GENEVA, a city of Switzerland, on the confines of France and Savoy, situated in 6° E. Long. and 46° 12' 9" N. Lat. It stands on the banks of the river Rhone, just at the place where the latter issues from the lake which takes its name from the city; and part of it is built on an island in the river. It is handsome, well fortified, and pretty large; the streets in general are clean and well paved, but the principal one is encumbered with a row of shops on each side between the carriage and foot-path. The latter is very wide, and protected from the weather by great wooden pent-houses projecting from the roofs; which, though very convenient, give the street a dark and dull appearance. The houses are generally constructed of free-stone, with basements of limestone; the gutters, spouts, ridges,
Genève. ridges, and outward ornaments, being made of tinned iron. Some of them have arched walks or piazzas in front. The place called Treille is very agreeable, being planted with linden trees, and commanding a fine prospect of the lake, with several ranges of rocks rising behind one another, some covered with vineyards and herbage, and others with snow, having openings between them. Immediately below Genève the Rhône is joined by the Arve, a cold and muddy stream rising among the Alps, and deriving a considerable part of its waters from the Glaciers. The Rhône is quite clear and transparent, so that the muddy water of the Arve is distinguishable from it even after they have flowed for several miles together. There are four bridges over the Rhône before it joins the Arve; and from it the city is supplied with water by means of an hydraulic machine, which raises it 100 Paris feet above its level. The principal buildings are, 1. The maison de ville, or townhouse, a plain ancient edifice, with large rooms, in which the councils assemble, and public entertainments are held; and in one of them a weekly concert is held by subscription during the winter. The ascent to the upper story is not by steps but a paved acclivity: which, however, is so gentle, that horses and mules can go up to the top. 2. The church of St Peter's, formerly the cathedral, is an ancient Gothic building, with a modern portico of seven large Corinthian columns of red and white marble from Roche. The only thing remarkable in the inside is the tomb of Henry duke of Rohan. 3. The arsenal is in good order, and supplied with arms sufficient for 12,000 men. There are many ancient suits of armour; and the scaling ladders, lanthorns, hatchets, &c. used by the Savoyards in their treacherous attempts on the city in the year 1602, to be afterwards noticed, are here preserved. The magazines contain 110 cannon, besides mortars. 4. The hospital is a large handsome building, by which and other charities near 4000 poor people are maintained. 5. The fortifications on the side of Savoy are of the modern construction, but are commanded by some neighbouring grounds. On the side of France they are old fashioned, and at any rate are rather calculated to prevent a surprise than to sustain a regular siege. There are three gates, towards France, Savoy, and Switzerland; and the access to the lake is guarded by a double jetty and chain.
The territory belonging to this city contains about seven square leagues, and is divided into nine parishes; the town is by far the most populous in Switzerland, having about 30,000 inhabitants, of whom, however, 5000 are generally supposed to be absent. It has a small district dependent on it, but this does not contain above 16,000. The adjacent country is extremely beautiful, and has many magnificent views arising from the different positions of the numerous hills and mountains with regard to the town and lake. The inhabitants were formerly distinguished into four classes, viz. citizens, burghesses, inhabitants, and natives; and since the revolution in 1782, a fifth class named domicilius, has been added, who annually receive permission from the magistrates to reside in the city. The citizens and burghesses alone, however, are admitted to a share in the government; those called inhabitants are strangers allowed to settle in the town with certain privileges; and the natives are the sons of
those inhabitants, who possess additional advantages. Genève. The people are very active and industrious, carrying on an extensive commerce.
This city is remarkable for the number of learned men it has produced. The reformed doctrines of religion were very early received in it, being preached there in 1533 by William Farel and Peter Viret of Orbe, and afterwards finally established by the celebrated John Calvin. Of this reformer Voltaire observes, that he gave his name to the religious doctrines first broached by others, in the same manner that Americus Vespucius gave name to the continent of America, which had formerly been discovered by Columbus. It was by the assiduity of this celebrated reformer, and the influence that he acquired among the citizens, that a public academy was first established in the city, where he, Theodore Beza, and some of the more eminent first reformers, read lectures with uncommon success. The intolerant spirit of Calvin is well known; but little of it now appears in the government of Genève: on the contrary, it is the most tolerating of all the estates in Switzerland, being the only one of them which permits the public exercise of the Lutheran religion. The advantages of the academy at Genève are very conspicuous among the citizens at this day, even the lower class of them being exceedingly well informed; so that, according to Mr Coxe, there is not a city in Europe where learning is so generally diffused. "I received great satisfaction (says he) in conversing even with several tradesmen upon topics both of literature and politics; and was astonished to find in this class of men so uncommon a share of knowledge; but the wonder ceases when we are told that all of them were educated at the public academy." In this seminary the industry and emulation of the students are excited by the annual distribution of prizes to those who distinguish themselves in each class. The prizes consist of small medals, but are conferred with such solemnity as cannot fail to produce a striking effect on the minds of youth. There is also a public library to which the citizens have access, and which undoubtedly tends greatly to that universal diffusion of learning so remarkable among the inhabitants. It was founded by Bonnard, remarkable for his sufferings in the cause of the liberties of his country. Having been a great antagonist of the dukes of Savoy, against whom he asserted the independence of Genève, he had the misfortune at last to be taken prisoner, and was imprisoned for six years in a dungeon below the level of the lake, in the castle of Chillon, which stands on a rock in the lake, and is connected with the land by a drawbridge. In 1536 this castle was taken from Charles III. of Savoy by the canton of Bern, assisted by the Genevans, who furnished a frigate (their whole naval force) to besiege it by water. Bonnard was now taken from his dungeon, where by constant walking backward and forward, his only amusement, he had worn a hollow in the floor which consisted of solid rock. Bonnard considered the hardships he had endured as ties which endeared him to the city, and became a principal promoter of the reformation by the mild methods of persuasion and instruction. He closed his benefactions by the gift of his books and manuscripts, and bequeathing his fortune towards the establishment and support of the seminary. His works, which chiefly relate to the history
Geneva. history of Geneva, are still preserved with great care and reverence. The library contains 25,000 volumes, with many curious manuscripts, of which an account has been published by the reverend M. Sennebier the librarian, who has likewise distinguished himself by several literary works. Messrs Bonnet, Saussure, Mallet, and De Luc, are the other most distinguished literary geniuses of which Geneva can boast. The last is particularly remarkable for the perfection to which he has brought the barometer, and which is now so great, that very little seems possible to be done by any body else. His cabinet merits the attention of naturalists, as containing many rare and curious specimens of fossils, which serve to illustrate the theory of the globe. It may be divided into three parts: 1. Such as enable the naturalist to compare the petrifications of animals and vegetables with the same bodies which are still known to exist in our parts of the globe. 2. To compare these petrifications of animals with the same bodies which are known to exist in different countries. 3. To consider the petrifications of those bodies which are no longer known to exist. The second part comprehends the stones under three points of view: 1. Those of the primitive mountains, which contain no animal bodies; 2. Those of the secondary mountains, which contain only marine bodies; 3. Those which contain terrestrial bodies. The third part contains the lavas and other volcanic productions; which are distinguished into two classes: 1. Those which come from volcanoes now actually burning; 2. Those from extinct volcanoes.
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History and government of Geneva.
In the time of Charles the Great, the city and territory of Geneva made part of his empire; and, under his successors, it became subject to the German emperors. By reason of the imbecility of these princes, however, the bishops of Geneva acquired such authority over the inhabitants, that the emperor had no other means of counterbalancing it than by augmenting the privileges of the people. In these barbarous ages also the bishops and counts had constant disputes, of which the people took the advantage; and by siding sometimes with one, and sometimes with the other, they obtained an extension of their privileges from both. The house of Savoy at length purchased the territory, and succeeded the counts with additional power: against them therefore the bishops and people united in order to resist their encroachments; and, during this period, the government was strangely complicated, by reason of the various pretensions of the three parties. The counts of Savoy, however, had at last the address to dissolve the union between the bishops and citizens, by procuring the episcopal see for their brothers, and even their illegitimate children; by which means their power became gradually so extensive, that towards the commencement of the 16th century, Charles III. of Savoy (though the government was accounted entirely republican) obtained an almost absolute authority over the people, and exercised it in a most unjust and arbitrary manner. Thus violent commotions took place; and the citizens became divided into two parties, one of which, viz. the patriots, were styled Eidgenossen or confederates; the partisans of Savoy being disgraced by the appellation of Mamelukes or slaves. The true period of Genevan liberty may therefore be considered as commencing
with the treaty concluded with Berne and Friburg in the year 1526; in consequence of which the duke was in a short time deprived of his authority, the bishop driven from the city, and the reformed religion and a republican form of government introduced. A long war commenced with Savoy on this account; but the Genevans proved an overmatch for their enemies by their own bravery and the assistance of the inhabitants of Berne. In 1584, the republic concluded a treaty with Zurich and Berne, by which it is allied to the Swiss cantons. The house of Savoy made their last attempt against Geneva in 1602, when the city was treacherously attacked in the night time during a profound peace. Two hundred soldiers had scaled the walls, and got into the town before any alarm was given; but they were repulsed by the desperate valour of a few citizens, who perished in the encounter. A petard had been fastened to one of the gates by the Savoyards; but the gunner was killed before it could be discharged. The war occasioned by this treachery was next year concluded by a solemn treaty, which has ever since been observed on both sides: though the independence of Geneva was not formally acknowledged by the king of Sardinia till the year 1754.
The restoration of tranquillity from without in consequence of the above treaty, was however soon followed by the flames of internal discord, so common in popular governments; so that during the whole of the last century the history of Geneva affords little more than an account of the struggles betwixt the aristocratical and popular parties. About the beginning of the present century the power of the grand council was become almost absolute; but in order to restrain its authority, an edict was procured in 1707 by the popular party, enacting, that every five years a general council of the citizens and burghers should be summoned to deliberate upon the affairs of the republic. In consequence of this law a general assembly was convened in 1712; and the very first act of that assembly was to abolish the edict by which they had been convened. A proceeding so extraordinary can scarcely be accounted for on the principles of popular fickleness and inconstancy. Roussieu, in his Miscellaneous Works, ascribes it to the artifices of the magistrates, and the equivocal terms marked upon the billets then in use. For the question being put, "Whether the opinion of the councils for abolishing the periodical assemblies should pass into a law?" the words approbation or rejection, put upon the billets by which the votes were given, might be interpreted either way. Thus, if the billet was chosen on which the word approbation was written, the opinion of the councils which rejected the assemblies was approved; and by the word rejection, the periodical assembly was rejected of course. Hence several of the citizens complained that they had been deceived, and that they never meant to reject the general assembly, but only the opinion of the councils.
In consequence of the abolition of the general assemblies, the power of the aristocratical party was greatly augmented; till at length the inhabitants exerting themselves with uncommon spirit and perseverance, found means to limit the power of the magistrates, and enlarge their own rights. In 1776, as Mr Cox informs us, the government might be considered as a mean be-
twixt that of the aristocratical and popular cantons of Switzerland. The members of the senate, or little council of 25, enjoyed in their corporate capacity several very considerable prerogatives. By them half the members of the great council were named; the principal magistrates were supplied from their own body; they convoked the great and general councils, deliberating previously upon every question which was to be brought before these councils. They were vested also with the chief executive power, the administration of finances, and had in a certain degree the jurisdiction in civil and criminal causes. Most of the smaller posts were likewise filled by them; and they enjoyed the sole privilege of conferring the burghership. These, and other prerogatives, however, were balanced by those of the great council and the privileges of the general council. The former had a right to choose the members of the senate from their own body; receiving appeals in all causes above a certain value, pardoning criminals, &c. besides which they had the important privilege of approving or rejecting whatever was proposed by the senate to be laid before the people.
The general council or assembly of the people is composed of the citizens and burghers of the town; their number in general amounting to 1500, though usually not more than 1200 were present; the remainder residing in foreign countries, or being otherwise absent. It meets twice a-year, chooses the principal magistrates, approves or rejects the laws and regulations proposed by the other councils, imposes taxes, contracts alliances, declares war or peace, and nominates half the members of the great council, &c. But the principal check to the power of the senate arose from the right of re-election, or the power of annually expelling four members from the senate at the nomination of the syndics or principal magistrates, and from the right of representation. The syndics are four in number, chosen annually from the senate by the general council; and three years elapse before the same members can be again appointed. In choosing these magistrates, the senate appointed from its own body eight candidates, from whom the four syndics were to be chosen by the general council. The latter, however, had it in their power to reject not only the first eight candidates, but also the whole body of senators in succession: in which case, four members of the senate retired into the great council: and their places were filled by an equal number from that council. With regard to the power of representation, every citizen or burgher has the privilege of applying to the senate in order to procure a new regulation in this respect, or of remonstrating against any act of the magistracy. To these remonstrances the magistrates were obliged to give an explicit answer; for if a satisfactory answer was not given to one, a second was immediately presented. The representation was made by a greater or smaller number of citizens according to the importance of the point in question.
Since the 1776, however, several changes have taken place. This right of re-election, which the aristocratical party were obliged to yield to the people in 1768, soon proved very disagreeable, being considered by the former as a kind of ostracism; for which reason they caught at every opportunity of procuring its abolition. They were now distinguished by the title of negatives,
while the popular party had that of representants; and the point in dispute was the compilation of a new code of laws. This measure the negatives opposed, as supposing that it would tend to reduce their prerogatives; while, on the other hand, the representants used their utmost endeavours to promote it, in hopes of having their privileges augmented by this means. At last in the month of January 1777, the negatives were obliged to comply with the demands of their antagonists; and a committee for forming a new code of laws was appointed by the concurrence of the little, great, and general councils. The committee was to last for two years, and the code to be laid before the three councils for their joint approbation or rejection. A sketch of the first part of the code was presented to the little and great councils on the first of September 1779, that they might profit by their observations before it was presented to the general council. Great disputes arose; and at length it was carried by the negatives that the code should be rejected and the committee dissolved. The opposite party complained of this as unconstitutional, and violent disputes ensued; the issue of which was, that the great council offered to compile the code, and submit it to the decision of the public. This did not give satisfaction to the popular party, who considered it as insidious: the contentions revived with more fury than ever, until at length the negatives supposing, or pretending to suppose, that their country was in danger, applied to the guarantees, France, Zurich, and Berne, entreating them to protect the laws and constitution. This was productive of no good effect; so that the negatives found no other method of gaining their point than by sowing dissension among the different classes of inhabitants. The natives were discontented and jealous on account of many exclusive privileges enjoyed by that class named citizens: they were besides exasperated against them for having, in 1770, banished eight of the principal natives, who pretended that the right of burghership belonged to the natives as well as to the citizens, and demanded that this right ought to be gratuitously conferred instead of being purchased. The negatives, in hopes of making such a considerable addition to their party, courted the natives by all the methods they could think of, promising by a public declaration that they were ready to confer upon them those privileges of trade and commerce which had hitherto been confined exclusively to the citizens. The designs of the negatives were likewise openly favoured by the court of France, and despatches were even written to the French resident at Geneva to be communicated to the principal natives who sided with the aristocratic party. The attorney-general, conceiving this mode of interference to be highly unconstitutional, presented a spirited remonstrance; by which the French court were so much displeased, that they procured his deposition from his office; and thus their party was very considerably increased among the natives. The representants were by no means negligent in their endeavours to conciliate the favour of the same party, and even promised what they had hitherto opposed in the strongest manner, viz. to facilitate the acquisition of the burghership, and to bestow it as the recompense of industry and good behaviour. Thus two parties were formed among the natives themselves; and the dissensions be-
Gemma course of his life had ever been disposed to render him friendly offices; and it was but a short time after Geminiani's arrival at Dublin that he was called upon to do him the last. It appears that Geminiani had spent many years in compiling an elaborate treatise on music, which he intended for publication; but soon after his arrival at Dublin, by the treachery of a female servant, who, it was said, was recommended to him for no other end than that she might steal it, it was conveyed away, and could not be recovered. The greatness of this loss, and his inability to repair it, made a deep impression on his mind; and, as it is conjectured, hastened his end; at least he survived it but a short time, ending his days on the 17th of September 1762. The following list comprises the whole of his publications, except two or three articles of small account: Twelve solos for a violin, opera prima; six concertos in seven parts, opera secunda; six concertos in seven parts, opera tertia; twelve solos for a violin, opera quarta; six solos for a violoncello, opera quinta; the same made into solos for a violin; six concertos from his opera quarta; six concertos in eight parts, opera sexta; rules for playing in taste; a treatise on good taste; the art of playing the violin; 12 sonatas from his first solos, opera undecima; Ripieno parts to ditto; lessons for the harpsichord; Guida Armonica; supplement to ditto; the art of accompaniment, two books; his first two operas of concertos in score; and the Enchanted Forest.—Of his solos the opera prima is esteemed the best. Of his concertos some are excellent, others of them scarce pass the bounds of mediocrity. The sixth of the third opera not only surpasses all the rest, but, in the opinion of the best judges of harmony, is the finest instrumental composition extant.