loss of his crown. He was at first confined to the custody of the earl of Lancaster; but this nobleman showing some marks of respect and pity, he was taken out of his hands, and delivered over to the lords Berkeley, Mautravers, and Gourmay, who were entrusted alternately, each for a month, with the charge of guarding him. While he was in Berkeley's custody, he was still used with some degree of humanity; but when the turn of Mautravers and Gourmay came, every species of indignity was practised upon him, as if they had designed to accelerate his death by the bitterness of his sufferings. It is reported, that one day when Edward
England. Edward was to be shaved, they ordered cold and dirty water to be brought from a ditch for that purpose; and when he desired it to be changed, and was still denied his request, he burst into tears and exclaimed, That in spite of their insolence he would be shaved with clean and warm water. As his persecutors, however, saw that his death might not arrive, even under every cruelty they could practise, and were daily afraid of a revolution in his favour, they determined to rid themselves of their fears by destroying him at once. Mortimer, therefore, secretly gave orders to the two keepers, who were at his devotion, instantly to dispatch the king; and these ruffians contrived to make the manner of his death as cruel and barbarous as possible. Taking advantage of Berkeley's sickness, in whose custody he then was, and who was thereby incapacitated from attending his charge, they came to Berkeley's castle, and put themselves in possession of the king's person. They threw him on a bed, and held him down with a table which they had placed over him. They then ran a horn pipe up his body, through which they conveyed a red-hot iron; and thus burnt his bowels without disguising his body. By this infernal contrivance they expected to have their crime concealed: but the horrid shrieks of the king, which were heard at a distance from the castle, gave a suspicion of the murder; and the whole was soon after divulged by the confession of one of the accomplices. Gournay and Mautravers were held in detestation by all mankind; and when the ensuing revolution deprived their protectors of power, they found it necessary to fly the kingdom. Gournay was afterwards seized at Marfeilles, delivered over to the seneschal of Guienne, and put on board a ship with a view of carrying him over to England; but he was beheaded at sea, by secret orders, as was supposed, of some nobles and prelates in England, anxious to prevent any discovery which he might make of his accomplices. Mautravers concealed himself for some years in Germany; but having found means of rendering some services to Edward III. he ventured to approach his person, threw himself on his knees before him, and received a pardon.
By the death of Edward II. the government fell entirely into the hands of the queen and her paramour Mortimer. The parliament, which raised young Edward to the throne, had indeed appointed 12 persons as his privy-council, to direct the operations of government. Mortimer excluded himself, under a show of moderation; but at the same time secretly influenced all the measures that came under their deliberation. As this influence began very soon to be perceived, and the queen's criminal attachment to Mortimer was universally known, these governors soon became very obnoxious to the people. The first stroke given to Mortimer's power was during an eruption of the Scots, when the favourite prevented the young king from attacking the enemy. Though it is very probable that the English army would have been destroyed by making an attack on an army situated in such an advantageous post as the Scots at that time occupied, Mortimer incurred great blame on that account. He was accused of having allowed the Scots to make their escape; and the general disgust on this account was increased by his concluding a peace with that kingdom,
wherein the English renounced all title to the sovereignty of Scotland for the sum of 30,000 marks. Soon after Mortimer seized and executed the earl of Kent, brother to the late king; who, supposing Edward II. to be still alive, had formed a design of reinstating him in his kingdom. The execution was so sudden, that the young king had not time even to interpose in his behalf; and Mortimer soon after seized this nobleman's estate for his own use, as he did also the immense fortunes of the Spensers.
Edward, finding the power of Mortimer a continual restraint upon himself, resolved to shake off an authority that was likewise grown odious to the whole nation. The queen and Mortimer had for some time chosen the castle of Nottingham for their residence. It was strictly guarded, the gates were locked every night, and the keys carried to the queen. It was therefore agreed between the king and some of the barons, who secretly entered into his designs, to seize upon them in this fortress. Sir William Eland the governor was induced to admit them through a subterraneous passage, which had been formerly contrived for an outlet, but was now choked up with rubbish, and known only to one or two. Through this passage the noblemen in the king's interest entered the castle in the night-time; and Mortimer, without having it in his power to make any resistance, was seized in an apartment adjoining to that of the queen. The parliament, which was then sitting, condemned him, without either permitting him to make his defence, or examining a single witness against him. He was hanged on a gibbet at a place called Elmes, about a mile from London. A similar sentence was passed against some of his adherents, particularly Gournay and Mautravers, who found an opportunity of escaping as above mentioned. The queen, who was perhaps the most culpable of the whole, was screened by the dignity of her station. She was, however, deposed from all share of power; and confined for life to the castle of Rifings, with a pension of 3000 pounds a-year. From this confinement she was never let free, though the king paid her an annual visit of ceremony. She lived 25 years after her deposition.
Edward III. proved the greatest warrior that ever sat on the English throne. He first attempted to raise Edward Balliol to the sovereignty of Scotland; but this he found impossible fully to accomplish. Edward next formed a project of invading and conquering France, to the sovereignty of which he pretended a right. His first expectations were attended with little success, that on his return to England he found the nation very much discontented, and himself harassed by his numerous creditors, without any sufficient resource for paying them. Being determined, however, not to bear any blame himself if he could throw it anywhere else, he took the first opportunity of wreaking his vengeance upon his subjects. Finding therefore the tower of London negligently guarded on his arrival, he imprisoned the constable and all his inferior officers, treating them with the greatest severity. He then fell upon the sheriffs and collectors of the revenue, whom he dismissed from their employments, and appointed an inquiry into their conduct to be made by persons who, knowing the king's humour, were sure to find every one guilty who came before them. The keeper of the privy-seal, the chief-justice, the mayor of London,
England. the bishops of Chichester and Litchfield, with the
175
Is opposed by the archbishop of Canterbury; the chancellor and treasurer, were deposed and imprisoned.
In this career of resentment and cruelty, however, he found himself opposed by the archbishop of Canterbury, whom he had appointed to collect the taxes laid on for the support of the French war. That prelate happening to be absent at the time of the king's arrival, did not immediately feel the effects of his resentment. Being informed, however, of the humour in which his sovereign was, he issued a sentence of excommunication against all who, on any pretence whatever, should exercise violence against the persons or estates of clergymen, or who infringed those privileges secured by the great charter, or who accused a prelate of treason, or any other crime, in order to bring him under the king's displeasure. A regular combination was formed against the king by the clergy, with the primate at their head; who, to excite the indignation of the people as much as possible, reported, that the king intended to recall the general pardon and the remission to old debts which had been granted, and to impose new and arbitrary taxes without consent of parliament. The archbishop also, in a letter to the king, informed him, that there were two powers by which the world was governed, viz. the holy pontifical apostolical dignity and the regal authority; of which the clerical power was evidently the supreme, as the priests were to answer even for the conduct of kings at the last judgment; and were besides the spiritual fathers of all the faithful, kings and princes not excepted; having, besides, a heavenly charter, entitling them to direct their wills and actions, and to censure their transgressions. On this the king resolved to mortify him, by sending no summons to him when the parliament was called: but the prelate, undaunted by this mark of resentment, appeared before the gates of the parliament-house with his crozier in his hand, demanding admittance as the first peer of the realm. This application was rejected for two days, but at last complied with; and the parliament now seemed inclined to abridge the king's authority considerably. They began with observing, that as the great charter had been violated in many points, particularly by the illegal imprisonment of many freemen and the seizure of their goods, it was necessary to confirm it anew, and to oblige all the chief officers of the law and others to swear to the observance of it. It was also required, that whenever any of the great offices became vacant, the king should fill them up by the advice of his council and the consent of such barons as should at the time be found to reside in the neighbourhood of the court. They enacted also, that on the third day of every session the king should resume all such offices into his own hand, excepting those of the justices of the two benches and the barons of exchequer; that the ministers should for the time be reduced to private persons; that they should in that condition answer before parliament to any accusation preferred against them; and that, if they were found in any respect guilty, they should be finally deprived of their offices, and others appointed in their stead. In return for such ample concessions, the king was offered a grant of 20,000 sacks of wool; and such was his urgent necessity, that he was compelled to accept of it even upon these terms. Still, however, he deter-
mined to adhere to his engagements no longer than till England. this necessity was removed. Though the agreement, therefore, was ratified in full parliament, he secretly entered a protest, that, as soon as his convenience permitted, he would from his own authority revoke what had been extorted from him. This protest was afterwards confirmed by a public edict; in which he asserted, that that statute had been made contrary to law; that it was prejudicial to the prerogatives of the crown, which he had only dissembled when he seemed to ratify it; and that in his own breast he had never assented to it: and declared, that from thenceforth it had no force or authority. This exertion of arbitrary power, which it might have been imagined would have occasioned a prodigious clamour, was not taken notice of by any of the subsequent parliaments; so that in the course of two years Edward had entirely regained his authority, and obtained a repeal of the obnoxious statute just mentioned. Having thus settled matters great ex-
177
178
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Plots in France.
Richard II
cond son Richard.
As the new king was only eleven years old when he ascended the throne, the government was vested in the hands of his three uncles, the dukes of Lancaster, York, and Gloucester. The different dispositions of these noblemen, it was thought, would cause them check the designs of each other. Lancaster was neither popular nor enterprising; York was indolent and weak; and Gloucester turbulent, popular, and ambitious. Discontents first arose among the common people. They had now acquired a share of liberty sufficient to inspire them with a desire for more, and this desire was greatly increased by the discourses of one John Ball a seditionary preacher. He went about the country, and inculcated on his audience, that mankind were all derived from one common stock; and that all of them had equal right to liberty and the goods of nature, of which they had been deprived by the ambition of a few insolent rulers.
These doctrines were greedily swallowed by the populace, who were farther inflamed by a new imposition of three groats a-head upon every person in the kingdom above 15 years of age. This had been granted as a supply by parliament, and was no doubt necessary on account of the many expensive wars in which the kingdom was engaged; but its apparent injustice, in laying no more burden upon the rich than the poor, excited the utmost resentment of the people. The manner, too, of collecting this tax, soon furnished them with an occasion of revolt. It began in Essex, where a report was industriously spread that the peasants were to be destroyed, their houses burned, and their farms plundered. A blacksmith, well known by the name of
England. of Wat Tyler, was the first that excited them to arms. The tax-gatherers coming to this man's house while he was at work, demanded payment for his daughter. This he refused, alleging that she was under the age mentioned in the act. One of these fellows offered to produce a very indecent proof to the contrary, and at the same time laid hold of the maid. This the father resenting, immediately knocked out the ruffian's brains with his hammer. The bystanders applauded the action; and exclaimed that it was high time for the people to take vengeance on their tyrants, and to vindicate their native liberty. The whole country immediately took arms, and the insurgents soon amounted to about 100,000 men. They advanced to Blackheath, where they sent a message to the king, who had taken shelter in the tower, desiring a conference with him. The king was desirous of complying with their demands, but was intimidated by their fierce behaviour. In the mean time, they entered the city, burning and plundering the houses of such as were obnoxious for their power or riches. Their animosity was particularly levelled against the lawyers, to whom they showed no mercy. The king at last, knowing that the tower was not able to resist their assaults, went out among them, and desired to know their demands. To this they made a very humble remonstrance; requiring a general pardon, the abolition of slavery, freedom of commerce in the market-towns, and a fixed rent instead of those services required by the tenure of villenage. The king granted all these requests; and charters were made out by which the grant was ratified. In the mean time, however, another body of these insurgents had broke into the tower, and murdered the chancellor, the primate, and the treasurer, with some other officers of distinction. They then divided themselves into bodies, and took up their quarters in different parts of the city. At the head of one of these was Wat Tyler, who led his men into Smithfield, where he was met by the king, who invited him to a conference under pretence of hearing and redressing his grievances. Tyler ordered his companions to retire till he should give them a signal, and boldly ventured to begin a conference with the king in the midst of his retinue. His demands were, That all slaves should be set free; that all commontages should be open to the poor as well as to the rich; and that a general pardon should be passed for the late outrages. Whilst he made these demands, he now and then lifted up his sword in a menacing manner: which insolence so raised the indignation of William Walworth lord mayor of London, that, without considering the danger to which he exposed his majesty, he flung Tyler with a blow of his mace; while one of the king's knights riding up, dispatched him with his sword. The mutineers, seeing their leader fall, prepared themselves to take revenge. Their bows were already bent for execution; when Richard, though not yet 16 years of age, rode up to the rebels, and with admirable presence of mind cried out: "What, my people, will you kill your king? Be not concerned for the loss of your leader. I myself will now be your general. Follow me into the field, and you shall have whatever you desire." The multitude immediately desisted, and followed the king into the fields, where he granted them the same charters that he had before granted to their compa-
nions. These charters, however, were soon after revoked, and the common people reduced to the same situation in which they had formerly been.
The courage, address, and presence of mind, which the king had discovered in quelling such a dangerous tumult, gave great hopes to the nation: but, in proportion as Richard advanced in years, these hopes were blasted; and his want of capacity, or at least of solid judgment, appeared in every enterprise he attempted. The king had unluckily lost the favour of the common people after the insurrection just mentioned. He allowed the parliament to revoke the charters of enfranchisement and pardon which had been granted; some of the ringleaders in the late disorders had been severely punished, and some even put to death without any form of process or trial. Thus the popular leaders were greatly exasperated by this cruelty, though probably the king did not follow the dictates of his own mind so much in it as the advice of his counsellors. But having thus lost the favour of one party, he quickly after fell under the displeasure of the other also. Supposing himself to be in too great subjection to his uncles, particularly the duke of Gloucester, he attempted to shake off the yoke, by raising others to such a degree of power as might enable them to rival them. His first favourite was Robert Vere earl of Oxford, a young man of an agreeable person, but dissolute in his behaviour, who soon acquired an absolute ascendancy over him. So much was he determined to show his attachment to this nobleman, that he first created him marquis of Dublin, a title never known in England before; then duke of Ireland; transferring to him the entire sovereignty of that island by patent for life. He gave him in marriage his cousin-german, the daughter of the earl of Bedford; but soon after permitted him to divorce her for another lady with whom he had fallen in love. This nobleman soon became the dispenser of all the king's favours to such a degree, that a conspiracy was formed against him; at the head of which were, Mowbray earl of Nottingham, Fitz Alan earl of Arundel, Percy earl of Northumberland, Montacute earl of Salisbury, and Beauchamp earl of Warwick. Vere was impeached in parliament; and though nothing of moment was even alleged against him, he was condemned and deprived of his office. They next proceeded to attack the royal authority itself. Under pretence that the king was yet unable to govern the kingdom, though at that time 21 years of age, they appointed a commission of 14 persons to whom the sovereignty was to be transferred for a year. This measure was driven forward by the duke of Gloucester, and none but his own faction were admitted as members of the committee. The king could not without regret perceive himself thus totally deprived of authority. He first endeavoured to gain over the parliament to his interests, by influencing the sheriffs of each county, who were then the only returning officers. This measure failing, he next applied to the judges. They declared, that the commission which had deprived the king of his authority was unlawful, and that those who procured or advised it were punishable with death. Their sentence was quickly opposed by declarations from the lords. The duke of Gloucester armed his partisans, and appeared at Hastingay park near Highgate,
England. Highgate, at the head of a body of men sufficient to intimidate the king and all his adherents. These insurgents, sensible of their own power, began by demanding of the king the names of those who had advised him to his late rash measures. A few days afterwards they appeared armed in his presence, and accused by name the archbishop of York, the duke of Ireland, the earl of Suffolk, and Sir Robert Tresilian, one of the judges who had declared in his favour, together with Sir Nicholas Bember, as public and dangerous enemies to the state. The duke of Ireland fled into Cheshire, where he attempted to raise a body of forces; but was quickly obliged to fly into Flanders, on the arrival of the duke of Gloucester with a superior army. Soon after, the king was obliged to summon a parliament, where an accusation was drawn up against five of his counsellors. Of these only Sir Nicholas Bember was present; and he was quickly found guilty, condemned, and executed, together with Sir Robert Tresilian, who had been discovered and taken during the interval. Lord Beauchamp of Holt was soon after condemned and executed; and Sir Simon Burley, who had been appointed the king's governor, shared the same fate, though the queen continued for three hours on her knees before the duke of Gloucester, imploring his pardon.
Such unparalleled insolence and barbarity in a subject could not go unpunished. In 1389, the king at an extraordinary council of the nobility assembled after Easter, to the astonishment of all present, desired to know his age. Being told that he was turned of two and twenty, he alleged that it was then time for him to govern without help; and that there was no reason why he should be deprived of those rights which the meanest of his subjects enjoyed. The lords answered in some confusion, that he had certainly an undisputed right to take upon himself the government of the kingdom. "Yes (replied the king), I have long been under the government of tutors; and I will now first show my right to power by their removal." He then ordered Thomas Arundel, whom the commissioners had lately appointed chancellor, to give up the seals; which he next day delivered to William Wickham bishop of Winchester. He next removed the duke of Gloucester, the earl of Warwick, and other lords of the opposition, from the council; and all the great officers of the household, as well as the judges, were changed.
The king being thus left at liberty to govern as he thought proper, for some time behaved in such a manner as to gain the affections of the people. It does not appear indeed that he ever gave much cause of complaint; but it was impossible for any prince in those days to keep himself secure on the throne but by a very severe and vigorous administration. The duke of Gloucester, perceiving that Richard was not of a warlike disposition, frequently spoke with contempt of his person and government, and deliberated concerning the lawfulness of throwing off all allegiance to him. The king being informed of his conduct by spies appointed for that purpose, at last formed a resolution of ridding himself of Gloucester and his faction at once. He therefore ordered that nobleman to be immediately arrested and sent over to Calais, where there was no danger of his being rescued by his numerous adherents. The
earls of Arundel and Warwick were seized at the same time; and a new parliament, which the king knew would be perfectly obedient to his will, was summoned to Westminster. Here the commission of 14, who had usurped on the royal authority, was annulled for ever; all those acts which had condemned his former ministers were repealed; and the general pardon which the king had formerly given when he assumed the government into his own hands, was revoked. Several of Gloucester's party were condemned and executed, and at last Gloucester that nobleman himself was called for to take his trial as well as the rest; but he had before been privately dispatched in prison.
After the destruction of the duke of Gloucester and the heads of his party, a misunderstanding arose among the noblemen who had joined in the prosecution. The duke of Hereford appeared in parliament, and accused the duke of Norfolk of having spoken seditious words against his majesty in a private conversation. Norfolk denied the charge, gave Hereford the lie, and offered to prove his innocence by single combat. The challenge was accepted; but on the day appointed for the duel, the king would not suffer the combatants to engage, but commanded both of them to leave the kingdom. The duke of Norfolk he banished for life, but the duke of Hereford only for ten years. The former retired to Venice, where in a short time he died of a broken heart. Hereford behaved in a resigned and submissive manner; which so pleased the king, that he consented to shorten the time of his banishment four years: he also granted him letters patent, ensuring him of the enjoyment of any inheritance which should fall to him during his absence; but upon the death of his father the duke of Lancaster, which happened shortly after, Richard revoked those letters, and kept the estate to himself.
This last injury inflamed the resentment of Hereford to such a degree, that he formed a design of de-throning the king. He was a great favourite both with the army and people; he was immensely rich, and connected by blood or alliance with all the great families of the nation. The king at the same time, it is said, gave himself up to an idle, effeminate life; and his ministers following his example, the national honour was lost. The number of malecontents daily increased, and only waited for the absence of the king, in order to put their schemes in execution; and this opportunity soon offered.
The earl of March, presumptive heir to the crown, having been appointed the king's lieutenant in Ireland, was slain in a skirmish with the natives of that country; which so incensed Richard, that, unmindful of his precarious situation at home, he went over to Ireland with a considerable army, in order to revenge his death in person. The duke of Lancaster (for that was the title which Hereford assumed on the death of his father) hearing of the king's absence, instantly embarked at Nantz; and with a retinue only of 60 persons in three small vessels, landed at Ravenspur in Yorkshire. The earl of Northumberland, who had long been a malecontent, together with Henry Percy his son, who from his ardent valour was furnished Hospur, immediately joined him with their forces; and the people flocked to him in such numbers, that in a few days his army amounted to 60,000 men.
Richard,
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The king takes the power into his own hands.
England. Richard, in the mean time, continued in perfect security in Ireland for some time. Contrary winds for three weeks together prevented his receiving any news of the rebellion which was begun in his native dominions. He landed therefore at Milford Haven without suspicion, attended by a body of 20,000 men; but immediately found himself opposed by a power which he could by no means resist. His army gradually deserted him, till at last he was obliged to acquaint the duke, that he would submit to whatever terms he pleased to prescribe. The duke did not think proper to enter into any treaty with the king; but carried him to London, where he was confined close prisoner in the Tower, formally deposed by parliament, or rather by the duke of Lancaster, and at last put to death. The manner of his death is variously related. According to some, eight or nine ruffians were sent to the castle of Pomfret, whither the unhappy prince had been removed, in order to dispatch him. They rushed unexpectedly into his apartment; but Richard, knowing their design, resolved to sell his life as dear as possible. He wrested a pole-axe from one of the murderers, with which he killed four of them; but was at length overpowered and killed. Others relate that he was starved in prison; and that, after he was denied all nourishment, he prolonged his life 14 days, by feeding on the flecks of his bed. He died in the year 1399, in the 34th year of his age, and 23d of his reign.—It was during the reign of Richard II. that Wickliff, the noted reformer, published his doctrines in England. See WICKLIFF.
189
Richard deposed and murdered.
190
Duke of Lancaster's claim to the crown.
After sentence of deposition had been pronounced on Richard by both houses of parliament, the throne being then vacant, the duke of Lancaster stepped forth; and having crossed himself on the forehead and on the breast, and called on the name of Christ, gave in his claim to the throne in the following words, which we shall give in the original language. "In the name of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, I Henry of Lancaster, challenge this rewine of Ynglonde, and the crown, with all the membres and the appurtenances; as I that am descendit by right line of the blode, coming fro the gude King Henry therde, and thorge that right that God of his grace hath sent me, with help of kyn, and of my frendes to recover it; the which rewine was in poynt to be ondone by default of governance, and ondoing of the gude laws."
The right which the duke here claimed by descent from Henry III. proceeded on a false story, that Edmund earl of Lancaster, son of Henry III. was really the elder brother of Edward I.; but that, by reason of some deformity in his person, he had been postponed in the succession, and Edward the younger brother imposed on the nation in his stead. The present duke of Lancaster inherited from Edmund, by his mother, the right which he now pretended to the crown; though the falsehood of the story was so generally known, that he thought proper to mention it only in general terms.—No opposition, however, was made to the validity of this title in parliament; and thus commenced the differences between the houses of York and Lancaster, which were not terminated but by many bloody and ruinous wars.
191
Henry IV.
The reign of Henry IV. was little else than a continued series of insurrections. In the very first parlia-
ment he called, 80 fewer than 40 challenges were given England; and accepted by different barons; and though Henry had ability and address enough to prevent these duels from being fought, it was not in his power to prevent continual insurrections and combinations against himself. The most formidable one was conducted by the earl of Northumberland, and commenced A. D. 1402. The occasion of it was, that Henry denied the earl liberty to ransom some Scots prisoners which had been taken in a skirmish with that nation. The king was desirous of detaining them in order to increase his demands upon Scotland in making peace; but as the ransom of prisoners was in that age looked upon as a right belonging to those who had taken them, the earl thought himself grievously injured. The injury appeared still the greater, because Northumberland considered the king as indebted to him both for his life and crown. He resolved therefore to dethrone Henry; 192
Insurrection and to raise to the throne young Mortimer, who was son of the true heir to the crown, as being the son of Roger earl of Mortimer earl of March, whom Richard II. had declared his successor. For this purpose, he entered into an alliance with the Scots and Welsh, who were to make an irruption into England at the same time that he himself was to raise what forces he could in order to join them. But when all things were prepared for this insurrection, the earl found himself unable to lead on the troops, by a sudden fit of illness with which he was seized at Berwick. On this, young Piercy (surnamed Hoffpur) took the command; and marched towards Shrewsbury, in order to join the Welsh. But the king had happily a small army with which he intended to have acted against the Scots; and knowing the importance of celerity in civil wars, instantly hurried down, that he might give battle to the rebels. He approached Shrewsbury before a junction with the Welsh could be effected; and the impatience of Piercy urged him to an engagement, which at that time he ought to have declined. The evening before the battle, he sent a manifesto to Henry; in which he renounced his allegiance, set the king at defiance, and enumerated all the grievances of which he imagined the nation might justly complain. He reproached him (and very justly) with his perjury; for Henry, on his first landing in England, had sworn upon the gospels, before the earl of Northumberland, that he had no other intention but to recover possession of the duchy of Lancaster, and that he would ever remain a faithful subject to King Richard. He aggravated his guilt, in first dethroning and then murdering that prince; and in usurping on the title of the house of Mortimer; to whom, both by lineal succession and by declarations of parliament, the throne, then vacant by Richard's death, did of right belong. Several other heavy charges were brought against him; which, at that time, could be productive of no other effect than to irritate the king and his adherents to the utmost.
The armies on each side were in number about 12,000; so that they were not unmanageable by their feasted and commanders; and as both leaders were men of known killed at bravery, an obstinate engagement was expected. The Shrewsbury battle was fought on the 20th of July 1403; and we can scarce find in those ages any other in which the shock was so terrible and constant. At last Piercy being killed by an unknown hand, the victory was decided
England. in favour of the royalists. There are said to have fallen on that day near 2300 gentlemen, and 6000 private men, of whom near two thirds were of Percy's army.
The earl of Northumberland having recovered from his sickness, and levied an army, was on his march to join his son; but being opposed by the earl of Westmorland, and hearing of the defeat at Shrewsbury, he dismissed his forces, and came with a small retinue to the king at York. He pretended that his sole intention was to mediate between the contending parties; and the king thought proper to accept of his apology, and grant him a pardon for his offence. The other rebels were treated with equal lenity; and none of them, except the earl of Worcester and Sir Richard Vernon, who were regarded as the chief authors of the insurrection, perished by the hands of the executioner. This lenity, however, was not sufficient to keep the kingdom quiet; one insurrection followed another almost during the whole of this reign; but either through Henry's vigilance, or the bad management of the conspirators, they never could unite their forces in such a manner as was necessary for bringing their projects to bear.
194
Archbishop
of York ex-
ecuted.
195
Burning of
heretics in-
troduced.
This reign is remarkable for the first capital punishment inflicted on a clergyman of high rank. The archbishop of York having been concerned in an insurrection against the king, and happening to be taken prisoner, was beheaded without either indictment, trial, or defence; nor was any disturbance occasioned by this summary execution. But the most remarkable transaction of this reign was, the introduction of that absurd and cruel practice of burning people on account of their religion. Henry, while a subject, was thought to have been very favourable to the doctrines of Wickliff; but when he came to the throne, finding his possession of it very insecure, he thought superstitious a necessary implement of his authority, and therefore determined by all means to pay court to the clergy. There were hitherto no penal laws against heresy; not indeed through the toleration of the court of Rome, but through the stupidity of the people, who could not perceive the absurdities of the established religion. But when the learning and genius of Wickliff had once broken the fetters of prejudice, the ecclesiastics called aloud for the punishment of his disciples; and Henry, who was very little scrupulous in his conduct, resolved to gratify them. He engaged parliament to pass a law for this purpose: it was enacted, that when any heretic, who relapsed, or refused to abjure his opinions, was delivered over to the secular arm by the bishop or his commissaries, he should be committed to the flames before the whole people. This weapon did not remain long unemployed in the hands of the clergy. William Sautré, rector of St Osthens in London, had been condemned by the convocation of Canterbury; his sentence was ratified by the house of peers; the king issued his writ for the execution; and the unhappy man was burnt alive in the year 1401. The doctrines of Wickliff, however, seem to have already gained ground very considerably in England. In 1405, the commons, who had been required to grant supplies, proposed in plain terms to the king to seize all the temporalities of the church, and employ them as a perpetual fund to serve the exigencies of the state. They insisted that
the clergy possessed a third of the lands of the kingdom; and they contributed nothing to the public burdens; and that their exorbitant riches tended only to disqualify them from performing their ministerial functions with proper zeal and attention. When this address was presented, the archbishop of Canterbury, who then attended the king, objected that the clergy, though they went not in person to the wars, sent their vassals and tenants in all cases of necessity; while at the same time, they themselves who staid at home were employed night and day in offering up their prayers for the happiness and prosperity of the state. The speaker answered with a smile, that he thought the prayers of the church but a very slender supply. The archbishop, however, prevailed in the dispute; the king discouraged the application of the commons; and the lords rejected the bill which the lower house had framed for despoiling the church of her revenues. The commons were not discouraged by this repulse. In 1410, they returned to the charge with more zeal than before. They made a calculation of all the ecclesiastical revenues, which, by their account, amounted to 485,000 marks a-year, and included 18,420 ploughs of land. They proposed to divide this property among 15 new earls, 1500 knights, 6000 esquires, and 100 hospitals; besides 20,000 a-year, which the king might keep for his own use; and they insisted that the clerical functions would be better performed than at present, by 15,000 parish priests, at the rate of 7 marks a-piece of yearly stipend. This application was accompanied with an address for mitigating the statutes enacted against the Wickliffites or Lollards, so that the king knew very well from what source it came. He gave the commons, however, a severe reply; and further to satisfy the church that he was in earnest, ordered a Lollard to be burnt before the dissolution of parliament.
The king had been for some time subject to fits, which continued to increase, and gradually brought him to his end. He expired at Westminster in 1413, in the 46th year of his age, and the 13th of his reign. He was succeeded by his son Henry V. whose martial talents and character had at first occasioned unreasonable jealousies in the mind of his father, so that he thought proper to exclude him from all share of public business. The active spirit of Henry being thus restrained from its proper exercise, broke out in every kind of extravagance and dissipation. It is even reported, that, when heated with liquor, he scrupled not to accompany his riotous associates in attacking the passengers on the streets and highways, and robbing them of their goods. No sooner, however, did he ascend the throne, than he called together his former companions, acquainted them with his intended reformation, exhorted them to imitate his example; but strictly prohibited them, till they had given proofs of their sincerity in this particular, to appear any more in his presence: after which, he dismissed them with liberal presents. His father's wife ministers, who had checked his riots, found that they had, unknown to themselves, been paying the highest court to their sovereign, and were received with all the marks of favour and confidence. The chief justice, who had formerly imprisoned the prince himself, and therefore trembled to approach the royal presence, met with
England. praises instead of reproaches for his past conduct, and was exhorted to persevere in the same rigorous and impartial execution of the laws. The king was not only anxious to repair his own misconduct, but also to make amends for those iniquities into which policy or necessity of affairs had betrayed his father. He expressed the deepest sorrow for the fate of the unhappy King Richard, and even performed his funeral obsequies with pomp and solemnity, and heaped favours upon all those who had shown themselves attached to him. He took into favour the young earl of March, though his competitor for the throne; and gained so far on his gentle and unambitious nature, that he remained ever after sincerely attached to him. The family of Piercy was restored to its fortune and honours; and the king seemed desirous to bury all distinctions in oblivion. Men of merit were preferred, whatever party they had been of; all men were unanimous in their attachment to Henry; and the defects of his title were forgotten amidst the personal regard which was universally paid him.
The only party which Henry was not able to overcome was the new sect of Lollards, or reformers of religion. These were now gaining such ground in England, that the Romish clergy were greatly alarmed, and Henry was determined to execute the laws upon them. The head of that party at present was Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham; a nobleman who had distinguished himself by his valour and military talents on many occasions, and acquired the esteem both of the late and present king. His high character and zeal for the new sect pointed him out to Arundel archbishop of Canterbury as a proper object of ecclesiastical fury, and therefore he applied to Henry for permission to indict him. The king desired him first to try gentle methods, and undertook to converse with Lord Cobham himself upon religious subjects. He did so, but could not prevail, and therefore abandoned Cobham to his enemies. He was immediately condemned to the flames: but having found means to make his escape, he raised an insurrection; which was soon suppressed, without any other consequence than that of bringing a stain on the sect to which he belonged. Cobham himself made his escape, but four years afterwards was taken and executed as a traitor. Immediately after, the most severe laws were passed against the Lollards. It was enacted, that whoever was convicted of Lollardy, besides suffering capital punishment according to the laws formerly established, should also forfeit his lands and goods to the king; and that the chancellor, treasurer, justices of the two benches, sheriffs, justices of the peace, and all the chief magistrates in every city and borough, should take an oath to use their utmost endeavours for the extirpation of heresy.
Notwithstanding these terrible laws, the very parliament which enacted them, namely that of 1414, when the king demanded a supply, renewed the offer formerly pressed upon Henry IV. and intreated the king to seize all the ecclesiastical revenues, and convert them to the use of the crown. The clergy were greatly alarmed. They could offer the king nothing of equal value. They agreed, however, to confer on him all the priories alien, which depended on capital abbeys in Normandy, and which had been bequeathed to them
VOL. VIII. Part I.
when that province was united to England. The most effectual method, however, of warding off the blow at present was by persuading the king to undertake a war with France, in order to recover the provinces in that kingdom which had formerly belonged to England. This was agreeable to the dying injunction of Henry IV. He advised his son never to let the English remain long in peace, which was apt to breed intestine commotions; but to employ them in foreign expeditions, by which the prince might acquire honour, the nobility in sharing his dangers might attach themselves to his person, and all the restless spirits find occupation for their inquietude. The natural disposition of Henry sufficiently inclined him to follow this advice, and the civil disorders of France gave him the fairest prospect of success. Accordingly, in 1415, France invaded the king invaded France at the head of 30,000 men. The great progress he made there is related at length under the article FRANCE. He had espoused the king's daughter, and conquered the greatest part of the kingdom. His queen was delivered of a son named Henry, whose birth was celebrated by the greatest rejoicings both at London and Paris; and the infant prince seemed to be universally regarded as heir to both monarchies. But Henry's glory, when it seemed to be approaching the summit, was blasted at once by death, and all his mighty projects vanished. He was seized with a fitful, a distemper which at that time the physicians had not skill enough to cure; and he expired on the 31st of August 1422, in the 34th year of his age, and the 10th of his reign.
Death of Henry V. Henry VI. succeeded to the throne before he was quite a year old, and his reign affords only the most dismal accounts of misfortunes and civil wars. His relations very soon began to dispute about the administration during the minority. The duke of Bedford, one of the most accomplished princes of the age, was appointed by parliament protector of England, defender of the church, and first counsellor to the king. His brother, the duke of Gloucester, was fixed upon to govern in his absence, while he conducted the war in France; and in order to limit the power of both brothers, a council was named, without whose advice and approbation no measure could be carried into execution.
The kingdom of France was now in the most desperate situation. The English were masters of almost the whole of it. Henry VI. though but an infant, was solemnly invested with regal power by legates from Paris; so that Charles VII. of France succeeded only to a nominal kingdom. With all these great advantages, however, the English daily lost ground; and in the year 1450 were totally expelled from France*. It may easily be imagined, that such a train of bad success would produce discontents among the rulers at home. The duke of Gloucester was envied by many on account of his high station. Among these was Henry Beaufort, bishop of Winchester, great uncle to the king, and the legitimate son of John of Gaunt brother to Richard II. The prelate, to whom the care of the king's education had been committed, was a man of great capacity and experience, but of an intriguing and dangerous disposition. He had frequent disputes with the duke of Gloucester, over whom he gained several advantages on account of his open temper. The duke of Bedford
England. ford employed both his own authority and that of parliament to reconcile them, but in vain; their mutual animosities served for several years to embarrass government, and to give its enemies every advantage. The sentiments of the two leaders were particularly divided with regard to France. The bishop laid hold of every prospect of accommodation with that country; and the duke of Gloucester was for maintaining the honour of the English arms, and regaining whatever had been lost by defeats or delay. Both parties called in all the auxiliaries they could. The bishop resolved to strengthen himself by procuring a proper match for Henry, at that time 23 years old; and then bringing over the queen to his interests. Accordingly, the earl of Suffolk, a nobleman whom he knew to be steadfast in his attachments, was sent over to France, apparently to settle the terms of a truce which had then been begun, but in reality to procure a suitable match for the king.
201 Married to Margaret of Anjou. The bishop and his friends had cast their eyes on Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Regnier, titular king of Sicily, Naples, and Jerusalem; but without either real power or possessions. She was considered as the most accomplished princess of the age, both in mind and person; and it was thought would, by her own abilities, be able to supply the defects of her husband, who appeared weak, timid, and superstitious. The treaty was therefore hastened on by Suffolk, and soon after ratified in England. The queen came immediately into the bishop's measures: Gloucester was deprived of all real power, and every method taken to render him odious to the public. One step taken for this purpose was to accuse his duchess of witchcraft. She was charged with conversing with one Roger Bolingbroke, a priest and reputed necromancer; and also with one Mary Gourdain, who was said to be a witch. It was asserted that these three in conjunction had made an image of the king in wax, which was placed before a gentle fire: and as the wax dissolved, the king's strength was expected to waver; and upon its total dissolution, his life was to be at an end. This accusation was readily believed in that superstitious age. The prisoners were pronounced guilty; the duchess was condemned to do penance and suffer perpetual imprisonment; Bolingbroke the priest was hanged, and the woman burnt in Smithfield.
202 Duke of Gloucester murdered. The bishop, called also the Cardinal, of Winchester, was resolved to carry his resentment against Gloucester to the utmost. He procured a parliament to be summoned, not at London, which was too well affected to the duke, but at St Edmundbury, where his adherents were sufficiently numerous to overawe every opponent. As soon as Gloucester appeared, he was accused of treason and thrown into prison; and on the day on which he was to make his defence, he was found dead in his bed, though without any signs of violence upon his body.
The death of the duke of Gloucester was universally ascribed to the cardinal of Winchester, who himself died six weeks after, testifying the utmost remorse for the bloody scene he had acted. What share the queen had in this transaction, is uncertain: but most people believed that without her knowledge the duke's enemies durst not have ventured to take away his life. The king himself shared in the general ill-will, and he
never had the art to remove the suspicion. His incapacity also began every day to appear more clearly, and a pretender to the throne soon made his appearance. England.
203 In the year 1450, Richard duke of York began to think of preferring his claims to the crown. All the York's title males of the house of Mortimer were extinct; but Anne, the sister of the last earl of March, having espoused the earl of Cambridge, who had been beheaded for treason in the reign of Henry V. had transmitted her latent, but not yet forgotten claim, to her son Richard. This prince, descended by his mother from Philippa, only daughter of the duke of Clarence, second son of Edward III. stood plainly in order of succession before the king; who derived his descent from the duke of Lancaster, third son of that monarch. The duke was a man of valour and abilities, as well as of some ambition; and he thought the weakness and unpopularity of the present reign afforded a favourable opportunity to assert his title. The ensign of Richard was a white rose, that of Henry a red one; and this gave names to the two factions, who were now about to drench the kingdom in blood.
204 After the cardinal of Winchester's death, the duke of Suffolk, who also had been concerned in the assassination of Gloucester, governed every thing with uncontrollable sway. His conduct soon excited the jealousy of the other nobility, and every odious or unsuccessful measure was attributed to him. The duke, however, imagining that his crimes were of such a nature as could not be proved, boldly called upon his enemies to show an instance of his guilt. The house of commons immediately opened against him a charge of corruption, tyranny, and treason. He was accused of being the cause of the loss of France; of perfusing the French king, with an armed force, to invade England; and of betraying the secrets of state. The popular resentment against him was so strong, that Henry, in order to secure him as much as possible, sentenced him to five years banishment. This was considered by his enemies as an escape from justice. The captain of a ship was therefore employed to intercept him in his passage to France. He was seized near Dover, his head struck off on the side of a long-boat, and his body thrown into the sea. 205 And mur-
206 The complaints against Henry's government were heightened by an insurrection headed by one John Cade, a native of Ireland. He had been obliged to fly over into France for his crimes: but, on his return, seeing the people prepared for violent measures, he assumed the name of Mortimer; and, at the head of 20,000 Kentish men, advanced towards Blackheath. The king sent a message to demand the cause of their rising in arms. Cade in the name of the community answered, That their only aim was to punish evil ministers, and procure a redress of grievances for the people. On this a body of 15,000 troops was levied; and Henry marched with them in person against Cade, who retired on his approach, as if he had been afraid of coming to an engagement. He lay in ambush, however, in a wood; not doubting but he should be pursued by the king's whole army: but Henry was content with sending a detachment after the fugitives, and returned to London himself; upon which Cade issued from his ambuscade, and cut the detachment in pieces. Soon
Soon after, the citizens of London opened their gates to the victor; and Cade, for some time, maintained great order and regularity among his followers. He always led them out into the fields in the night-time, and published several edicts against plunder and violence of any kind. He was not, however, long able to keep his people in subjection. He beheaded the treasurer Lord Say, without any trial; and soon after, his troops committing some irregularities, the citizens resolved to shut their gates against him. Cade endeavouring to force his way, a battle ensued, which lasted all day, and was ended only by the approach of night. The archbishop of Canterbury, and the chancellor, who had taken refuge in the tower, being informed of the situation of affairs, drew up, during the night, an act of amnesties, which was privately dispersed among the rebels. This had such an effect, that in the morning Cade found himself abandoned by his followers; and retreating to Rochester, was obliged to fly alone into the woods. A price being set on his head by proclamation, he was discovered and slain by one Alexander Eden; who, in recompense for this service, was made governor of Dover castle.
The court now began to entertain suspicions that the insurrection of John Cade had not happened merely in consequence of his own machinations and ambition, but that he had been instigated thereto by the duke of York, who, as we have already seen, pretended a right to the crown. As he was about this time expected to return from Ireland, and a report took place that he was now to assert his supposed right by force of arms, orders were issued in the king's name to deny him entrance into England. This was prevented by his appearing with no more than his ordinary attendants; but though he thus escaped the danger for the present, he instantly saw the necessity of proceeding in support of his claim. His partizans were instructed to distinguish between his right by succession and by the laws of the kingdom. The adherents of Lancaster maintained, that though the advancement of Henry IV. might be looked upon as irregular, yet it was founded upon general consent; or, even allowing it to have been at first invalid, it had now been for a long time established, and acquired solidity of consequence; nor could the right of succession at any rate be pleaded for the purpose of overthrowing the general peace and tranquillity of the kingdom. The principles of liberty as well as the maxims of true policy had been injured by the house of York; while the public were bound to those of Lancaster, no less by political than moral duty, in consequence of the oaths of fealty that had been so often sworn to them; the duke of York himself having repeatedly sworn allegiance to them, and thus indirectly renounced those claims which he now brought forward to disturb the public tranquillity. On the part of the duke of York, it was replied, that the good of the people required the maintenance of order in the succession of princes; that, by adhering constantly to this rule, a number of inconveniences would be prevented which must otherwise ensue; and though that order had been broken through in the case of Henry IV. it was never too late to remedy any pernicious precedent. It would indeed be a great encourage-
ment to usurpers, if the immediate possession of power, or their continuance in it for a few years, could convert them into legal princes; and the people must be in a very miserable situation, if all restraints on violence and ambition were taken off, and full liberty given to every innovator to make what attempts he pleased. They did not indeed deny that time might confer solidity on a government originally founded in usurpation; but a very long course of years was not only required for this purpose, but a total extinction of those who had any just title. The deposition of Richard II. and advancement of Henry IV. were not legal acts, but the effects of mere levity in the people; in which the house of York had acquiesced from necessity, and not from any belief of the justice of their cause; nor could this be ever interpreted into any renunciation of their pretensions; neither could the restoration of the true order of succession be considered as an encouragement to rebellion and turbulence, but the correction of a former abuse by which rebellion had been encouraged. Besides, the original title of Henry IV. was founded entirely on present convenience; and even this was now entirely shifted to the house of York. The present prince was evidently incapable of governing the kingdom by reason of his imbecility; so that every thing was governed either by corrupt ministers or an imperious queen, who engaged the nation in foreign connections entirely contrary to its interests; while, on the other hand, the true heir of the crown was a prince of approved judgment and experience, and a native of England, who, by his restoration, would undoubtedly correct all those abuses of which there was now such just reason to complain.
In this dispute it was evident that the house of York had the better in point of argument: nevertheless, as a prince of the house of Lancaster was in immediate possession of the throne, and could by no means be charged with any crime, the cause of the former was less generally interesting; especially as it must always have been uncertain, a priori, whether the duke of York would have governed any better than King Henry. After his return from Ireland, however, the former used all his power and influence to foment the discontent which had for some time prevailed in the kingdom; and the conduct of the next parliament manifested the success of his intrigues. A violent attack was made upon such noblemen as were known to be most in favour with the king. The house of commons presented a petition against the duke of Somerset, the duchess of Suffolk, the bishop of Chester, Lord Dudley, and several others of inferior rank; praying not only that the king would remove them from his council, but that he would prohibit them from coming within twelve miles of the court. Henry, not daring to refuse this petition altogether, consented to banish all those of inferior rank, whom the commons had specified, but only for a year; and this too on condition that he had no use for their assistance in quelling any rebellion. But he rejected a bill for attainting the late duke of Suffolk, and proposed some other measures which seemed to militate against the court, though it had passed both the house of lords and the house of commons.
and his parliament, the duke of York raised an army of 10,000 men, with whom he marched towards London, demanding a reformation in matters of government, and the removal of the duke of Somerset. This first enterprise, however, proved unsuccessful; the gates of the city were shut against him, and he was pursued by the king at the head of a superior army. On this he retired into Kent; and as there was a number of his own friends in the army of the king, a conference took place, in which Richard still insisted upon the removal of the duke of Somerset, and his submitting to be tried in parliament. This request, was in appearance complied with, and Somerset arrested; the duke of York was then persuaded to wait upon the king in his royal pavilion; but, on repeating his charge against the duke, he was surprised to see the latter come out from behind the curtain, and offer to maintain his innocence. Richard perceiving that he had not sufficient interest to ruin his adversary, pretended to be satisfied, and retired to his seat at Wigmore in Wales; and during the time he resided there, a better opportunity was given him of accomplishing his designs than he could have hoped for. The king fell into a kind of lethargic disorder, which increased his natural imbecility to such a degree, that he could no longer retain a shadow of royalty. Richard now had interest enough to get himself appointed protector, with power to hold parliaments at pleasure; with which high office he was no sooner invested, than he turned out all the Lancastrian party from their offices, and sent the duke of Somerset to the tower; but on the recovery of the king, which happened in no long time after, he himself was dismissed from his employment, the duke of Somerset released, and the administration once more put into his hands. On this the duke of York levied an army, merely as he pretended, to enforce the reformation of government and the removal of the duke of Somerset. Thus Henry, though sore against his will, was obliged to face him in the field. A battle ensued at St Alban's; in which the royalists were defeated, and the duke of Somerset, the chief partisan of their cause, killed in the action. The king himself was wounded, and took shelter in a cottage near the field of battle; where he was taken prisoner, but was afterwards treated with great respect and kindness by the duke of York.
Henry, though he was now only a prisoner treated with the forms of royalty, was nevertheless pleased with his situation; but his queen, a woman of a bold and masculine spirit, could not bear to have only the appearance of authority, while others enjoyed all the real power. She therefore excited the king once more to assert his right by force of arms; and after several manoeuvres, the duke of York was obliged to retire from court. A negotiation for peace was at first set on foot, but the mutual distrusts of both parties soon broke it off. The armies met at Bloreheath on the borders of Staffordshire, on the 23d of September 1459; and the Yorkists at first gained some advantages. But when a more general engagement was about to ensue, a body of veterans who served under the duke of York deserted to the king; and this so intimidated the duke's party, that they separated the next day without striking a blow. The
duke of York fled to Ireland; and the earl of Warwick, one of his ablest and best supporters, escaped to Calais, with the government of which he had been entrusted during the late protectorship.
The York party, though thus in appearance suppressed, only waited a favourable opportunity of retrieving their affairs. Nor was this opportunity long wanting. Warwick having met with some successes at sea, landed in Kent; and being there joined by other barons, marched up to London amidst the acclamations of the people. The city immediately opened its gates to him, and he soon found himself in a condition to face the royal army. An engagement ensued at Northampton on the 10th of July 1460; in which the royalists were entirely defeated, and the king again taken prisoner. The duke of York then openly laid claim to the crown; and on this occasion the first instance of a spirit of national liberty is said to have appeared in the house of lords. The cause of Henry and the duke of York was solemnly debated; and the latter, though a conqueror, did not absolutely gain his cause. It was determined that Henry should possess the throne during his life; and that the duke of York should be appointed his successor, to the utter exclusion of the prince of Wales, who was then a child.
Though the royal party now seemed destitute of every resource, the queen still retained her intrepidity. She fled into Wales, where she endeavoured to raise another army. The northern barons, provoked at the southern ones for settling the government and succession to the crown without their consent, soon furnished her with an army of 20,000 men. Another battle was fought near Wakefield Green, on the 24th of December 1460. The Yorkists were defeated, and the duke of York himself was killed in the action. His head was afterwards cut off by the queen's orders, and fixed on one of the gates of York, with a paper-crown, in description of his pretended title. His son the earl of Rutland, a youth of 17, was taken prisoner, and killed in cold blood by Lord Clifford, in revenge for his father's death, who had fallen in the battle of St Alban's.
After this victory, Margaret marched towards London, in order to set the king at liberty; but the earl of Warwick, who now put himself at the head of the Yorkists, led about the captive king, in order to give a sanction to his proceedings. He engaged the queen's forces at St Alban's; but through the treachery of Lord Lovelace, who deserted during the heat of the engagement with a considerable body of forces, Warwick was defeated, and the king fell once more into the hands of his own party.
The submission of the city of London seemed now to be the only thing wanting to complete the queen's success; but Warwick had secured it in his interests, and the citizens refused to open their gates to the queen. In the mean time, young Edward, eldest son of the late duke of York, put himself at the head of his father's party. He was now in the bloom of youth, remarkable for the beauty of his person and his bravery, and was a great favourite of the people. He defeated Jasper Tudor, earl of Pembroke, at Mortimer's cross in Herefordshire. The earl himself was taken prisoner, and immediately beheaded by Edward's orders.
England: ders. After this, he advanced to London; and being
216 Edward IV. joined by the remainder of Warwick's army, he soon
obliged Margaret to retire, entered the city amidst the
acclamations of the people, and was crowned king on
the 5th of March 1461.
Notwithstanding all her misfortunes, however, Marg-
aret still continued undaunted. She retired to the
north, where she was soon joined by such numbers,
that her army amounted to 60,000 men. She was
217 Affairs of the queen
totally ruined. opposed by young Edward and Warwick at the head
of 40,000; and both armies met near Touton in the
county of York, on the 29th of March 1461. A
bloody battle ensued, in which the queen's army was
totally defeated; and as Edward, prompted by his natu-
ral cruelty, had ordered no quarter to be given,
40,000 of the Lancastrians were slain in the field or in
the pursuit. Edward is said to have gained this vic-
tory by means of a violent storm of snow, which blew
full in the face of the queen's army, and so blinded
them that they could scarcely make any use of their
arms. After this disaster the queen fled to Scotland
with her husband and son; and notwithstanding all the
misfortunes she had already met with, resolved once
more to enter England at the head of 5000 men
granted her by the king of France. But even here she
was attended by her usual bad fortune. Her little
fleet was dispersed by a tempest, and she herself es-
caped with the utmost difficulty by entering the mouth
of the Tweed. Soon after, a defeat, which her few
forces sustained at Hexham, seemed to render her
cause entirely desperate; and the cruelties practised
upon all her adherents rendered it very dangerous to
befriend her.
218 Adventures
of the king
and queen. By these repeated misfortunes the house of Lancas-
ter was so effectually ruined, that Margaret was obliged
to separate from her husband, and both of them to
shift for themselves the best way they could. The king
was still protected by some of his friends, who convey-
ed him to Lancashire, where he remained in safety for
a twelvemonth; but being at last discovered, he was
thrown into the Tower and kept close prisoner. The
queen fled with her son to a forest, where she was set
upon by robbers, who stripped her of her rings and
jewels, treating her otherwise with the utmost indigni-
ty. A quarrel which happened among them about the
division of the spoil afforded her an opportunity of es-
caping from their hands into another part of the forest,
where she wandered for some time without knowing
what to do. At last, when quite spent with hunger and
fatigue, she saw a robber coming up to her with a drawn
sword in his hand. Finding it altogether impossible to
escape, she suddenly took the resolution of putting her-
self under his protection. Advancing towards him,
therefore, and presenting the young prince, "Here
(says she), my friend, I commit to your care the safety
of your king's son." This address so much surprised
the robber, that, instead of offering her any injury, he
professed himself entirely devoted to her service. After
living for some time concealed in the forest, she was at
219 The queen
retires to
Flanders. last conducted to the sea-side, where she found a ship
which conveyed her to Flanders. On her arrival there,
she went to her father's house, who, though very poor,
gave her such entertainment as he could afford; and in
this retreat she stayed some years in expectation of find-
ing an opportunity of retrieving her affairs.
Edward, in the mean time, thinking himself se-
curely fixed on the throne, gave a loose to his fa-
vourite passions; one of which was an immoderate love
of women. To divert him from this, the earl of
Warwick, to whom he was indebted for his crown, ad-
220 Warwick
vised him to marry. Edward consented, and sent him
over to the continent to negotiate a match with the
princess of Savoy. The negotiation proved successful;
but, in the mean time, the king had privately espoused
Elizabeth Woodville, daughter to Sir Philip Wood-
ville, who had married the duchess of Bedford after the
death of her first husband. Edward had employed his
arts of seduction against this lady in vain before he
married her; but unfortunately the match was conclud-
ed just at the time that the earl of Warwick had pro-
ved successful in his negotiation with the princess of
Savoy. The minister therefore returned full of indig-
nation against his sovereign: and Edward, forgetting
how great cause he had to be offended, determined to re-
move him entirely from his councils. Warwick was like-
wise disgusted by the favour shown to the queen's par-
ty; which, though certainly a piece of very commenda-
ble policy in Edward, was entirely disagreeable to the
ambitious disposition of that nobleman. A plan of re-
venge was therefore thought of; and a most powerful
combination was formed against Edward: to accomplish
which, Warwick not only employed his own influence,
221 The king's
brother
joins in the
conspiracy
against him. which was very extensive, but likewise that of the duke
of Clarence, Edward's brother, to whom the earl had al-
lied himself by giving him his daughter in marriage; after
which he persuaded him to embrace his cause. Some cir-
cumstances which took place about this time also favour-
ed the scheme. The inhabitants about St Leonard's in
Yorkshire complained, that the duties levied for that in-
220 An inur-
sultation, and which had been originally appointed for
pious purposes, were secreted by the managers, who
refused to contribute their part. As the clergy were
concerned in this affair, they attempted to silence their
antagonists by ecclesiastical fulminations against them;
upon which the latter took up arms, fell upon the offi-
cers of the hospital, and having massacred them, pro-
ceeded towards York, to the number of 15,000. In
the first skirmish, they had the misfortune to lose
their leader, who was instantly executed. The rebels,
however, still continued in arms, and in a short time
appeared in such numbers as to become formidable
to government. Henry earl of Pembroke was sent
against them with a body of 5000 men; and having
taken Sir Henry Nevil, one of the leaders of the in-
surgents, prisoner, instantly put him to death; but this
was soon revenged by a similar execution on himself,
who happened to be defeated and taken prisoner a short
time after. This defeat had been occasioned by a dis-
agreement betwixt the earls of Pembroke and Devon-
shire; in consequence of which the latter had gone off
with his troops, leaving Pembroke to shift for himself
the best way he could. The king, enraged at this,
caused Devonshire to be executed in a like summary
manner: but this was of no service to his cause; a new
body of insurgents appeared under Sir Robert Welles,
son to a nobleman of that name. The latter, in order
to secure himself from all suspicions of disloyalty, fled
to a monastery; but he was soon enticed from thence
and put to death by the insidious promises of King Ed-
ward, whose treachery was equal to his cruelty. His
son.
soon after shared the same fate, being defeated and taken prisoner by Edward, who instantly ordered him to be beheaded, along with Sir Thomas Launde and other persons of distinction.
Notwithstanding such an appearance of a general insurrection, the king had so little suspicion of the loyalty of Warwick and Clarence, that he employed them in raising troops to quell the insurgents. Instead of executing their commission with fidelity, however, they joined the malecontents with all the forces they could raise; but being quite disconcerted by the defeat and death of Sir Robert Welles, they retired to Lancashire, in hopes of being joined by Lord Stanley, who had married the earl of Warwick's sister. Being disappointed in this, they were obliged to disband their army, and fly into Devonshire, whence they set sail for Calais. Upon their arrival on the continent, matters seemed not to be much mended: the deputy-governor, whom Warwick had left, refused him admittance; nor would he even allow the duchess of Clarence to land, though she had been delivered of a son on board only a very few days before, and was at that time extremely ill. Being well acquainted, however, with the uncertainty of the affairs of England at that time, he afterwards made an apology to Warwick for this behaviour. The latter pretended to be easily reconciled; but immediately left the place, having seized some Flemish vessels which he found lying in the neighbourhood.
As a very close alliance subsisted between Warwick and the duke of Burgundy, the king of France became uneasy; and therefore, as soon as the earl landed in his dominions, received him with the greatest marks of esteem. The reconciliation betwixt him and the unfortunate Queen Margaret now seemed to be natural, though, considering all circumstances, this must have formerly appeared in a manner impossible. The earl's father had been put to death by the orders of Margaret; and Warwick, in return, had twice taken prisoner King Henry, banished the queen, and put to death almost all their faithful adherents. By the mediation of the French monarch, however, all differences were accommodated. A fleet was prepared to reconduct them to England; and seizing a proper opportunity, they landed at Dartmouth with a small body of troops, while Edward was in the north suppressing an insurrection which had lately appeared there. Warwick was attended with astonishing success on his arrival in England, and in less than six days saw himself at the head of 60,000 men. Edward was now obliged in his turn to fly the kingdom. Having narrowly escaped an attempt made upon his person by the marquis of Montague, he embarked on board a small fleet which lay off Lynn in Norfolk. While at sea, he was chased by some ships belonging to the Hans Towns that were then at war both with France and England; but at length, having escaped all dangers, Edward landed safely in Holland, where he met with but an indifferent reception from the duke of Burgundy, with whom he had lately entered into an alliance.
Warwick in the mean time advanced to London, and once more released and placed on the throne the miserable king Henry VI. A parliament was called, which very solemnly confirmed Henry's title to the throne, and Warwick himself was dignified by the people with the title of the king-maker. All the at-
tainers of the Lancastrians were reversed; and every one was restored who had lost either honours or fortune by his former adherence to Henry's cause. All the adherents of Edward fled to the continent, or took shelter in monasteries, where they were protected by the ecclesiastical privileges. But Edward's party was not yet destroyed. After an absence of nine months, being seconded by a small body of troops granted him by the duke of Burgundy, he made a descent at Ravenspur in Yorkshire. At first he met with little success; but his army increasing on his march, he was soon in a condition to appear before the capital, which immediately opened its gates.
The unfortunate Henry was thus again plucked from the throne; and the hopes of Warwick were almost totally blasted by the defection of Clarence, Edward's brother. Nothing now remained but to come to an engagement as soon as possible. Warwick knew his forces to be inferior to those of Edward, but placed great dependence on his own generalship. He therefore advanced to Barnet, within ten miles of London, where he resolved to wait the coming of Edward. The latter soon came up with him, and on the 14th of April 1471 a most obstinate and bloody battle was fought. Edward, according to custom, had ordered no quarter to be given; and obtained the victory through a mistake of a body of Warwick's forces, who fell with fury on their own party instead of the enemy. The earl himself was slain, together with his brother, and 10,000 of his bravest followers.
The queen was just then returned with her son from France, where she had been soliciting supplies. She had scarce time to refresh herself from the fatigues of the voyage, when she received the fatal news of the death of Warwick, and the total destruction of her party. All her resolution was not able to support her under such a terrible disaster. Her grief now for the first time, it is said, manifested itself by her tears; and she immediately took sanctuary in the abbey of Beaulieu in Hampshire. Here she still found some friends willing to assist her. Tudor earl of Pembroke, Courtney earl of Devonshire, the lords Wenlock and St John, with some other men of rank, encouraged her yet to hope for success, and promised to stand by her to the last. On this assurance, she resumed her courage; and advancing through the counties of Devon, Somerset, and Gloucester, increased her army every day. At last, however, she was overtaken by Edward with his victorious army at Tewkesbury, on the banks of the Severn. The queen's army was totally defeated; the earl of Devonshire and Lord Wenlock were killed in the field; the duke of Somerset, and about 20 other persons of distinction, who had taken shelter in a church, were surrounded, dragged out, and immediately beheaded; about 3000 of their party fell in battle, and the army was entirely dispersed. Queen Margaret and her son were taken prisoners, and brought to the king. Total destruction of the queen's party. who asked the prince in an insulting manner, how he dared to invade his dominions? The young prince replied, that he came thither to claim his just inheritance; upon which Edward struck him on the face with his gauntlet. The dukes of Clarence and Gloucester, Lord Haflings, and Sir Thomas Gray, taking this blow as a signal for farther violence, hurried the prince into the next apartment, and there dispatched him with their
England. their daggers. Margaret was thrown into the tower along with her husband Henry, who expired in that confinement a few days after. It was universally believed that he was murdered by the duke of Gloucester, though of this there was no direct evidence. Margaret was ransomed by the king of France for 50,000 crowns, and died a few years after in a most miserable situation.
Edward being now freed from all his enemies, began to inflict punishment on those who had formerly appeared against him. Among the cruelties he committed, that on his brother the duke of Clarence was the most remarkable. The king happening to be one day hunting in the park of Thomas Burdet, a servant of the duke, killed a white buck which was a great favourite of the owner. Burdet, vexed at the loss, broke out into a passion, and wished the horns of the deer in the belly of the person who advised the king to that insult. For this exclamation Burdet was tried for his life, and executed at Tyburn. The duke of Clarence exclaimed against the iniquity of this sentence; upon which he was arraigned before the house of peers, found guilty, and condemned to death. The only favour granted him was to have the choice of his death; and his choice was a very singular one, namely, to be drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine; which was accordingly done.—The rest of this reign affords little else than a history of the king's amours. Among his many mistresses, Jane Shore was the most remarkable; (see SHORE). The king died on the 9th of April 1482, in the 42d year of his age, and 21st of his reign, counting from his first assuming the crown. Besides five daughters, he left two sons; Edward prince of Wales, his successor, then in his 13th year; and Richard duke of York in his 9th.
228
Edward V. On the death of Edward IV. the kingdom was divided into new factions. The queen's family, which, during the last reign, had come into power, was become obnoxious to the old nobility, who considered them as their inferiors. The king had endeavoured to prevent these animosities from coming to a height, by desiring on his death-bed that his brother Richard duke of Gloucester should be entrusted with the regency; and recommended peace and unanimity during the minority of his son. But the king was no sooner dead than the former resentment between these parties broke out with violence; and the duke of Gloucester, who was endowed with almost every bad quality, resolved to profit by their contentions. His first step was to get himself declared protector of the realm; and having arrested the earl of Rivers, the king's uncle and guardian, he met young Edward in his way from Ludlow castle, where the late king had resided during the latter part of his reign, and respectfully offered to conduct him to London. Having thus secured the person of the king, he next got possession of his brother's person also. The queen had retired with this child into Westminster abbey; and it was not without extreme regret that she delivered him up at the intercession of the primate and archbishop of York.
229
Duke of Gloucester declared protector. In a few days after Gloucester had made himself master of the persons of the two princes, he had them confined in the tower, under pretence of guarding them from danger; and soon after spread reports of their illegitimacy, and by pretended obstacles put off the
young king's coronation. Lord Stanley first began to suspect his designs; and communicated his suspicions to Lord Hastings, who had long been firmly attached to the king's family. Lord Hastings would not at first give credit to this surmise; but he very soon had a fatal proof of the truth of what had been communicated to him. On the 13th of June 1483, he was hurried out of the council-room in the tower by Gloucester's order, and beheaded on a log of timber. The soldiers who carried him off made a bustle as though an attempt had been made to rescue him, and one of them discharged a blow at Lord Stanley's head with a pole-axe; but he happily escaped by shrinking under the table. The same day were executed the Earl Rivers, and some others, who had committed no other crime than being faithful to the young king.
The protector now thought he might with safety lay claim to the throne. He had previously gained over the duke of Buckingham, a nobleman of great influence among the people. He used his utmost endeavours to inspire the people with a notion of the illegitimate birth of the late king, and consequently of his children. Dr Shaw, a popular preacher, was also hired to harangue the people to the same purpose from St Paul's cross. Having expatiated on the incontinence of the queen, and the illegality of the young king's title, he then made a panegyric on the virtues of the protector. "It is the protector (continued he) who carries in his face the image of virtue, and the marks of a true descent. He alone can restore the lost glory and honour of the nation." It was hoped that upon this occasion some of the populace would have cried out, "Long live King Richard!" but the audience remaining silent, the duke of Buckingham undertook in his turn to persuade them. Having expatiated on the calamities of the last reign and the illegitimacy of the present race, he told the people, that he saw only one method of warding off the miseries which threatened the state, which was by electing the protector; but he seemed apprehensive that he would never be prevailed upon to accept a crown accompanied with such difficulty and danger. He next asked his auditors, whether they would have the protector for their king? but was mortified to find that a total silence ensued. The mayor, who was in the secret, willing to relieve him in this embarrassed situation, observed, that the citizens were not accustomed to be harangued by a man of his quality, and would only give an answer to their recorder. This officer, therefore, repeated the duke's speech; but the people continuing still silent, "This is strange obliuinity (cried the duke): we only require of you, in plain terms, to declare, whether or not you will have the duke of Gloucester for your king; as the lords and commons have sufficient power without your concurrence? At this, some of the meanest apprentices, incited by the servants of the protector and Buckingham, raised a feeble cry of "God save King Richard!" The mob at the door repeated the cry; and throwing up their caps into the air, cried out, "A Richard! A Richard!" After this farce was acted, Buckingham, on the 24th of June 1483, waited on Richard with offers of the crown: but the protector, with hypocritical modesty, at first declined the offer; till being told, that the people, in case of his refusal, must look out for one that would be more compliant, he
England. he accepted the government of England and France, with a resolution, as he said, to defend the one and subdue the other.
230 Richard III. The first step taken by the new king was to send orders to Sir Robert Brackenbury governor of the tower, to put the young princes to death. But this he refused; and submissively answered that he knew not how to embroil his hands in innocent blood. A fit instrument for this purpose, however, was not long wanting. Sir James Tyrrel readily undertook the office; and Brackenbury was ordered to resign the keys to him for one night. Tyrrel choosing three associates, Slater, Deighton, and Forest, came in the night-time to the door of the chamber where the princes were lodged; and sending in the assassins, bid them execute their commission, while he himself staid without. They found the young princes in bed, and fallen into a sound sleep. The assassins smothered them with the bolster and pillows; after which they showed their naked bodies to Tyrrel, who ordered them to be buried at the stair-foot under a heap of stones (c).
231 Edward V. and his brother murdered.
Richard having thus secured himself on the throne by the most iniquitous methods, attempted to strengthen his interest by foreign alliances, and procuring the favour of the clergy at home by great indulgences; but he found his power threatened from a quarter where he least expected an attack. The duke of Buckingham, who had been so instrumental in raising him to the throne, did not think himself properly rewarded. He made a demand of some confiscated lands in Hereford, to which his family had an ancient claim. Richard either reluctantly complied with his request, or only granted it in part; so that a coolness soon ensued between them, and in a little time Buckingham came to a resolution of dethroning the monarch whom he had just raised. For some time he remained in doubt, whether he should assume the crown himself or set up another. At length he determined on the latter; and resolved to declare for Henry earl of Richmond, who was at that time an exile in Brittany, and was considered as the only surviving branch of the house of Lancaster. He was one of those who had the good fortune to escape the numerous massacres of the former reigns; but as he was a descendant of John of Gaunt by the female line, he was for that reason obnoxious to those in power. He had long lived in exile, and was once delivered over to the ambassadors of Edward IV. who were preparing to carry him to England; when the duke of Brittany, who delivered him, repented of what he had done, and took him from the ambassadors just as they were carrying him on ship-board. His right to the crown by succession was very doubtful: but the cruel behaviour of Richard inclined the people in general greatly to favour him; and, to give an additional strength to his title, a match was projected betwixt him and the princess Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of Edward IV. which, by uniting the two rival families, would put an end to those dissen-
fions which had so long filled the kingdom with bloodshed and confusion. Richard, in the mean time, from some reasons which have not been particularized by historians, began to entertain doubts of the fidelity of Buckingham, and determined to cut him off. For this purpose he sent for him to court: but Buckingham, instead of obeying the summons, fled into Wales, where he raised a considerable army, and forthwith set out to the eastward with a design to invade England. Richard hastened to meet him with what forces he could raise; but the march of Buckingham being retarded by a most uncommon inundation of the Severn which lasted 10 days, his troops were so disheartened at this event, that they almost all deserted him. The duke was therefore obliged to fly in distress, and Richard instantly set a price upon his head. Buckingham was now obliged to trust his life in the hands of an old servant of his own, named Barnier; but this man, tempted by the greatness of the reward, betrayed him to the sheriff of Shropshire, by whom he was seized and conducted to Richard at Salisbury, who caused him to be executed without delay. The earl of Richmond, in the mean time, had set sail from St Maloes with a body of 5000 men: but after his arrival in England, receiving the disagreeable news of Buckingham's misfortune, he set sail again for Bretagne; while Richard, emboldened by the bad success of his enemies, determined to confirm his title to the throne by calling a parliament, which till this time he had not ventured to do. At present matters were so circumstanced, that the parliament had no other resource than to comply with his desires, and acknowledge his right to the crown. An act was passed confirming the illegitimacy of Edward's children; and an attainder was also confirmed against the earl of Richmond; the duties of tonnage and freight were granted to the king for life; and his only son Edward, then about 12 years of age, was created prince of Wales. In return for these concessions, Richard passed several popular laws, particularly against the extorting of money by benevolences, and some others calculated to gain the good will of the opposite party. He paid his court also to the queen-dowager with such assiduity and success, that she left her sanctuary, and put herself and her daughters into his hands. The ambition and cruelty of this man indeed are said to have extinguished every sentiment of natural affection as well as humanity. He had married Anne, the second daughter of the earl of Warwick, and widow of Edward prince of Wales, whom he himself had murdered; but having born him but one son, who died about this time, he considered her as an invincible obstacle to the accomplishment of his desires; for which reason it was thought he put an end to her life by poison: and as he knew that the projected match between the earl of Richmond and the princess Elizabeth could only make the rivalship of the former any way formidable, he resolved to obtain a dispensation
(c) These circumstances are said to have been confessed in the succeeding reign, though the perpetrators escaped punishment. The bodies of the two princes were sought for without any success under the reign of Henry VII. but in the time of Charles II. the bones of two persons answering to their age were found in the spot where they were said to have been buried; which, being supposed to be the remains of these two unfortunate youths, they were buried under a marble monument in Westminster abbey.
England. tion from the pope for marrying her himself. The queen-dowager is even said to have come into this scheme, with a view to recover her power; but the princess herself always rejected his addresses with abhorrence. The refusal of the princess occasioned no small perplexity in Richard; and before he could determine on any proper method of accomplishing his purpose, he received news of Richmond's preparations for landing in England. These being soon accomplished, Henry set sail from Harlebur in Normandy, and landed without opposition, on the 17th of August 1485, at Milford haven in Wales. Richard, in the mean time, not knowing where the invasion was to take place, had posted himself at Nottingham; which being almost in the centre of the kingdom, was therefore proper for resisting any invader. Sir Rice ap Thomas and Sir Walter Herbert were commissioned by Richard to oppose his rival in Wales; but the former immediately deserted to him, and the latter made but a very feeble resistance. Richard instantly resolved to meet his antagonist, and to risk every thing on the event of a battle. Richmond, though he had not above 6000 men, and the king near double that number, did not decline the combat; being chiefly encouraged by the promises of Lord Stanley to join him with a body of 7000 men, and with whom he hovered at a little distance from the intended field of battle, seemingly indetermined to join either side.
The king having commanded his army to form themselves in order of battle, intrusted the van to the duke of Norfolk, while he himself, with the crown on his head, took the command of the main body. Lord Stanley in the mean time posted himself on one flank between the two armies, while his brother Sir William took his station directly opposite. As his intention of either joining the enemy or keeping neutral during the time of the engagement was now far from being doubtful, Richard sent him orders to join the main body; which not being complied with, the tyrant determined to put to death Stanley's son, who had been left with him as a pledge of his father's fidelity. He was persuaded, however, to defer the execution till after the engagement, that Stanley might thereby be induced to delay his purpose in joining the enemy. This, however did not answer the expectation. Soon after the engagement was begun, Stanley deserted Richard's party, and joining Richmond, entirely decided the fortune of the day. The tyrant perceiving his situation to be quite desperate, and seeing his rival at no great distance from him, drove up against him with fury, in hopes that either Henry's death or his own would decide the victory between them. He killed Sir William Brandon the earl's standard-bearer; he dismounted Sir John Cheyney; and was within reach of Richmond, when Sir William Stanley breaking in with his troops, Richard was surrounded and overwhelmed by numbers. His body was found in the field, covered with dead enemies, and besmeared with blood. It was thrown carelessly across a horse, carried to Leicester, amidst the shouts of insulting spectators, and interred in the Gray-Friars church of that place.
The usurper's crown being found on the field of battle, was placed on the head of the conqueror, while the whole army cried out, "Long live King Henry!" Two days after the battle, Henry gave orders to con-
VOL. VIII. Part I.
fine Edward Plantagenet earl of Warwick, and son of England. the unfortunate duke of Clarence; and to release the princess Elizabeth, who had been confined in the Tower. He then advanced by slow and gradual marches to the city of London, where he was received with the greatest demonstrations of joy. He was crowned king of Henry VII. England on the 30th of October 1485; and to heighten the splendor on that occasion, he bestowed the rank of knights-banneret on 12 persons, and conferred peerages on three. Jasper earl of Pembroke, his uncle, he created duke of Bedford; Thomas Lord Stanley his father-in-law, earl of Derby; and Edward Courteney, earl of Devonshire. At the coronation likewise appeared a new institution, which the king had established for personal security as well as pomp; a band of 50 archers, who were denominated Yeomen of the Guard. But lest the people should take umbrage at this step, as if it implied a disdience of his subjects, he declared the institution to be perpetual. The ceremony of the coronation was performed by Cardinal Bouchier archbishop of Canterbury.—On the 18th of January 1486, he was married to the princess Elizabeth; and his marriage was celebrated at London with greater appearance of joy than either his first entry or his coronation had been. Henry remarked, with much displeasure, this general favour borne to the house of York; and the suspicions arising from it, not only disturbed his tranquillity during the whole of his reign, but bred disgust towards his consort herself, and poisoned all his domestic enjoyments.
The reign of Henry VII. was for several years disturbed by plots and insurrections. The people, by a long course of civil war, had become so turbulent and factious, that no governor could rule, nor could any king please them. The violent animosity expressed by this monarch, however, against the house of York, may justly be considered as one of the causes of the extreme proneness to rebellion manifested by his subjects. Instead of endeavouring to conciliate the affection of the opposite party, he always strove to quell them by absolute force and violence. For this purpose he took a journey, soon after his accession, to the north of England, where the Yorkists were very numerous: hoping to get the better of them by his presence. In his journey thither, he received intelligence of an insurrection against him by Viscount Lovel, with Sir Henry Stafford and Thomas his brother, who had raised an army, and were marching to besiege the city of Worcester, while Lovel approached to assist them with a body of three or four thousand men. They were dispersed, however, by the offer of a general pardon; which induced Lovel to withdraw from his troops, who were thereupon obliged to submit to the king's mercy. The Staffords took sanctuary in the church of Colnham near Abingdon; but as it was found that this church had not the privilege of protecting rebels, they were taken from thence: the elder was executed at Tyburn; but the younger, pleading that he had been misled by his brother, received a pardon.
This success was soon after followed by the birth of a prince; whom Henry named in honour of the celebrated King Arthur, who is said to have been the direct ancestor of the house of Tudor. All this success, however, as well as the general satisfaction which the birth of a prince descended from the houses both of
O
York
York and Lancaster necessarily occasioned, were not sufficient to reconcile the hearts of the English to their sovereign. His extreme severity towards the house of York still continued; and unfortunately this was much more beloved by the generality of the nation than that of Lancaster. Many of the Yorkists had been treated with great cruelty, and deprived of their fortunes under pretence of treason; a general resumption had likewise been made of the grants made by the princes of the house of York. It was likewise universally believed that the queen herself met with harsh treatment, on account of her being one of that unfortunate house; and from all these circumstances it was not unreasonably imagined that his enmity was inveterate and invincible. Hence, notwithstanding his politic and vigorous administration, people made no scruple of openly expressing their disapprobation of his conduct and government; and one rebellion seemed to be extinguished only to give birth to another. The king had, at the commencement of his reign, confined the duke of Clarence's son, as has already been mentioned. This unfortunate youth, who had obtained the title of the earl of Warwick, was, through long confinement, entirely unacquainted with the affairs of the world. Simple as he was, however, he was now made use of to disturb the public tranquillity. The queen-dowager was with great reason suspected to be at the bottom of this conspiracy; but not choosing to interfere openly in the matter herself, she employed one Simon a priest of Oxford to execute her purposes. This man cast his eyes upon one Lambert Simnel, a baker's son in the same place, a youth of only 15 years of age; but who, from his graceful appearance and accomplishments, seemed proper for personating a man of quality. A report had been spread among the people, that Richard duke of York, second son of Edward IV. had secretly made his escape from the cruelty of his uncle, and lay somewhere concealed in England. Simon had at first instructed his pupil to assume that name, which he found to be much the object of public affection; but hearing afterwards a new report, that Warwick had escaped from the Tower, and observing that this news was attended with no less general satisfaction, he changed the plan of his imposture, and made Simnel personate that unfortunate prince. The pliant youth was therefore directed by his instructor to talk upon many occurrences, as happening to him in the court of Edward. But as the impostor was not calculated to bear close examination, he was removed to Ireland: and so well had he profited by the lessons given him, that he no sooner presented himself to the earl of Kildare the deputy, claiming his protection as the unfortunate earl of Warwick, than he began to consult with several other noblemen with regard to him. These expressed even a stronger belief in Simnel's story than the deputy himself had done; and in proportion as the story was spread abroad, the more credit it obtained. The impostor was lodged in the castle of Dublin; the inhabitants universally took an oath of allegiance to him, as the true descendant of the Plantagenets; he was crowned with a diadem taken from the statue of the blessed virgin, and proclaimed king by the title of Edward VI.; and the whole kingdom followed the example of the capital.
Such an unexpected event alarmed Henry so much,
that he would have gone over to Ireland on purpose to quell the rebellion in person, had he not been afraid of the machinations of the queen-dowager in his absence. To prevent any thing of this kind, it was resolved to confine her for life in a monastery; under pretence, however, that it was done on account of her having formerly delivered up the princess her daughter to King Richard. The queen murmured against the severity of her treatment; but the king persisted in his resolution, and she remained in confinement till the time of her death, which happened some years after.
The next measure was to show Warwick to the people. He was taken from the Tower, and led through the principal streets of London; after which he was conducted in solemn procession to St Paul's, where great numbers were assembled to see him. Still, however, they proceeded in Dublin to honour their pretended monarch; and he was crowned with great solemnity in the presence of the earl of Kildare, the chancellor, and the other officers of state. At last being furnished by the duchess of Burgundy with a body of 2000 veteran Germans under the command of Martin Swart, a brave and experienced officer, he resolved to invade England. He landed in Lancashire, from whence he marched to York, expecting that the country people would rise and join him on his march. But in this he was deceived: the people were unwilling to join a body of foreigners; and were besides kept in awe by the great reputation of Henry. Lord Lincoln, therefore, who commanded the rebel army, determined to bring the matter to a speedy issue. Accordingly he met the royal army at Stoke in the county of Nottingham. An obstinate engagement ensued, but at length King Henry obtained a complete victory. Lord Lincoln, with 4000 private men, perished in the battle; and Simnel with his tutor Simon were taken prisoners. Simon being a priest, could not be tried by the civil power, and was only committed to close confinement. Simnel was pardoned, and made a scullion in the king's kitchen, whence he was afterwards advanced to the rank of falconer, in which employment he died.
Henry being now freed from all danger from that quarter, determined to take ample vengeance on his enemies. For this purpose he took a journey into the north; but though he found many delinquents, his natural avarice prompted him to exact heavy fines from them rather than to put them to death. His proceedings, however, were extremely arbitrary; the criminals being tried, not by the ordinary judges, but either by commissioners appointed for the occasion, or suffering punishment by sentence of a court-martial. Having thus fully established his authority as far as it could be done by suppressing and punishing domestic enemies, he next determined to recommend himself to his subjects by a report of his military disposition; holding, that by undertaking, or pretending to undertake, some martial enterprises, he would thus gain the favour of a people naturally turbulent, and unaccustomed to live long at peace with their neighbours. He certainly had not, however, the least intention of prosecuting foreign conquests; though, to please the people, he frequently gave out that he designed to invade France, and lay waste the whole country, rather than not recover his continental possessions. Under these pretences, particularly that of assisting the Bretons, whom the king
England. king of France had lately subdued, and who had applied to him for relief, he persuaded his parliament to grant him a considerable supply; but this involved him in some difficulties. The counties of Durham and York, who had always been discontented with Henry's government, and still farther provoked by the oppressions under which they had laboured after the extinction of Simnel's rebellion, opposed the commissioners sent by the king to levy the tax. The latter applied to the earl of Northumberland, requesting his advice and assistance in the execution of their office; but instead of being able to enforce the levying of the tax, he himself was attacked and put to death by the insurgents. This act of violence committed by themselves, seemed to render the insurgents desperate, so that without more ado they prepared to resist the royal power, under the conduct of one Sir John Egremont; but in this ill-conducted and precipitate scheme they met with no success. Henry instantly levied a considerable force, which he committed to the charge of the earl of Surrey; by whom the rebels were quickly defeated, and one of their leaders taken prisoner. Sir John Egremont fled to the duchess of Burgundy, who afforded him protection.
Thus Henry obtained the subsidy which he had solicited under pretence of invading France, though he would willingly have avoided any expense in preparations for that purpose in order to keep the money in his possession; but as the Bretons had applied to him for assistance, and their distress became every day more urgent, he found himself obliged to attempt something. With this view he set sail for Calais with an army of 25,000 foot and 1600 horse, of which he gave the command to the duke of Bedford and the earl of Oxford: but notwithstanding this apparent hostile disposition, negotiations for peace had been secretly begun, and commissioners even appointed to consider of the terms, three months before King Henry set out for the continent. As the love of money was the prevailing passion of the English monarch, and the possession of Bretagne was a great object to France, an accommodation soon took place betwixt the contending parties. The king of France engaged to pay Henry near 200,000l. as a reimbursement for the expenses of his expedition, and stipulated at the same time to pay him and his heirs an annual pension of 25,000 crowns more.
Thus the authority of Henry seemed to be so firmly established, as to leave no reason to dread any rival in time to come; but still he found himself militant. The duchess of Burgundy, resenting the depreciation of her family, and exasperated by her frequent miscarriages in the attempts already made, resolved to make a final effort against Henry, whom she greatly hated. For this purpose she propagated a report that her nephew Richard Plantagenet, duke of York, had escaped from the tower where his elder brother was murdered, and that he still lay somewhere concealed. Finding this report eagerly received, she soon found a young man who assumed both his name and character. The person chosen to act this part was the son of one Osbeck, or Warbeck, a converted Jew, who had been in England during the reign of Edward IV. His name was Peter; but it had been corrupted after the Flemish manner into Peterkin, or Perkin. It was by some
believed, that Edward, among his other amorous adventures, had a secret correspondence with Warbeck's wife, which might account for the great similarity of features between Perkin and that monarch. The duchess of Burgundy found this youth entirely suited to her purposes. The lessons she gave him were easily learned and strongly retained. His graceful air, his courtly address, his easy manners, and elegant conversation, were capable of imposing upon all but those who were privy to the imposture. The kingdom of Ireland was pitched upon for Perkin's first appearance, as it had been before for that of Simnel. He landed at Cork; and immediately assuming the name of Richard Plantagenet, was followed by great numbers of credulous people. He wrote letters to the earls of Desmond and Kildare, inviting them to join his party; he dispersed everywhere the strange intelligence of his escape from his uncle Richard's cruelty; and his story meeting with general credit, he soon became an object of the public favour. All those who were disguised with the king, prepared to join Perkin; but particularly those who formerly were Henry's favourites, and had contributed to place him on the throne. These, thinking their services had not been sufficiently repaid, now became heads of the conspiracy. Their attempts, however, were all frustrated by the vigilance of the king, and most of the conspirators of any note were publicly executed.
Perkin finding it was in vain to attempt any thing in England, went to the court of James IV. of Scotland. Here he was received with great cordiality; and James carried his confidence in him so far, that he even gave him in marriage Lady Catherine Gordon, daughter to the earl of Huntley, and a near kinwoman of his own. But when he attempted to set him on the throne of England, he found himself totally disappointed; and on the conclusion of peace between the two kingdoms, Perkin was obliged to leave Scotland. From thence he went to Flanders; and meeting with but a cool reception there, he resolved to try the affections of the people of Cornwall, who had lately risen against the king on account of a new tax which had been levied upon them. On his first appearance, Perkin was joined by about 3000 of these people, with which force he laid siege to Exeter. Henry, however, having marched against him with a considerable army, Perkin's heart failed him, though his followers now amounted to 7000; and he took shelter in a monastery. His wife fell into the conqueror's hands; who placed her in a respectable situation near the queen's person, with a suitable pension, which she enjoyed till her death. Perkin being persuaded to deliver himself into the king's hand, was compelled to sign a confession of his former life and conduct; but this was so defective and contradictory, that very little regard was paid to it. His life was granted him; though he was still detained in custody, and keepers were appointed to watch his conduct. From these, however, he broke loose; and flying to the sanctuary of Shyne, put himself into the prior's hands. He was once more prevailed upon to trust himself in the king's hands, and was committed to the tower; but having here entered into a correspondence with the earl of Warwick in order to make their escape, both of them were condemned and executed.
To Henry VII. in a great measure, is owing the present
England. present civilized state of the English nation. He had England. all along two points principally in view; the one to de- England. press the nobility and clergy, and the other to exalt England. and humanize the populace. In the feudal times every England. nobleman was possessed of a certain number of vassals, England. over whom he had, by various methods, acquired an England. almost absolute power; and, therefore, upon every England. slight disgust, he was able to influence them to join England. him in his revolt or disobedience. Henry considered, England. that the giving of his barons a power to sell their England. estates, which were before unalienable, must greatly England. weaken their interest. This liberty therefore he gave England. them; and it proved highly pleasing to the commons, England. nor was it disagreeable to the nobles themselves. His England. next scheme was to prevent their giving liveries to many England. hundreds of their dependents, who were thus kept like England. the soldiers of a standing army to be ready at the com- England. mand of their lord. By an act passed in this reign, England. none but menial servants were allowed to wear a livery; England. and this law was enforced under severe penalties.
With the clergy, Henry was not so successful. The number of criminals of all kinds who found protection in monasteries and other places appointed for religious worship, seemed to indicate little less than an absolute toleration of all kinds of vice. Henry used all his interest with the pope to get these sanctuaries abolished, but to no purpose. All that he could procure was, that if thieves, murderers, or robbers, registered as sanctuary men, should fall out and commit fresh offences, and retreat again, in such cases they might be taken out of the sanctuary and delivered up to justice.
In 1500, the king's eldest son Arthur was married to the Infanta Catharine of Spain, which marriage had been projected and negotiated seven years. But the prince dying in a few months after marriage, the princess was obliged to marry his younger brother Henry, who was created prince of Wales in his room. Henry himself made all the opposition which a youth of 12 years of age is capable of: but as the king persisted in his resolution, the marriage was by the pope's dispensation shortly after solemnized.—In the latter part of this king's reign, his economy, which had always been exact, degenerated into avarice, and he oppressed the people in a very arbitrary manner. He had two ministers, Empson and Dudley, perfectly qualified to second his avaricious intentions. They were both lawyers, and usually committed to prison by indictment such persons as they intended to oppress; from whence they seldom got free but by paying heavy fines, which were called mitigations and compositions: but by degrees the very forms of law were omitted; and they determined in a summary way upon the properties of the subjects, and confiscated their effects to the royal treasury.—Henry VII. died of the gout in his stomach, in the year 1509, having lived 52 years, and reigned 233 and was succeeded by his son Henry VIII. In Henry VII.'s reign was built a large ship of war called the Great Harry, which cost 14,000l. This was, properly speaking, the first ship in the English navy. Before this period, when the king wanted a fleet, he had no other expedient than to hire ships from the merchants.
253 Henry VIII. Henry VIII. ascended the throne when he was a-
bout 18 years of age, and had almost every advantage which a prince can have on his accession. He had a well-stored treasury, and undisputed title, and was at peace with all the powers in Europe. Commerce and arts had been some time introduced into England, where they met with a favourable reception. The young prince himself was beautiful in his person, expert in all polite exercises, open and liberal in his air, and loved by all his subjects. The old king, who was himself a scholar, had instructed him in all the learning of the times, so that he was an adept in school-divinity before the age of 18.
All these advantages, however, seemed to have been lost upon the new king. Being destitute of a good heart and solid understanding, he proved a tyrant. Being always actuated, not by reason, but the passion which happened to be uppermost in his mind, he behaved in the most absurd and contradictory manner; and however fortunate some of his measures proved at last, it is impossible that either his motives, or the means he took for the accomplishment of his purposes, can be approved of by any good man.
One of Henry's first actions in his royal capacity was to punish Empson and Dudley, who were obnoxious to the populace on account of their having been the instruments of the late king's rapacity. As they could not be impeached merely on account of their having strictly executed the will of the king, they were accused of having entered into a treasonable conspiracy, and of having designed to seize by force the administration of government; and though nothing could be more improbable than such a charge, the general prejudice against them was so great, that they were both condemned and executed.
In 1510, the king entered into a league with Pope Julius II. and Ferdinand king of Spain, against Louis XII. of France. In this alliance Henry was the only disinterested person. He expected nothing besides the glory which he hoped would attend his arms, and the title of Most Christian King, which the pope assured him would soon be taken from the king of France to be conferred upon him. The pope was desirous of wresting from Louis some valuable provinces which he possessed in Italy, and Ferdinand was desirous of sharing in the spoil. Henry summoned his parliament; who very readily granted him supplies, as he gave out that his design was to conquer the kingdom of France, and annex it to the crown of England. It was in vain that one of his old prudent counsellors objected, that conquests on the continent would only drain the kingdom without enriching it; and that England, from its situation, was not fitted to enjoy extensive empire. The young king, deaf to all remonstrances, and hurried away by his military ardour, resolved immediately to begin the war. But after several attempts, which were rendered unsuccessful only by the mismanagement of those who conducted them, a peace was concluded with France on the 7th of August 1514.
Henry's arms were attended with more success in Scotland; where King James IV. with the greatest part of the Scots nobility, and 10,000 of the common people, were cut off in the battle of Flawden†. Henry †See Scotland. In the mean time, pushed up with his imaginary successes against France, and his real ones against Scotland,
252 Death of Henry VII.
253
England. land, continued to lavish his treasures by expensive pleasures, and no less expensive preparations for war. The old ministers who had been appointed by his father to direct him, were now disregarded; and the king's confidence was entirely placed in Thomas afterwards Cardinal Wolsey, who seconded him in all his favourite pursuits, and who, being the son of a private gentleman at Ipswich, had gradually raised himself to the first employments of the state*. He doth not seem to have had many bad qualities besides his excessive pride, which disgusted all the nobility; but the great share he possessed in the favour of such an absolute prince as Henry VIII. put him quite out of the reach of his enemies.
254 Cardinal Wolsey minister.
* See Wol-
sey.
255 Arbitrary behaviour of the king.
The king having soon exhausted all the treasures left him by his father, as well as the supplies which he could by fair means obtain from his parliament, applied to Wolsey for new methods of replenishing his coffers. The minister's first scheme was to get a large sum from the people under the title of benevolence; though no title could be more improperly applied, as it was not granted without the greatest murmurs and complaints. Wolsey even met with opposition in the levying of it. In the first place, having exacted a considerable sum from the clergy, he next applied himself to the house of commons; but they only granted him half the sum he demanded. The minister at first was highly offended, and desired to be heard in the house; but they replied, that none could be permitted to sit and argue there except such as were members. Soon after, the king having occasion for new supplies, by Wolsey's advice attempted to procure them by his prerogative alone, without consulting his parliament. He issued out commissions to all the counties of England for levying four shillings in the pound from the clergy, and three shillings and fourpence from the laity. This stretch of royal power was soon opposed by the people, and a general insurrection seemed ready to ensue. Henry endeavoured to pacify them by circular letters; in which he declared, that what he demanded was only by way of benevolence. The city of London, however, still hesitated on the demand; and in some parts of the country insurrections were actually begun. These were happily suppressed by the duke of Suffolk; but the cardinal lost somewhat of the king's favour on account of the improper advice he had given him. To reinitiate himself in his good graces, Wolsey made the king a present of a noble palace called York-place, at Westminster, assuring him that from the first he had intended it for the king's use. In order to have a pretence for amassing more wealth, Wolsey next undertook to found two new colleges at Oxford; and for this purpose he received every day fresh grants from the pope and the king. The former imprudently gave him liberty to suppress some monasteries, and make use of their revenues for the erection of his new colleges; but this was a fatal precedent for the pontiff's interests, and it taught the king to seize on the monastic revenues whenever he stood in need of money.
For a considerable time Wolsey continued to enjoy the king's favour in an extreme degree; and as no monarch was ever more despotic than Henry VIII. no minister was more powerful than Wolsey. This extraordinary elevation served only to render his fall the more conspicuous, and himself the more miserable,
when it took place: and what was worse, he had long foreseen, from what he knew of the king's capricious and obstinate temper, that it certainly would happen one time or other. The cause of his final overthrow was the desire King Henry began to entertain of having his queen Catharine divorced. The doctrines of the reformation, propagated by Luther in 1517, had gained considerable ground in England, and many possessed a belief in them, notwithstanding the severe persecution which had been carried on against heretics during some of the preceding reigns. The clergy had become so exceedingly corrupt, and were immersed in such monstrous ignorance, that they were universally hated even by their own party; while no regard at all was paid to their decisions, or rather they were looked upon with the utmost abhorrence, by the reformers. Even the papal authority, though still very great, had, in no greater a space of time than ten years (viz. from 1517, when Luther first began to attack it, to the present year 1527), declined very sensibly. The marriage of King Henry, therefore, being looked upon by all parties as in itself illegal, and only sanctified by a dispensation from the pope, had been frequently objected to on different occasions. We are informed by some authors, that when Henry VII. betrothed his son, at that time only 12 years of age, he evidently showed an intention of taking afterwards a proper opportunity to annul the contract; and that he ordered Prince Henry, as soon as he should come of age, to enter a protestation against the marriage; charging him on his death-bed not to finish an alliance so unusual, and liable to such insuperable objections. Some members of the privy council, particularly Warham the primate, afterwards declared against the completion of the marriage; and even after it was completed, some incidents which in a short time took place were sufficient to make him sensible of the general sentiments of the public on that subject. The states of Castile had opposed a marriage betwixt the emperor Charles and the English princess Mary, Henry's daughter, urging among other things the illegitimacy of her birth. The same objection afterwards occurred on opening a negotiation with France for a marriage with the duke of Orleans.
258 Other reasons for Henry's desire of a divorce.
If these accounts are to be depended upon as authentic, we can scarce conceive it possible but Henry himself must have been somewhat staggered by them; though it is by no means probable that they were his only motives. The queen was six years older than the king, her personal charms were decayed, and his affection lessened in proportion. All her children had died in infancy except one daughter, the princess Mary above mentioned; and Henry was, or pretended to be, greatly struck with this, as it seemed something like the curse of being childless, pronounced in the Mosaic law against some evil doers. Another point of the utmost importance was the succession to the crown, which any question concerning the legitimacy of the king's marriage would involve in confusion. It was also supposed, with great reason, that should any obstacles of this kind occur, the king of Scotland would step in as the next heir, and advance his pretensions to the crown of England. But above all, it is probable that he was influenced by the love he had now contracted for Anne Boleyn, who had lately been
England: been appointed maid of honour to the queen. In this nation Henry had frequent opportunities of seeing her, and soon became deeply enamoured; and finding that his passion could not be gratified but by a marriage, it is not to be doubted that he was thus obligately set upon the divorce; for which purpose he sent his secretary to Rome to obtain from Clement a bull for dissolving his marriage with Catharine. That he might not seem to entertain any doubt of the pope's prerogative, he insisted only on some grounds of nullity in the bull granted by his predecessor Julius for the accomplishment of the marriage. In the preamble to this bull, it had been said, that it was granted only upon the solicitation of Henry himself; though it was known that he was then a youth under 12 years of age: it was likewise asserted, that the bull was necessary for maintaining the peace between the two crowns; though otherwise it is certain that there was no appearance of a quarrel betwixt them. These false premises seemed to afford a very good pretence for dissolving it; but, as matters then stood, the pope was involved in the utmost perplexity. Queen Catharine was aunt to the emperor, who had lately made Clement himself a prisoner, and whose resentment he still dreaded: and besides, he could not with any degree of prudence declare the bull of the former pope illicit, as this would give a mortal blow to the doctrine of papal infallibility. On the other hand, Henry was his protector and friend; the dominions of England were the chief resource from whence his finances were supplied; and the king of France, some time before, had got a bull of divorce in circumstances nearly similar. In this exigence he thought the wisest method would be to spin out the affair by negotiation; and in the mean time he sent over a commission to Wolsey, in conjunction with the archbishop of Canterbury or any other English prelate, to examine the validity of the king's marriage and of the former dispensation; granting them also a provisional dispensation for the king's marriage with any other person.
The pope's message was laid before the council in England: but they considered, that an advice given by the pope in this secret manner might very easily be disavowed in public; and that a clandestine marriage would totally invalidate the legitimacy of any issue the king might have by such a match. In consequence of this, fresh messengers were dispatched to Rome, and evasive answers returned; the pope never imagining that Henry's passion would hold out during the tedious course of an ecclesiastical controversy. But in this he was mistaken. The king of England had been taught to dispute as well as the pope, and valued himself not a little on his knowledge in theology: and to his arguments he added threats; telling him, that the English were but too well disposed to withdraw from the holy see; and that if he continued uncomplying, the whole country would readily follow the example of their monarch, who should always deny obedience to a pontiff that had treated him with such falsehood and duplicity. The king even proposed to his holiness whether, if he were not permitted to divorce his present queen, he might not have a dispensation for having two wives at once?
The pope, perceiving the king's eagerness, at last sent Cardinal Campegio his legate to London; who
with Wolsey, opened a court for trying the legitimacy of the king's marriage with Catharine, and cited the king and queen to appear before them. The trial commenced the 31st of May 1529; and both parties presented themselves. The king answered to his name when queen be-called: but the queen, instead of answering to hers, rose from her seat, and, throwing herself at the king's feet, made a very pathetic harangue; which her dignity, her virtue, and misfortunes, rendered still more affecting. She told her husband, "That she was a stranger in his dominions, without protection, without counsel, and without assistance; exposed to all the injustice which her enemies were pleased to impose upon her: That she had quitted her native country, without any other resource than her connections with him and his family; and that, instead of suffering thence any violence or iniquity, she had been assured of having in them a safeguard against every misfortune: That she had been his wife during 20 years; and would here appeal to himself, whether her affectionate submission to his will had not merited other treatment than to be thus, after so long a time, thrown from him with indignity: That she was conscious,—he himself was assured,—that her virgin honour was yet unstained when he received her into his bed; and that her connections with his brother had been carried no farther than the mere ceremony of marriage: That their parents, the kings of England and Spain, were esteemed the wisest princes of their time, and had undoubtedly acted by the best advice when they formed the agreement for that marriage, which was now represented as so criminal and unnatural: And that she acquiesced in their judgment, and would not submit her cause to be tried by a court whose dependance on her enemies was too visible ever to allow her any hopes of obtaining from them an equitable or impartial decision." Having spoken these words, the queen rose, and, making the king a low reverence, left the court; nor would she ever again appear in it. The legate having again summoned the queen to appear before them, on her refusal, declared her contumacious, and the trial proceeded in her absence. But when the business seemed to be nearly decided, Campegio, on some very frivolous pretences, prorogued the court, and at last transferred the cause before the see of Rome.
All this time Cardinal Wolsey seemed to be in the same dilemma with the pope, and indeed much worse; as he could not boast of the same independence which his holiness possessed. On the one hand, he was very solicitous to gratify the king his master, who had distinguished him by so many and extraordinary marks of favour; on the other, he feared to offend the pope, whose servant he more immediately was, and who likewise had power to punish his disobedience. He had long known that this affair was certainly to end in his ruin; and by attempting to please all parties, he fell under the displeasure of every one; so that he was at last left without a single friend in the world. The king was displeased on account of his not entering into his cause with the warmth he thought he had reason to expect; Anne Boleyn imputed to him the disappointment of her hopes; while even Queen Catharine and her friends expressed the greatest indignation against him on account of the part he had openly taken in the affair of her divorce. In this miserable situation the king
260
Sends to
Rome to
obtain a di-
vorce.
261
Extreme
perplexity
of the
pope.
262
Henry's
controversy
with him.
England. king sent him a message by the dukes of Norfolk and Suffolk, demanding the great seal: the cardinal refused to deliver it without a more express warrant; upon which Henry wrote him a letter, and on receipt of this it was instantly given up. The seal was bestowed on Sir Thomas More; a man who, besides elegant literary talents, was possessed of the highest capacity, integrity, and virtue. Wolsey was next commanded to depart from York-place palace which he had built in London; and which, though it belonged to the see of York, was now seized by the king, and afterwards became the residence of the British sovereigns, under the name of Whitehall. All his furniture and plate, the richness of which seemed rather proper for a monarch than a subject, was seized for the king's use. He was then commanded to retire to Esher, a country-seat which he possessed near Hampton court, and there to wait the king's pleasure. One disgrace followed another; and his fall was at length completed by a summons to London to answer a charge of high treason. This summons he at first refused to answer, as being a cardinal. However, being at length persuaded, he set out on his journey; but was taken ill, and died by the way. See the article WOLSEY.
265
Is disgraced and persecuted.
266
All the universities of Europe consulted about the legality of the king's marriage. * See Cranmer.
267
Henry's funeral quarrel with the pope.
After the death of Wolsey, the king, by the advice of Cranmer*, had the legality of his marriage debated in all the universities of Europe; and the votes of these were obtained in his favour by dint of money. The deburlements made on the occasion have even been preserved to this day. To a subdeacon he gave a crown, to a deacon two crowns, and so to the rest in proportion to the importance of their station or opinion.—Being thus fortified by the opinions of the universities, and even of the Jewish rabbies (for them also he had consulted), Henry began to think he might safely oppose the pope himself. He began by reviving in parliament an old law against the clergy, by which all those who had submitted to the authority of the pope's legate were condemned to severe penalties. The clergy, to conciliate the king's favour, were obliged to pay a fine of 118,000 pounds. A confession was likewise extorted from them, that the king, and not the pope, was the supreme head of the church and clergy of England. An act was soon after passed against levying the first-fruits, or a year's rent of all the bishoprics that fell vacant. After this the king privately married his beloved Anne Boleyn; and the proving with child soon after marriage, he publicly owned her for his wife, and passed with her through London, with a greater magnificence than had ever been known before. The streets were strewed with flowers, the walls of the houses hung with tapestry, and a universal joy seemed to be diffused among the people. The unfortunate queen Catharine, perceiving all further opposition to be vain, retired to Amphill near Dunstable, where she continued the rest of her days in privacy and peace. Her marriage with Henry was at last declared invalid, but not till after the latter had been married to Anne Boleyn, though this declaration ought undoubtedly to have preceded it. See BOLEYN.
The pope was no sooner informed of these proceedings, than he passed a sentence, declaring Catharine to be the king's only lawful wife; requiring him to take her again, and denouncing his censures against him in case of a refusal. Henry, on the other hand, knowing
that his subjects were entirely at his command, resolved to separate totally from the church of Rome. In the year 1534, he was declared head of the church by parliament; the authority of the pope was completely abolished in England; all tributes formerly paid to the holy see were declared illegal; and the king was entrusted with the collation to all ecclesiastical benefices. The nation came into the king's measures with joy, and took an oath called the oath of supremacy; all the credit which the popes had maintained over England for ages was now overthrown at once; and none seemed to repine at the change, except those who were immediately interested by their dependence on Rome.
But though the king thus separated from the church of Rome, he by no means adhered to the doctrines of Luther which had been lately published. He had written a book against this celebrated reformer, which the pope pretended greatly to admire; and honoured King Henry, on its account, with the title of "Defender of the faith." This character he seemed to be determined to maintain, and therefore persecuted the reformers most violently. Many were burnt for denying the popish doctrines, and some also were executed for maintaining the supremacy of the pope. The courtiers knew not which side to take, as both the new and old religions were equally persecuted; and as both parties equally courted the favour of the king, he was by that means enabled to assume an absolute authority over the nation. As the monks had all along shown the greatest resistance to Henry's ecclesiastical character, he resolved at once to deprive them of the power of injuring him. He accordingly empowered Cromwell, secretary of state, to send commissioners into the several counties of England to inspect the monasteries; and to report, with rigorous exactness, the conduct and deportment of such as were found there. This employment was readily undertaken by some creatures of the court, whose names were Layton, London, Price, Gage, Petre, and Belasis. They are said to have discovered monstrous disorders in many of the religious houses; whole convents of women abandoned to all manner of lewdness; friars accomplices in their crimes; pious frauds everywhere committed, to increase the devotion and liberality of the people; and cruel and inveterate factions maintained between the inhabitants. Thus a general horror was excited against these communities; and therefore the king, in 1536, of the monasteries
269
Suppression of the monasteries.
suppressed the lesser monasteries, amounting to 376 in number. Their revenues, computed at 32,000 pounds a-year, were confiscated to the king's use; besides their plate and other goods, computed at 100,000 pounds more. In 1538, the greater monasteries also were demolished. The better to reconcile the people to this great innovation, stories were published, perhaps with aggravations, of the detestable lives which the friars led in their convents. The relics also, and other objects of superstitious veneration, were now brought forth, and became objects of derision to the reformers. A great number of these are enumerated by Protestant writers; such as the parings of St Edmund's toes; some of the coals that roasted St Laurence; the girdle of the virgin Mary, shown in no fewer than eleven different places; two or three heads of St Ursula; the feet of St Thomas of Lancaster, an infallible cure for the headache; part of St Thomas of Canterbury's shirt, much
Engl. much reverenced among big-bellied women; some relics, an excellent preservative against rain, others against weeds in corn, &c. Some impostures, however, were discovered, which displayed a little more ingenuity in the contrivance. At Hales in the county of Gloucester had been shown, during several ages, the blood of Christ brought from Jerusalem. The veneration for this precious relic may easily be imagined; but it was attended with a most remarkable circumstance not observed in any other relics. The sacred blood was not visible to any one in mortal sin, even when set before him; nor could it be discovered till he had performed good works sufficient for his absolution. At the dissolution of the monastery, the whole contrivance was discovered. Two of the monks who were let into the secret, had taken the blood of a duck, which they renewed every week; they put it into a phial, one side of which was thin and transparent crystal, the other thick and opaque. When any rich pilgrim arrived, they were sure to show him the dark side, till masses and offerings had expiated his offences; after which they made him happy, by turning the phial. — A miraculous crucifix had been kept at Boxley in Kent, and bore the appellation of the rod of grace. The lips, eyes, and head of the image, moved on the approach of its votaries. Helsey bishop of Rochester broke the crucifix at St Paul's cross, and showed to all the people the springs and wheels by which it had been secretly moved. A great wooden idol, called Darvel Gatherin, was also brought to London and cut in pieces: and, by a cruel refinement of vengeance, it was employed as fuel to burn Friar Forest; who was punished for denying the king's supremacy, and for some pretended heresies. A finger of St Andrew, covered with a thin plate of silver, had been pawned for a debt of 40 pounds; but as the king's commissioners refused to release the pawn, people made themselves very merry with the poor creditor on account of his security. On this occasion also was demolished the noted shrine of Thomas à Becket, commonly called St Thomas of Canterbury *. The riches of it were inconceivable: when broken down, the gold with which it was adorned filled two large chests that eight strong men could scarcely carry out of the church. The king, on the whole, suppressed 645 monasteries, of which 28 had abbots who enjoyed seats in parliament. Ninety colleges were demolished in several counties; 2374 chantries and free chapels, and 110 hospitals. The whole revenue of these establishments amounted to 161,100 pounds.
* See
Becket.
It is easy to imagine the indignation which such an uninterrupted course of sacrilege and violence would occasion at Rome. In 1535, the king had executed Bishop Fisher, who was created a cardinal while in prison, and Sir Thomas More, for denying or speaking ambiguously about his supremacy. When this was reported in Italy, numerous libels were published all over the country, comparing the king of England to Nero, Domitian, Caligula, and the most wicked tyrants of antiquity. Clement VII. died about six months after he had threatened the king with a sentence of excommunication; and Paul III. who succeeded him in the papal throne, entertained some hopes of an accommodation. But Henry was so much accustomed to domineering, that the quarrel was soon rendered totally
incurable. The execution of Fisher was reckoned such a capital injury, that at last the pope passed all his censures against the king, citing him and all his adherents to appear in Rome within 90 days, in order to answer for their crimes. If they failed, he excommunicated them; deprived the king of his realm; subjected the kingdom to an interdict; declared his issue by Anne Boleyn illegitimate; dissolved all leagues which any Catholic princes had made with him; gave his kingdom to any invader; commanded the nobility to take up arms against him; freed his subjects from all oaths of allegiance; cut off their commerce with foreign states; and declared it lawful for any one to seize them, to make slaves of their persons, and to convert their effects to his own use. But though these censures were then passed, they were not openly denounced. The pope delayed the publication till he should find an agreement with England totally desperate, and till the emperor, who was then hard pressed by the Turks and the Protestant princes of Germany, should be in a condition to carry the sentence into execution. But in 1538, when news arrived at Rome that Henry had proceeded with the monasteries as above related, the pope was at last provoked to publish the censures against him. Libels were again dispersed, in which he was anew compared to the most furious persecutors of antiquity, and the preference was now given on their side. Henry, it was said, had declared war with the dead, whom the Pagans themselves respected; was at open enmity with heaven; and had engaged in professed hostility with all the saints and angels. Above all, he was reproached with his resemblance to the emperor Julian, whom (it was said) he imitated in his apostasy and learning, though he fell short of him in his morals. But these terrible fulminations had now lost their effect. Henry had long ago denied the supremacy of the pope, and therefore had appealed from him to a general council; but now, when a general council was summoned at Mantua, he refused to be subject to it, because it was called by the pope, and lay entirely under subjection to that spiritual usurper. He engaged his clergy to make a declaration to the like purpose, and prescribed to them many other alterations with regard to their ancient tenets and practices. It was expected that the spirit of opposition to the church of Rome would have at last made him fall in with the doctrines of the reformed; but though he had been gradually changing the theological system in which he was educated, ever since he came to the years of maturity, he was equally positive and dogmatical in the few articles he retained, as though the whole fabric had continued entire and unshaken: and though he stood alone in his opinion, the flattery of courtiers had so much inflamed his tyrannical arrogance, that he thought himself entitled to regulate by his own particular standard the religious faith of the whole nation. The point on which he chiefly rested his orthodoxy was the most absurd in the whole popish doctrine; namely, that of transubstantiation. All departure from this he held to be a damnable error; and nothing, he thought, could be more honourable for him, than, while he broke off all connections with the Roman pontiff, to maintain, in this essential article, the purity of the Catholic faith.
In 1539, a parliament was called, which met on the 28th day of April. The chancellor opened this parliament
England. parliament by informing the house of lords, that it was his majesty's earnest desire to extirpate from his kingdom all diversity of opinions with regard to religion; and as this enterprise was, he owned, difficult and important, he desired them to choose a committee from among themselves, who might frame certain articles, and communicate them afterwards to parliament. The lords named the vicar-general Cromwell, now created a peer, the archbishops of Canterbury and York, the bishops of Durham, Carlisle, Worcester, Bath and Wells, Bangor, and Ely. This small committee itself was agitated with such diversity of opinions, that it could come to no conclusion. The duke of Norfolk then moved, that since there was no hope of having a report from the committee, the articles of faith proposed to be established should be reduced to six, and a new committee be appointed to frame an act with regard to them. As this peer was understood to speak the king's mind, his motion was immediately complied with; and, after a short prorogation, the bill of the six articles, or the bloody bill, as the Protestants justly termed it, was introduced; and having passed the two houses, received the king's assent. By this law the doctrine of the real presence was established; the communion in one kind; the perpetual obligation of vows of chastity; the utility of private masses; the celibacy of the clergy; and the necessity of auricular confession. The denial of the real presence subjected the person to death by fire, and to the same forfeiture as in cases of treason; and admitted not the privilege of abjuring: an unheard-of cruelty, unknown even to the inquisition itself. The denial of any of the other articles, even though recanted, was punishable by the forfeiture of goods and chattels, and imprisonment during the king's pleasure: an obstinate adherence to error, or a relapse, was adjudged to be felony, and punishable by death. The marriage of priests was subjected to the same punishment. Their commerce with women was, for the first offence, forfeiture and imprisonment; and for the second, death. Abstaining from confession, and from receiving the eucharist at the accustomed times, subjected the person to fine, and to imprisonment during the king's pleasure; and if the criminal persevered after conviction, he was punishable by death and forfeiture, as in cases of felony. Commissioners were to be appointed by the king for inquiring into these heresies and irregular practices, and the criminals were to be tried by a jury.
The parliament having thus surrendered their ecclesiastical privileges, next proceeded to surrender their civil ones also. They gave to the king's proclamations the same force as to statutes enacted by parliament, and thus by one blow made a total subversion of the English constitution; and to render the matter worse, if possible, they framed this law as if it were only declaratory, and intended to explain the natural extent of the royal authority.—Notwithstanding this, however, they afterwards pretended to make some limitations in the regal power; and they enacted, that no proclamation should deprive any person of his lawful possessions, liberties, inheritances, &c. nor yet infringe any common law or laudable custom of the realm.
As soon as the act of the six articles had passed, the Catholics were extremely vigilant to inform against of-
Vol. VIII. Part I.
fenders; and, in a short time, no fewer than 500 persons were thrown into prison. But some of the chief officers of state remonstrating against the cruelty of punishing such a number of delinquents, they were all of them set at liberty; and soon after this, Henry, as if he had resolved to give each party the advantage by turns, granted every one permission to have a translation of the Bible, which had been newly made, in his family.
In 1540, the king again complained to parliament of the great diversity of religious tenets which prevailed among his subjects; a grievance, he affirmed, which ought the less to be endured, because the scriptures were now published in England, and ought universally to be the standard of belief to mankind. But he had appointed, he said, some bishops and divines to draw up a list of tenets; and he was determined that Christ and the truth should have the victory; whence he seems to have expected more from this new book of his doctors, than had ensued from the publication of the scriptures. Cromwell, as vicar-general, also made a speech in the upper house; and the peers in return told him, that he deserved to be vicar-general to the universe: To such a degree of mean and servile submission was the English parliament at this time reduced.
This year also the king suppressed the only religious order remaining in England; namely, the knights of the St John of Jerusalem, or the knights of Malta, as they are commonly called. This order had by their valour done great service to Christendom; and had very much retarded, at Jerusalem, Rhodes, and Malta, the rapid progress of the barbarians. During the general surrender of the religious houses in England, they had obstinately refused to give up their revenues to the king; and Henry, who would endure no society that protested obedience to the pope, was obliged to have recourse to parliament for the dissolution of this order. Their revenues were large, and formed a considerable addition to the acquisitions which the king had already made. But he had been such a bad economist, that, notwithstanding the immense plunder afforded him by the church, he now demanded from parliament a very considerable supply. The commons, however, though lavish of the blood of their fellow-subjects, were extremely frugal of their money; and it was not without murmuring that the grant could be obtained, even by this absolute and drenched monarch.
The king all this time continued to punish with unrelenting severity the Protestants who offended against the law of the six articles, and the Papists who denied his supremacy; which gave occasion to a foreigner at that time to say, that those who were against the pope were burned, and those who were for him were hanged. The king even seemed to display in an ostentatious manner his tyrannical justice and impartiality, which reduced both parties to subjection. This year he executed three Protestants and three Papists coupled together. The latter declared, that the most grievous part of their punishment was the being coupled to such heretical miscreants as suffered with them.
In 1542, Henry proceeded to the further dissolution of colleges, hospitals, and other foundations of colleges, that nature. The courtiers had been dealing with the hospitals, presidents and governors to make a surrender of their revenues
P
England. revenues to the king; and they had succeeded with
eight. But there was an obstacle to their farther pro-
gress: it had been provided by the local statutes of
most of these foundations, that no president nor any
fellows could make such a deed without the unanimous
consent of all the fellows. This consent would not
have been easily obtained; but the parliament proceed-
ed in a summary manner to annul all these statutes: by
which means the revenues of those houses were exposed
to the rapacity of the king and his favourites. Henry
also now extorted from many bishops a surrender of
their chapter-lands; by which means he pillaged the
fees of Canterbury, York, and London, and enriched
his favourites with their spoils. He engaged the par-
liament to mitigate the penalties of the six articles, as
far as regarded the marriage of priests, which was now
only subjected to a forfeiture of goods, chattels, and
lands during life: he was still equally bent on main-
taining a rigid purity in speculative principles. He
had appointed a commission consisting of two archbis-
hops and several bishops of both provinces, together
with a considerable number of doctors of divinity; and
by virtue of his ecclesiastical supremacy he had charged
them to choose a religion for his people. Before the
commissioners, however, had made any progress in this
arduous undertaking, the parliament had passed a law
by which they ratified all the tenets which these divines
should establish with the king's consent; and thus they
were not ashamed of declaring expressly that they took
their religion upon trust, and had no other rule either
in religious or temporal concerns than the arbitrary will
of their master. One clause of the statute, however,
seems to favour somewhat of the spirit of liberty. It
was enacted, that the ecclesiastical commissioners should
establish nothing repugnant to the laws and statutes of
the realm. But in reality this proviso was inserted by
the king, to serve his own purposes. By introducing
a confusion and contradiction into the laws, he became
more the master of every one's life and property; and
as the ancient independence of the church still gave him
jealousy, he was well pleased, under colour of such a
clause, to introduce appeals from spiritual to civil
courts. For the same reason he would never promul-
gate a body of canon law; and he encouraged the
judges on all occasions to interpose in ecclesiastical cau-
ses, wherever they thought the law or the prerogative
concerned. Being thus armed by the authority of par-
liament, or rather by their acknowledgment of his spi-
ritual supremacy, the king employed his commis-
sioners to select a system of tenets for the assent and belief
of the nation. A small volume was published, under
the title of The Institution of a Christian Man, which
was received by the convocation, and made the in-
fallible standard of orthodoxy. In this book the points
of justification, faith, free-will, good works, and grace,
were discussed in a manner somewhat favourable to the
opinions of the reformers. The sacraments, which a
few years before were only allowed to be three, were
now increased to seven, conformably to the sentiments
of the Catholics. Throughout the whole of this book
the king's caprice is very discernible; and the book
is in reality to be regarded as his composition. For
Henry, while he made his opinion a rule for the na-
tion, would himself submit to no authority whatever;
not even to any which he had formerly established. The
same year the people had a farther instance of the king's
inconsistency. He ordered a new book to be compo-
sed, called The Erudition of a Christian Man; and with-
out asking the consent of the convocation, he published
by his own authority this new model of orthodoxy. He
was no less positive in his new creed than he had been
in the old one; but though he required the faith of the
nation to veer about at his signal, he was particularly
careful to inculcate the doctrine of passive obedience in
all his books, and he was no less careful to retain the
nation in the practice.
But while the king was thus spreading his own books
among the people, both he and the clergy seem to have
been very much perplexed with regard to the scrip-
tures. A review had been made by the ecclesiastical
synod of the new translation of the Bible; and Bishop
Gardiner had proposed, that instead of employing Eng-
lish expressions throughout, several Latin words should
still be preserved, because they contained, as he pre-
tended, such peculiar energy and significance, that they
had no correspondent terms in the English tongue. Am-
ong these were ecclesia, penitentia, pontifex, contritus,
&c. But as this mixture would appear extremely bar-
barous, and was plainly calculated for no other pur-
pose than to retain the people in their ancient igno-
rance, the proposal was rejected. The knowledge of
the people, however, seemed to be still more danger-
ous than their ignorance; and the king and parliament,
soon after the publication of the scriptures, retracted
the concession which they had formerly made, and pro-
hibited all but gentlemen and merchants to peruse them.
Even that liberty was not granted without an appar-
ent hesitation, and dread of the consequences. These
persons were allowed to read, so it be done quietly and
with good order. And the preamble to the act sets forth,
"That many seditious and ignorant persons had abu-
sed the liberty granted them of reading the Bible; and
that great diversity of opinion, animosities, tumults,
and schisms, had been occasioned by perverting the
sense of the scriptures." The mass book also passed
under the king's examination; but little alteration was
yet made in it. Some doubtful or fictitious saints only
were struck out; and the name of the pope was erased.
The latter precaution was also used with every new
book that was printed, and even every old one that
was sold. The word pope was carefully omitted or blot-
ted out; as if that precaution could abolish the term
from the language, or cause the people forget that
such a person existed. About this time also, the king
prohibited the acting of plays, interludes, and farces,
in derision of the popish superstitions; which the Pro-
testants had been in use to practise; and this prohibi-
tion was in the highest degree pleasing to the Roman
Catholics.
In this tyrannical and headstrong manner Henry
proceeded with regard to ecclesiastical affairs. In
other respects his conduct was equally violent. With
regard to his domestic concerns, history scarce affords
his parallel. We have already taken notice of his ex-
treme love for Anne Boleyn, whom he married, con-
trary even to his own principles, before the marriage
with Catherine was dissolved. His affection for the
former was carried to such a height, that he even
procured an act excluding from the succession the is-
sue of Queen Catherine, in favour of the children of
Anne.
England. Anne Boleyn; and failing them to the king's heirs for ever. An oath to this purpose was likewise enjoined, under penalty of imprisonment during the king's pleasure, and forfeiture of goods and chattels. All slander against the king and his new queen or their issue was subjected to the penalty of treason or misprision of treason. The reason given for this extreme severity toward his own child was, that her mother had obstinately refused to quit the kingdom, notwithstanding all the methods he could take to induce her to do so. The oath was generally taken throughout the kingdom; Sir Thomas More the chancellor, and Fisher bishop of Rochester, being the only persons who refused; for which both of them were imprisoned, and soon after executed. The unfortunate Queen Catharine died, in her retreat at Amplehill, in the year 1536. On her death-bed she wrote a most pathetic letter to the king, in which she forgave him all the injuries she had received, and recommended to him in the strongest terms their daughter the princess Mary. This letter affected Henry so much, that he could not read it without tears; but the new queen is said to have exulted in such a manner on hearing of the death of her rival, as was quite inconsistent with either decency or humanity. Her triumph, however, was of short duration. Henry had no sooner possessed her, secure from every disquieting thought by the death of Queen Catharine, than his passion began to decline; and to this her delivery of a dead son did not a little contribute; for so impetuous and absurd were his passions, and such was his desire for male issue, that the disappointment in this respect alone was sufficient to alienate his affection from his wife. The levity of her temper, and her extreme gaiety of behaviour, bordering upon licentiousness, as related under the article BOLEYN, also gave an opportunity to her enemies of inflaming the king's jealousy against her. The viscountess of Rochford, in particular, a woman of profligate manners, and who was married to the queen's brother, had the cruelty to report to the king that her husband committed incest with his own sister; and, not content with this, she interpreted every instance of favour shown by her to a man, as proof of a criminal intercourse between them. At the same time it must not be forgot, that he who insisted on such rigid fidelity from his wives, was himself the most faithless of mankind. He had doubts, it may be allowed, about the legality of his marriage with Queen Catharine, but his doubts were evidently confirmed by the charms of Anne Boleyn. After being satisfied with the possession of her for six years, perhaps he really doubted her fidelity; but here again his doubts were confirmed by the beauty of Jane Seymour, with whom he had now fallen in love. It may easily be believed, that from this consideration alone there was no reason to hope that ever the unfortunate Anne would be able to exculpate herself. Had the really been guilty, her monster of a husband might have allowed her to live; but his cruelty was as unbounded and infatiable as his other perverse passions. She was condemned; and the sentence pronounced against her was, that she should be burned or beheaded at the king's pleasure. On hearing this dreadful denunciation, she exclaimed, "O Father! O Creator! thou who art the way, the truth, and the life! thou knowest that I have not deserved this fate." She then made the most solemn protestations of innocence before her judges; but these, as they had been from the beginning ineffectual, so it was not to be supposed that they could now avail any thing. Anne was beheaded by the executioner of Calais, who was reckoned more expert than any in England; and Henry enjoyed the pleasure of marrying his beloved Jane Seymour. His satisfaction, however, was of no long continuance; for the queen, becoming pregnant immediately after marriage, died in two days after the birth of the child; who being a son, was baptized by the name of Edward VI. As this lady had been more beloved by Henry than any of his other wives, his grief for the loss of her was extreme. However, it did not hinder him from entering very soon afterwards into a new matrimonial scheme; in which he met with many difficulties. His first proposals were made to the duchess dowager of Milan, niece to the emperor and to Catharine his own former queen; but his fourth as he had behaved so indifferently to the aunt, it is scarcely to be supposed that his addresses could prove agreeable to the niece. On this he demanded the duchess dowager of Longueville, daughter of the duke of Guise; but on making the proposal to the French monarch, Francis I. he was informed that the princess had been already betrothed to the king of Scotland. Henry, however, would take no refusal. He had learned that the object of his affection was endowed with many accomplishments, was very beautiful, and of a large size, which last property he looked upon to be necessary for him who was now become somewhat corpulent himself. Francis, to prevent any more solicitations on this subject, sent the princess to Scotland, but at the same time made Henry an offer of Mary of Bourbon, daughter of the duke of Vendôme. This princess was rejected by Henry, because he had heard of her being formerly refused by the king of Scotland. He was then offered his choice of the two younger sisters of the queen of Scotland, both of them being equal in merit as well as size to the one whom he had desired: but Henry, unwilling to trust to any reports concerning the beauty of these ladies, or even to their pictures, proposed to Francis, that they should have a conference at Calais under pretence of business, and that the latter should bring with him the two princesses of Guise with the finest ladies of quality in France, that he might make a choice. This indelicate proposal shocked Francis: he returned for answer, that he was too much impressed with regard for the fair sex to carry ladies of the first quality, like geldings, to a market, to be chosen or rejected according to the humour of the purchaser. Henry remonstrated and stormed as usual; but though Francis at this time earnestly wished to oblige him, he at last totally rejected the proposal. Negotiations were then entered into for a German match; and the princess of Cleves was proposed by Cromwell, on account of the great interest her father had with the Protestant princes of Germany. Henry had also become enamoured of her person from a picture of her he had seen: but this, though drawn by an eminent artist, was unluckily done so much to the advantage, that when the negotiation was quite finished, and the bride arrived in England, he lost all patience, swearing that she was a great Flanders mare, and that he could never bear her the smallest affection. The matter was still worse, when he found that she could
England.
281
Execution of Anne Boleyn, and third marriage of Henry.
282
Queen Jane dies in child-bed of Edward VI.
283
Extravagant behaviour of the king concerning his fourth marriage.
could speak no language but Dutch, of which he was entirely ignorant. Notwithstanding all these objections, however, he resolved to complete the marriage, telling Cromwell, that, since he had gone so far, he must now put his neck into the yoke. The reason of this was, that the friendship of the German princes was now more than ever necessary for Henry; and it was supposed that the affront of sending the princess back to her own country might be resented. Cromwell, who knew that his own life depended on the event of the matter, was very anxious to learn from the king how he liked his spouse after having passed a night with her; but was struck with terror when he replied that he now hated her more than ever; that he was resolved not to cohabit with her, and even suspected that she was not a virgin; a matter in which he pretended to be a connaisseur, and about which he was extremely scrupulous. In a little time his aversion increased to such a degree, that he determined at any rate to get rid of his queen and prime minister both at once. Cromwell had long been an object of aversion to the nobility, who hated him on account of his obscure birth; his father being no other than a blacksmith, though the son had obtained the first employments in the kingdom. By his office of vicar-general, he had an almost absolute authority over the clergy; he was also lord privy-seal, lord-chamberlain, and master of the wards. He had also been invested with the order of the garter, and was created earl of Essex. This was sufficient to raise the envy of the courtiers: but he had also the misfortune to fall under the displeasure of both Protestants and Papists; the former hating him on account of his concurrence with Henry in their persecution, and the latter looking upon him as the greatest enemy of their religion. To these unfortunate circumstances on the part of Cromwell was added the usual situation of Henry himself, who had now fallen in love with Catharine Howard, niece to the duke of Norfolk; to enjoy whom, he now determined to divorce Anne of Cleves. By the insinuations of this lady and her uncle, Cromwell's ruin was accomplished; and he was condemned, not only without any trial, but even without examination. The charge was of herefy and high treason; but the instances of the latter were quite absurd and ridiculous. He submitted, however, to his sentence without murmuring, as knowing that his complaints on this subject would be revenged on his son. He was terribly mangled by the executioner before his head could be struck off. His death was soon followed by the dissolution of the marriage with the princess of Cleves, which was annulled by the consent of both parties. The princess parted from him with great indifference; and accepted of 3000l. a-year as a compensation, but refused to return to her own country after the affront she had received.
The king's marriage with Catharine Howard soon followed the dissolution of that with Anne of Cleves; but the event may surely be regarded as a providential punishment upon this tyrant, whose cruelty, lust, and other bad qualities, can scarcely be matched in history. We have already mentioned his insinuations against the virtue of the unfortunate princess of Cleves: these were amply repaid by the actual infidelities of his new queen,
whom we must suppose he believed to be a pure and perfect virgin at the time he married her. So happy indeed did he imagine himself in this new marriage, that he publicly returned thanks for his conjugal felicity, when a most unfortunate information concerning the queen's incontinence was given to Cranmer by one of the name of Lasecelles, whose sister had been servant to the duchess-dowager of Norfolk. He not only gave intelligence of her amours before marriage, but affirmed that she had continued the same criminal practices ever since. Two of her paramours were arrested, and confessed their crimes: the queen herself also confessed guilt before marriage, but denied having ever been false to the king's bed; which, however, had very little probability. She was beheaded on Tower-hill, along with the viscounts of Rochford, who had been a confidant in her amours. The latter, as has already been observed, was a principal instrument in procuring the destruction of the unhappy Anne Boleyn, and therefore died unspotted; while the virtuous character of that unfortunate lady received an additional confirmation from the discovery of this woman's guilt.
To secure himself from any farther disasters of this kind, Henry passed a most extraordinary law, enacting, that any one who should know, or strongly suspect, any guilt in the queen, might, within 20 days, disclose it to the king or council, without incurring the penalty of any former law against defaming the queen; though at the same time every one was prohibited from spreading the matter abroad, or even privately whispering it to others. It was also enacted, that if the king married any woman who had been incontinent, taking her for a true maid, she should be guilty of treason if she did not previously reveal her guilt to him.
These laws afforded diversion to the people, who now said that the king must look out for a widow; as no reputed maid would ever be persuaded to incur the penalty of the statute. This in truth happened to be the case at last; for about a year after the death of Catharine Howard, he married, for his sixth wife, Catharine Parr, widow of Nevil Lord Latimer. This lady, being somewhat inclined to the doctrines of the reformation, and having the boldness to tell her husband her mind upon the subject, had like to have shared the fate of the rest. The furious monarch, incapable of bearing the least contradiction, instantly complained to Bishop Gardiner, who inflamed the quarrel as much as possible; so that at last the king consented that articles of impeachment should be drawn up against her. But these were rendered abortive by the prudence and address of the queen, as related under the article PARR.
All this time Henry had tyrannized over his nobility in the most cruel manner. The old countess of Salisbury, the last of the house of Plantagenet, was executed with circumstances of great cruelty. She had been condemned, as usual, without any trial; and when she was brought to the scaffold, refused to lay her head on the block in obedience to a sentence, to the justice of which she had never consented. She told the executioner, therefore, that if he would have her head, he must win it the best way he could; and thus she ran about the scaffold, pursued by the executioner,
tioner, who aimed many fruitless blows at her neck before he was able to put an end to her life. Soon after her, the lord Leonard Grey was likewise executed for treason, but we have very little account of this transaction.
The last instances of the king's injustice and cruelty were the duke of Norfolk and his son the earl of Surry. The former had served the king with fidelity, and the latter was a young man of the most promising hopes. His qualifications, however, were no security against the violence of Henry's temper. He had dropped some expressions of resentment against the king's ministers, who had displaced him from the government of Boulogne; and the whole family had become obnoxious on account of the late queen Catharine Howard. From these motives, orders were given to arrest both the father and son; and accordingly they were arrested both on the same day, and confined to the tower. The duchess-dowager of Richmond, Surry's own sister, was among the number of his accusers; and Sir Richard Southwell also, his most intimate friend, charged him with infidelity to the king. Surry denied the charge, and challenged his accuser to a single combat. This favour was denied him; and, notwithstanding his eloquent and spirited defence, he was condemned and executed at Tower-hill.—The duke of Norfolk vainly endeavoured to mollify the king by letters and submissions. An attainder was found against him, though the only crime his accusers could allege was, that he had once said that the king was sickly, and could not hold out long; and that the kingdom was likely to be torn between the contending parties of different persuasions. Cranmer, though engaged for many years in an opposite party to that of Norfolk, and though he had received many and great injuries from him, would have no hand in such an unjust prosecution; but retired to his seat at Croydon. The death-warrant, however, was made out, and immediately sent to the lieutenant of the tower; but a period was put to the cruelties and violence of the king by his death, which happened on the 14th of January 1547, the night before Norfolk was to have been executed.
Henry was succeeded by his only son Edward, a boy of nine years of age. The most remarkable transactions of his reign are those with regard to religion. The restraint which Henry VIII. had laid upon the Protestants was now taken off; and they not only maintained their doctrines openly, but soon became the prevailing party. Henry had fixed the majority of his son at 18 years of age; and, in the mean time, appointed 16 executors of his will, to whom, during the minority, he entrusted the government of the king and kingdom. This will, he imagined, would be obeyed as implicitly after his death as though he had been alive. But the first act of the executors was to choose the earl of Hertford, afterwards duke of Somerset, protector of the realm; and in him was lodged all the regal power, together with a privilege of naming whom he pleased for his privy council.
The duke of Somerset had long been reckoned a secret partisan of the reformers; and, immediately on his elevation to his present high dignity, began to express his intention of reforming the abuses of the ancient religion. Under his direction and that of Cran-
mer, therefore, the reformation was carried forward and completed. The only person of consequence who opposed the reformers was Gardiner bishop of Winchester; and, to the disgrace of their own principles, the reformers now showed that they could persecute as severely as the Papists had formerly persecuted them. Gardiner was committed to the Fleet The reformers, where he was treated with great severity. He afterwards sent to the tower: and having continued there two years, he was commanded to subscribe several articles, among which was one confessing the justice of his own imprisonment. To all the articles but this he agreed to subscribe; but that did not give satisfaction. He was then committed to close custody; his books and papers were seized; all company was denied him, and he was not even permitted the use of pen and ink. The bishops of Chichester, Worcester, and Exeter, were in like manner deprived of their offices; but the bishops of Llandaff, Salisbury, and Coventry, escaped by sacrificing the most considerable share of their revenues. The libraries of Westminster and Oxford were ordered to be ransacked, and purged of the Romish legends, missals, and other superstitious volumes; in which search, great devastation was made even in useful literature. Many volumes clasped in silver were destroyed for the sake of their rich bindings; many of geometry and astronomy were supposed to be magical, and destroyed on that account; while the members of the university, unable to put a stop to these ravages, trembled for their own safety.
The reformers, however, were not contented with severities of this kind. A commission was granted to the primate and others, to search after all Anabaptists, heretics, or contemners of the new liturgy. Among the numbers who were found guilty upon this occasion, was one Joan Boucher, commonly called Joan of Kent; who was so very obstinate, that the commissioners could make no impression upon her. She maintained an abstruse metaphysical sentiment, that Christ, as man, was a sinful man; but, as the Word, he was free from sin, and could be subject to none of the frailties of the flesh with which he was clothed. For maintaining this doctrine, the poor woman was condemned to be burnt to death as a heretic. The young king, who it seems had more sense than his teachers, refused at first to sign the death-warrant: but at last, being overcome by the importunities of Cranmer, he reluctantly complied; declaring, that if he did wrong, the sin should be on the head of those who had persuaded him to it. The primate, after making another unsuccessful effort to reclaim the woman from her opinions, committed her to the flames. Some time after, one Van Paris, a Dutchman, was condemned to death for Arianism. He suffered with so much satisfaction, that he hugged and caressed the faggots that were consuming him.
The rest of this reign affords only the history of intrigues and cabals of the courtiers one against another. The protector was first opposed by his own brother admiral Sir Thomas Seymour, who had married Catharine Parr the late king's widow. She died soon after the marriage; and he then made his addresses to the princess Elizabeth, who is said not to have been averse to the match. His brother the duke, who was at that time in the north, being informed of his
his ambitious projects, speedily returned, had him attainted of high treason, and at last condemned and executed. The duke of Somerset himself, however, was some time afterwards deprived of his office by Dudley duke of Northumberland; who at last found means to get him accused of high treason, and executed. Not satisfied with the office of protector, which he assumed on the death of Somerset, this ambitious nobleman formed a scheme of engrossing the sovereign power altogether. He represented to Edward, who was now in a declining state of health, that his sisters Mary and Elizabeth, who were appointed by Henry's will to succeed, in failure of direct heirs, to the crown, had both been declared illegitimate by parliament; that the queen of Scots his aunt stood excluded by the king's will; and, being an alien also, lost all right of succeeding. The three princesses being thus excluded, the succession naturally devolved to the marchioness of Dorset, eldest daughter of the French queen, Henry's sister, who had married the earl of Suffolk after her first husband's death. The next heir to the marchioness was Lady Jane Grey, a lady universally respected, both on account of the charms of her person, and the virtues and endowments of her mind. The king, who was accustomed to submit to the politic views of this minister, agreed to have the succession submitted to council, where Northumberland hoped to procure an easy concurrence. The judges, however, who were appointed to draw up the king's letters patent for this purpose, warmly objected to the measure; and gave their reasons before the council. They begged that a parliament might be summoned, both to give it force, and to free its partisans from danger: they said that the form was invalid, and would not only subject the judges who drew it, but every counsellor who signed it, to the pains of treason. Northumberland could not brook their demurs; he threatened them with his authority, called one of them a traitor, and said he would fight with any man in his shirt in such a just cause as that of Lady Jane's succession. A method was therefore found out of screening the judges from danger, by granting them the king's pardon for what they should draw up; and at length the patent for changing the succession was completed, the princesses Mary and Elizabeth were set aside, and the crown settled on the heirs of the dutchess of Suffolk: (for she herself was contented to forego her claim.)
For some time the king had languished in a consumption. After this settlement of the crown, his health visibly declined every day, and little hopes were entertained of his recovery. To make matters worse, his physicians were dismissed by Northumberland's advice, and by an order of council; and he was put into the hands of an ignorant old woman, who undertook in a little time to restore him to health. After the use of her medicines all his bad symptoms increased to the most violent degree. He felt a difficulty of speech and breathing; his pulse failed, his legs swelled, his colour became livid, and many other signs of approaching death made their appearance. He expired at Greenwich on the 6th of July 1553, in the 16th year of his age and 7th of his reign.
After the death of King Edward, very little regard was paid to the new patent by which Lady Jane Grey
had been declared heir to the throne. The undoubted title of Mary, notwithstanding the scandalous behaviour of her father and his fervid parliaments, was acknowledged by the whole nation. Northumberland, however, was resolved to put the late king's will in execution. He therefore carefully concealed the death of Edward, in hopes of securing the person of Mary, who by an order of council had been required to attend her brother during his illness; but she being informed of his death, immediately prepared to assert her right to the crown. Northumberland then, accompanied by the duke of Suffolk, the earl of Pembroke, and some other noblemen, saluted Lady Jane Grey queen of England. Jane was in a great measure ignorant of these transactions, and it was with the utmost difficulty she was persuaded to accept of the dignity conferred upon her. At last she complied, and suffered herself to be conveyed to the tower, where it was then usual for the sovereigns of England to pass some days after their accession. Mary, however, who had retired to Kenning-hall in Norfolk, in a very few days found herself at the head of 40,000 men; and Lady Jane resigned the sovereignty in ten days, with much more pleasure than she had received it. She retired with her mother to their own habitation; and Northumberland finding his affairs quite desperate, attempted to quit the kingdom. But he was stopped by the band of pensioner guards, who informed him that he must stay to justify their conduct in taking arms against their lawful sovereign. He therefore surrendered himself to Mary; and was soon after executed, together with Sir John Gates and Sir Thomas Palmer, two infamous tools of his power. Sentence was also pronounced against Lady Jane Grey and her husband Lord Guildford; but without any intention of putting it in execution against them at present, as their youth and innocence pleaded so strongly in their favour, neither of them having yet reached their 17th year.
Mary now entered London, and was peaceably set on the throne without any effusion of blood. The English, however, soon found reason to repent their attachment to her cause. Though she had at first solemnly promised to defend the religion and laws of her predecessor, she no sooner saw herself firmly established on the throne, than she resolved to restore the Popish religion, and give back their former power to the clergy. Gardiner, Bonner, and the other bishops who had been imprisoned or suffered loss during the last reign, were taken from prison, reinstated in their fees, and now triumphed in their turn. On pretence of discouraging controversy, the queen by her prerogative silenced all preachers throughout England, except such as should obtain a particular license, and this she was resolved to give only to those of her own persuasion. The greater part of the foreign Protestants took the first opportunity of leaving the kingdom; and many of the arts and manufactures, which they had successfully introduced, fled with them. Soon after, the queen called a parliament, which seemed willing to concur in all her measures. They at once repealed all the statutes with regard to religion that had passed during the reign of Edward VI, and the national religion was again placed on the same footing in which it had been at the death of Henry VIII.
To strengthen the cause of the Catholics, and give
295
Lady Jane Grey declared heir to the crown.
296
Death of Edward VI.
England. the queen more power to establish the religion to which she was so much attached, a proper match was to be sought for her; and it was supposed that three had already been proposed as candidates for her favour. Her affection seemed to be engaged by the earl of Devonshire: but as he was rather attached to the princess Elizabeth, he received the overtures which were made him from the queen with neglect. The next person mentioned as a proper match for her was Cardinal Pole, a man greatly respected for his virtues; but as he was now in the decline of life, Mary soon dropped all thoughts of that alliance. At last she cast her eye on Philip II. of Spain, son to the emperor Charles V. He was then in the 27th year of his age, and consequently agreeable in that respect to Mary, who was in her 48th year; but when her intentions with regard to this match became known, the greatest alarm took place throughout the whole nation. The commons presented such a strong remonstrance against a foreign alliance, that the queen thought proper to dissolve the parliament in order to get quit of their importunity. To obviate, however, all clamour, the articles of marriage were drawn up as favourably as possible for the interests of England. It was agreed, that though Philip should have the title of king, the administration should be entirely in the queen; that no foreigner should be capable of holding any office in the kingdom; nor should any innovation be made in the laws, customs, and privileges of the people; that Philip should not carry the queen abroad without her consent, or any of her children without the consent of the nobility. Sixty thousand pounds a-year were to be settled upon her as a jointure; and the male issue of this marriage were to inherit Burgundy and the Low Countries as well as the crown of England: and in case of the death of Don Carlos, Philip's son by his former marriage, without any heir, the queen's issue should inherit all the rest of the Spanish dominions also.
All these concessions, however, were not sufficient to quiet the apprehensions of the people: they were considered merely as words of course, which might be retracted at pleasure; and the whole nation murmured loudly against a transaction so dangerous to its ancient liberty and independence. An insurrection was raised by Sir Thomas Wyatt, a Roman Catholic, at the head of 4000 men, who set out from Kent to London, publishing a declaration against the Spanish match and the queen's evil counsellors. Having advanced as far as Southwark, he required that the queen should put the tower of London into his hands; that she should deliver four counsellors as hostages; and, in order to ensure the liberty of the nation, should marry an Englishman. But his force was at present by far too small to support such magnificent pretensions; and he unluckily wasted so much time without attempting anything of importance, that the popular ferment entirely subsided, his followers abandoned him gradually, and he was at last obliged to surrender himself to Sir Maurice Berkeley near Temple-bar. His followers were treated with great cruelty: no fewer than 400 of them suffered by the hand of the executioner; 400 more were conducted with ropes about their necks into the queen's presence, and there received their
pardon. Wyatt himself was condemned and executed. England.
This rebellion had almost proved fatal to the Princess Elizabeth, who for some time past had been treated with great severity by her sister. Mary, who possessed a most malignant and cruel heart, had never forgotten the quarrel between their mothers; and when a declaration was made after her own accession, recognizing Queen Catharine's marriage as legal, she was thus furnished with a pretence for accounting Elizabeth illegitimate. She was likewise obnoxious on account of her religion, which Elizabeth at first had not prudence sufficient to conceal; though afterwards she learned full well to disguise her sentiments. But, above all, her standing so high in the affection of the earl of Devonshire, was a crime not to be forgiven; and Mary made her sensible of her displeasure by numberless mortifications. She was ordered to take place at court after the duchess of Suffolk and the countess of Lennox; to avoid which, and other indignities, Elizabeth at last retired from court altogether into the country. After the suppression of Wyatt's rebellion she was committed to the tower, and underwent a strict examination before the council; but as Wyatt had made a declaration on the scaffold that she was in no manner of way concerned, the queen found herself under a necessity of releasing her. To get rid of such a troublesome rival, however, she was offered in marriage to the duke of Savoy; and on Elizabeth's declining the proposal, she was committed close prisoner to Woodstock. The rebellion proved fatal, however, to many persons of distinction, and gave the queen an opportunity of manifesting that unbounded cruelty which reigned in her heart. The tower, and all the prisons in the kingdom, were filled with nobility and gentry, who became objects of royal vengeance, more on account of their credit and interest with the people than any concern they were supposed to have had with Wyatt. Sir Nicholas Throgmorton was tried in Guildhall; but as no satisfactory evidence appeared against him, the jury gave a verdict in his favour. The queen was so much enraged at this disappointment, that she recommended him to the tower, summoned the jury before the council, and at last sent them all to prison, fixing them afterwards some of 1000l. and others of 2000l. each. Sir John Throgmorton, brother to Sir Nicholas just mentioned, was condemned and executed upon evidence which had been already rejected as insufficient. But of all those who perished on this occasion, Executions of Lady none excited more universal compassion than the unfortunate Lady Jane Grey and her husband Lord and her Gailford Dudley. They had already received sentence of death, as has been mentioned; and two days after the execution of Wyatt, they received orders to prepare for eternity. Lady Jane, who had been in expectation of this blow, was no way intimidated, but received the news with the most heroic resolution. The place intended at first for their execution was Tower-hill; but the council, dreading the effects of the people's compassion for their youth, beauty, and innocence, gave directions that they should be beheaded within the verge of the tower. The duke of Suffolk was soon after tried, condemned, and executed; but would have met with more compassion, had not his ambition.
England. Ambition been the cause of his daughter's unhappy fate just mentioned. Sir Thomas Grey also lost his life on the same account; but the cruel spirit of Mary was still unsatisfied; and finding herself universally odious, that she might free herself from any apprehensions for what was past, as well as tyrannize with the more freedom in time to come, she disabled the people from resistance, by ordering general mulcts, and causing the commissioners seize their arms and lay them up in forts and castles.
Notwithstanding this unpopularity, however, the rebellion of Wyatt had so strengthened the hands of government, that a parliament was assembled in hopes of gratifying the queen's wishes in regard to her marriage with Philip of Spain. To facilitate this purpose also, the emperor of Germany sent over to England 400,000 crowns to be distributed among the members of parliament in bribes and pensions; a practice of which there had hitherto been no example in England. The queen, notwithstanding her bigotry, resumed the title of Supreme Head of the Church, which she had dropped three months before. Gardiner made a speech, in which he proposed, that they should invest the queen with a legal power of disposing of the crown, and appointing her successor; but the parliament, however obsequious in other respects, did not choose to gratify their sovereign in a measure by which the kingdom of England might become a province of the Spanish monarchy. They would not even declare it treason to imagine or attempt the death of the queen's husband during her life-time, though they agreed to ratify the articles of marriage. Finding therefore that the parliament even yet was not sufficiently obsequious, it was thought most proper to dissolve them. Soon after this the marriage with Philip was solemnized; but as the latter had espoused his queen merely with a view to become king of England, he no sooner found himself disappointed in this than he showed a total want of affection for her as a wife. He passed most of his time at a distance from her in the Low Countries; and seldom wrote to her except when he wanted money, with which Mary would at all times gladly have supplied him even had it been at the expense of her kingdom, if in her power.
306 Marriage with Philip solemnized. The enemies of the state being supposed to be suppressed, those of the Protestant religion were next persecuted. The old sanguinary laws which had been rejected by a former parliament were now revived. Orders were given, that the priests and bishops who had married should be ejected; that the mass should be restored, and the pope's authority established; and that the church and its privileges, all but their goods and estates, should be put on the same footing on which they were before the commencement of the reformation. But as the gentry and nobility had already divided the church-lands among them, it was though inconvenient, and indeed impossible, to make a restoration of these. The persons who chiefly promoted these measures were Gardiner bishop of Winchester, and Cardinal Pole, who was a kinsman of Henry VIII. but had been long in Italy, and was now returned from it. The latter was for tolerating the Protestants; but the former, perceiving that rigorous measures would be most agreeable to the king and queen, declared himself against it. He was too prudent, however, to appear in person at the
head of the persecution; and therefore confessed that England. office to Bonnar bishop of London, a man of a very abandoned character. The bloody scene began by the execution of Hooper bishop of Gloucester, and Rogers prebendary of St Paul's. These were quickly followed by others, of whom the principal were Archbishop Cranmer, Ridley bishop of London, and Latimer bishop of Worcester*. These persecutions soon became odious to the whole nation, and the perpetrators of them were all willing to throw the blame from themselves upon others. Philip endeavoured to fasten the whole reproach upon Bonnar; but that bishop would not take the whole, and therefore retorted on the court. A bold step was now taken to introduce a court similar to the Spanish inquisition, that should be empowered to try heretics, and condemn them without any other law but its own authority. But even this was thought a method too dilatory in the present exigence of affairs. A proclamation issued against books of heresy, treason, and sedition, declared, that whosoever had such books in his possession, and did not burn them without reading, should suffer as a rebel. This was attended with the execution of such numbers, that at last the magistrates who had been instrumental in these cruelties refused to give their assistance any longer. It was computed, that during this persecution, 277 persons suffered by fire, besides those punished by imprisonments, fines, and confiscations. Among those who suffered by fire were 5 bishops, 21 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, 55 women, and 4 children.
The only remarkable transaction which happened during this reign with regard to the temporal affairs of the kingdom was the loss of Calais, which had been in the possession of the English for upwards of 200 years†. This loss filled the whole kingdom with complaints, and the queen with grief. She was heard to say, that, when dead, the name of Calais would be found engraven on her heart. She did not long survive this loss; but died in the year 1558, of a lingering illness, after a reign of five years four months and eleven days. 308 Mary dies, and is succeeded by Elizabeth.
After the death of Mary, the princess Elizabeth succeeded to the throne without opposition. She was at Hatfield when news of her sister's death were brought her, upon which she hastened up to London, where she was received with great joy. This princess was well qualified for government. She had judgment sufficient to make choice of proper ministers, and authority enough to keep her subjects in awe. The restraints also, to which she had been subjected during her sister's reign, had taught her so well to conceal her sentiments, that she had become a perfect mistress of dissimulation; which, though no commendable part of her character, proved occasionally of great service to her government. She perfected the reformation, and put the religion of England upon the same plan which subsists at present. This was accomplished without the least difficulty; for the persecutions in Mary's reign had served only to give the whole nation an aversion for popery. In the time of Edward VI. the people had been compelled to embrace the Protestant religion, and their fears induced them to conform; but now, almost the whole nation were Protestants from inclination. The reformation was confirmed by act of parliament in 1559, and thus
England. thus England was seen to change its religion four times in the space of 32 years.
309
Peace with France.
During the time that the queen and her counsellors were employed in settling the religious affairs of the nation, negotiations were likewise carried on for a peace between England and France; which was at last concluded on the following terms, viz. that Henry should restore Calais at the expiration of eight years; that in case of failure, he should pay 500,000 crowns, and Elizabeth's title to Calais still remain; that for the payment of this sum he should find the security of eight foreign merchants, not natives of France; and until that security were provided he should deliver five hostages. If during this interval Elizabeth should break the peace with France or Scotland, she should forfeit all title to Calais; but if Henry made war on Elizabeth, he should be obliged to restore the fortress immediately. This pacification was soon followed by an irreconcilable quarrel with Mary queen of Scotland; which was not extinguished but by the death of the Scottish princes; and that with such circumstances of accumulated treachery, hypocrisy, and dissimulation, as have stamped an indelible disgrace on the memory of Elizabeth. See the articles MARY and SCOTLAND.
310
Preparations for war with Spain.
311
Exploits of Sir Francis Drake.
312
Misconception of Philip's scheme of an invasion.
Elizabeth having at last got rid of her rival in the year 1587, began to make preparations for resisting the Spanish invasion. Hearing that Philip was secretly fitting out a great navy to attack her, she sent Sir Francis Drake with a fleet to pillage his coasts and destroy his shipping. On this expedition he set sail with four capital ships furnished by the queen, and 26 others of various sizes furnished him by the merchants of London in hopes of sharing the plunder. Having learned that a Spanish fleet richly laden was lying at Cadiz in readiness to set sail for Lisbon, he directed his course towards the former port, where he boldly attacked the enemy. Six galleys were obliged to take shelter under the cannon of the forts; he burned about 100 vessels laden with ammunition and naval stores; and destroyed a great ship belonging to the marquis de Santa Croce. Thence setting sail for Cape St Vincent, he took by assault the castle situated on that promontory, with three other fortresses. Having next insulted Lisbon, he sailed to the island Tercera, one of the Azores, where, after lying in wait for some time, he took a rich prize, and then returned to England; having by this short expedition taught the English to despise the huge and unwieldy ships of the enemy, and thus prepared them to act with more resolution against the formidable armament that now threatened to invade them.
But though the expedition of Sir Francis Drake had retarded the intended invasion of England for a twelvemonth, it had not by any means induced Philip to abandon his design. During that interval he continued his preparations with the greatest assiduity, the more especially as the invasion of England seemed to be a necessary preparative for regaining his authority over the Netherlands, the revolted provinces having been strongly supported by Elizabeth. The fleet prepared at this time was superior to any thing then existing in the world; and no doubt being entertained of its success, it was ostentatiously styled the Invincible Armada. The miserable event of this expedition, and the total failure of all the mighty hopes of Philip, are related under the article ARMADA. The spirit and courage of the
VOL. VIII. Part I.
English were now excited to attempt invasions in their turn; which they executed in numerous descents on the Spanish coasts; though these were only temporary, and designed not for permanent conquest, but to harass the enemy. It would be endless to relate all the advantages obtained over the enemy at sea, where the capture of every ship must have been a separate narrative. It is sufficient to observe, that the sea-captains of that reign are still considered as the boldest and most enterprising set of men that England ever produced; and among this number we are to reckon Raleigh and Howard, Drake, Cavendish, and Hawkins. The English navy then began to take the lead; and has since continued irresistible in all parts of the ocean.
Elizabeth continued to reign with great glory till the year 1603; but all her greatness could not prevent her from being extremely miserable before her death. She had caused her greatest favourite, and probably her lover, the earl of Essex, to be executed. Though this execution could not be called unjust, the queen's affection (on being informed that he had at last thrown himself entirely on her clemency) returned to such a degree, that she thenceforth gave herself entirely over to despair. She refused food and sustenance; she continued silent and gloomy; sighs and groans were the only vent she gave to her despondence; and she lay for ten days and nights upon the carpet, leaning on cushions, which her maids brought her. Perhaps the faculties of her mind were impaired by long and violent exercise; perhaps she reflected with remorse on some past actions of her life, or perceived, but too strongly, the decays of nature, and the approach of her dissolution. She saw her courtiers remitting in their assiduity to her, in order to pay their court to James the apparent successor. Such a concurrence of causes was more than sufficient to destroy the remains of her constitution; and her end was now visibly seen to approach. Feeling a perpetual heat in her stomach, attended with an unquenchable thirst, she drank without ceasing, but refused the assistance of her physicians. Her distemper gaining ground, Cecil and the lord admiral desired to know her sentiments with regard to the succession. To this she replied, that as the crown of England had always been held by kings, it ought not to devolve upon any inferior character, but upon her immediate heir the king of Scotland. Being then advised by the archbishop of Canterbury to fix her thoughts upon God, she replied, that her thoughts did not in the least wander from him. Her voice soon after left her; she fell into a lethargic slumber, which continued some hours; and she expired gently without a groan, in the 70th year of her age, and 45th of her reign. She was succeeded by James I. king of Scotland; since which time, the history of both England and Scotland is comprehended under the article BRITAIN.
Since the Norman conquest, England has been divided into six circuits, each circuit containing a certain number of counties. Two judges are appointed for each circuit, which they visit in the spring and autumn, for administering justice to the subjects who are at a distance from the capital. In holding the lent (or spring) assizes, the northern circuit extends only to York and Lancaster; the assizes at Durham, Newcastle, Carlisle, and Appleby, being held only in the autumn.
England. autumn, and distinguished by the appellation of the long circuit. These circuits and counties are:
1. Home Circuit contains the counties of Essex, Hertford, Kent, Surrey, and Sussex.
2. Norfolk Circuit contains those of Bucks, Bedford, Huntingdon, Cambridge, Suffolk, and Norfolk.
3. Oxford Circuit. Oxon, Berks, Gloucester, Worcester, Monmouth, Hereford, Salop, and Stafford.
4. Midland Circuit. Warwick, Leicester, Derby, Nottingham, Lincoln, Rutland, and Northampton.
5. Western Circuit. Hants, Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall.
6. Northern Circuit. York, Durham, Northumberland, Lancast, Westmorland, and Cumberland.
Middlesex and Cheshire are not comprehended in the above circuits; the former being the seat of the supreme courts of justice, and the latter a county palatine. There is still a court of chancery in Lancaster and Durham, with a chancellor; and there is a court of exchequer at Chester, of a mixed kind, both for law and equity, of which the chamberlain of Chester is judge: there are also other justices in the counties palatine, to determine civil actions and pleas of the crown.
Besides the 40 counties into which England is divided, there are counties corporate, consisting of certain districts, to which the liberties and jurisdictions peculiar to a county have been granted by charter from the throne. Thus the city of London is a county distinct from Middlesex; the cities of York, Chester, Bristol, Norwich, Worcester, and the towns of Kingston upon Hull and Newcastle upon Tyne, are counties of themselves, distinct from those in which they lie. The same may be said of Berwick upon Tweed, which lies in Scotland, and has within its jurisdiction a small territory of two miles on the north side of the river. Under the name of a town, boroughs and cities are contained: for every borough or city is a town, though every town is not a borough or city.—An account of the English constitution and government is given under the articles KING, LORDS, COMMONS, PARLIAMENT, LAW, LIBERTY, RIGHTS, &c.
The established religion of England is Episcopacy. Since the reign of Henry VIII. the sovereigns of England have been called, in public writs, the supreme heads of the church; but this title conveys no spiritual meaning, as it only denotes the regal power to prevent any ecclesiastical differences, or, in other words, to substitute the king in place of the pope before the reformation, with regard to temporalities and the internal economy of the church. The kings of England never intermeddle in ecclesiastical disputes, and are contented to give a sanction to the legal rights of the clergy.
The church of England, under this description of the monarchical power over it, is governed by two archbishops, and 24 bishops, besides the bishop of Sodor and Man, who, not being possessed of an English barony, does not sit in the house of peers. See ARCHBISHOP and BISHOP.
England contains about 60 archdeacons. Subordinate to them are the rural deacons, formerly styled archpresbyters, who signify the bishop's pleasure to his clergy, the lower class of which consists of parish-priests (who are called rectors or vicars), deacons and
curates. See the articles CURATE, DEACON, PARSON, England, and VICAR.
The following is a list of the English bishops, with their revenues, as charged in the king's books; of the though that sum is far from being the real annual value of the fee, yet it affords in forming a comparative estimate between the revenues of each fee with those of another.
| ARCHBISHOPRICS. | L. | s. | d. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Canterbury, | - | 2682 | 12 | 2 |
| York, | - | 1610 | 0 | 0 |
| BISHOPRICS. | ||||
| London, | - | 2000 | 0 | 0 |
| Durham, | - | 1821 | 1 | 3 |
| Winchester, | - | 3124 | 12 | 8 |
These three bishops take precedence of all others in England, and the others according to the seniority of their consecrations.
| Ely, | - | 2134 | 18 | 6 |
| Bath and Wells, | - | 533 | 1 | 3 |
| Hereford, | - | 768 | 11 | 0 |
| Rochester, | - | 358 | 4 | 9 |
| Litchfield and Coventry, | - | 559 | 17 | 3 |
| Chester, | - | 420 | 1 | 8 |
| Worcester, | - | 929 | 13 | 3 |
| Chichester, | - | 677 | 1 | 3 |
| St Asaph, | - | 187 | 11 | 8 |
| Salisbury, | - | 1385 | 5 | 0 |
| Bangor, | - | 131 | 16 | 3 |
| Norwich, | - | 834 | 11 | 7 |
| Gloucester, | - | 315 | 7 | 3 |
| Llandaff, | - | 154 | 14 | 2 |
| Lincoln, | - | 894 | 18 | 1 |
| Bristol, | - | 297 | 11 | 0 |
| Carlisle, | - | 531 | 4 | 9 |
| Exeter, | - | 500 | 0 | 0 |
| Peterborough, | - | 414 | 14 | 8 |
| Oxford, | - | 381 | 11 | 0 |
| St Davids, | - | 426 | 2 | 1 |
The ecclesiastical government of England is, properly speaking, lodged in the convocation; which is a national representative or synod, and answers pretty near to the ideas we have of a parliament. They are convoked at the same time with every parliament; and their business is to consider of the state of the church, and to call those to an account who have advanced new opinions, inconsistent with the doctrines of the church of England. Some high-flying clergymen during the reign of Queen Anne, and in the beginning of that of George I. raised the powers of the convocation to a height that was inconsistent with the principles of religious toleration, and indeed of civil liberty: so that the crown was obliged to exert its prerogative of calling the members together, and of dissolving them; and ever since they have not been permitted to sit for any time, in which they could do business.
The following table exhibits a view of the population of England, taken from the returns made to the house of commons in consequence of an act of parliament which was passed for the purpose of ascertaining the number of inhabitants in the kingdom. From this table it appears that the total number of persons in England amounts to 8,331,434.
| COUNTIES. | HOUSES. | PERSONS. | OCCUPATIONS. | Total of Persons. | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Inhabited. | By how many Families occupied. | Males. | Females. | Persons chiefly employed in Agriculture. | Ditto in Trade Manufactures, or Handicraft. | ||
| Bedford | 11,888 | 13,980 | 30,523 | 32,870 | 18,766 | 13,816 | 63,393 |
| Berks | 20,573 | 23,416 | 52,821 | 56,394 | 38,155 | 16,921 | 109,215 |
| Buckingham | 20,443 | 23,384 | 52,094 | 55,354 | 25,083 | 20,138 | 107,444 |
| Cambridge | 16,139 | 19,262 | 44,031 | 45,265 | 23,054 | 11,988 | 89,346 |
| Chester | 34,482 | 37,613 | 92,759 | 98,992 | 38,823 | 67,447 | 191,751 |
| Cornwall | 32,906 | 39,040 | 89,868 | 98,401 | 42,687 | 24,870 | 188,269 |
| Cumberland | 21,573 | 25,893 | 54,377 | 62,833 | 21,062 | 18,387 | 117,230 |
| Derby | 31,822 | 33,660 | 79,401 | 81,471 | 31,743 | 39,516 | 161,142 |
| Devon | 57,955 | 72,559 | 157,240 | 185,761 | 96,208 | 60,844 | 343,001 |
| Dorset | 21,437 | 24,142 | 53,667 | 61,652 | 28,204 | 22,259 | 115,319 |
| Durham | 27,195 | 38,109 | 74,770 | 85,591 | 18,217 | 25,208 | 160,361 |
| Essex | 38,371 | 46,784 | 111,356 | 115,081 | 65,174 | 25,283 | 226,437 |
| Gloucester | 46,457 | 55,133 | 117,180 | 133,620 | 49,420 | 49,645 | 250,809 |
| Hereford | 17,003 | 18,822 | 43,955 | 45,236 | 31,261 | 8,588 | 89,191 |
| Hertford | 17,681 | 20,092 | 48,063 | 49,514 | 20,611 | 12,861 | 97,577 |
| Huntingdon | 6,841 | 8,150 | 18,521 | 19,047 | 9,536 | 4,484 | 37,368 |
| Kent | 51,585 | 65,967 | 151,374 | 156,250 | 54,124 | 43,253 | 307,624 |
| Lancaster | 114,270 | 132,147 | 322,356 | 350,375 | 52,018 | 269,259 | 672,731 |
| Leicester | 25,992 | 27,967 | 63,943 | 66,138 | 23,823 | 42,036 | 130,081 |
| Lincoln | 41,395 | 42,629 | 102,445 | 106,112 | 60,584 | 24,263 | 228,557 |
| Middlesex | 112,912 | 109,854 | 373,655 | 444,474 | 43,417 | 162,260 | 818,129 |
| Monmouth | 8,948 | 9,993 | 22,173 | 23,409 | 12,871 | 5,540 | 45,582 |
| Norfolk | 47,617 | 57,930 | 129,842 | 143,529 | 61,791 | 38,181 | 273,371 |
| Northampton | 26,665 | 29,361 | 63,417 | 68,340 | 29,303 | 31,426 | 131,737 |
| Northumberland | 26,518 | 35,593 | 73,357 | 83,744 | 23,190 | 25,738 | 157,101 |
| Nottingham | 25,611 | 30,081 | 68,558 | 71,792 | 23,904 | 35,513 | 140,350 |
| Oxford | 20,599 | 23,750 | 53,786 | 55,834 | 33,109 | 16,346 | 109,620 |
| Rutland | 3,274 | 3,563 | 7,978 | 8,378 | 3,995 | 1,923 | 16,356 |
| Salop | 31,182 | 34,501 | 82,563 | 85,076 | 45,046 | 35,535 | 167,639 |
| Somerset | 48,040 | 57,013 | 126,927 | 146,823 | 61,434 | 54,053 | 273,730 |
| Southampton | 38,345 | 45,331 | 105,667 | 113,989 | 50,696 | 39,393 | 219,656 |
| Stafford | 45,198 | 48,185 | 118,698 | 120,455 | 43,930 | 72,465 | 239,153 |
| Suffolk | 32,253 | 43,481 | 101,091 | 109,340 | 55,744 | 34,064 | 210,431 |
| Surrey | 46,972 | 63,673 | 127,138 | 141,905 | 2,746 | 42,865 | 269,043 |
| Suffex | 25,272 | 30,755 | 78,797 | 80,514 | 38,925 | 19,608 | 159,311 |
| Warwick | 40,847 | 44,028 | 99,942 | 108,248 | 34,736 | 91,922 | 208,190 |
| Wiltshire | 7,897 | 9,026 | 20,175 | 21,442 | 12,141 | 8,673 | 41,617 |
| Wits | 29,462 | 30,527 | 87,380 | 97,727 | 53,517 | 39,422 | 185,107 |
| Worcester | 26,711 | 29,741 | 67,631 | 71,702 | 38,865 | 30,230 | 139,333 |
| York (East Riding) | 25,781 | 31,544 | 67,457 | 71,976 | 31,538 | 22,003 | 139,433 |
| York (North Riding) | 31,512 | 34,542 | 74,904 | 80,602 | 44,061 | 26,207 | 155,526 |
| York (West Riding) | 111,146 | 117,379 | 276,005 | 287,948 | 55,695 | 16,418 | 563,953 |
| 1,467,870 | 1,778,420 | 3,987,935 | 4,243,499 | 1,524,227 | 1,789,531 | 8,331,434 | |