POPE

POPE, a name which comes from the Greek word Πάπας, and signifies Father. In the East this appellation is given to all Christian priests, and in the West bishops were called by it in ancient times; but since the time of Gregory VII. it has been appropriated to the Bishop of Rome, whom the Roman Catholics look upon as the common father of all Christians.

Within the last two or three centuries much has been said and written, and many warm disputes have been carried on, concerning the Pope, and the power belonging to him. All those in communion with the see of Rome unanimously hold that our Saviour Jesus Christ constituted St Peter the apostle chief pastor under himself, to watch over his whole flock here upon earth, and to preserve the unity of the church, at the same time giving him the power requisite for these ends. They also believe that our Saviour ordained that St Peter should have successors with the like authority and power to the end of time. Now, as they allege that St Peter resided for many years at Rome, and there suffered martyrdom, they consider the bishops of Rome as his successors in the dignity and office of the universal pastor of the whole Catholic church.

There have been some varieties in the manner of choosing the bishop of Rome in different ages, as alterations may be made in discipline; but still the clergy of Rome have always had the chief part in the election; and that clergy is now represented by, or in some manner consists of the cardinals, who have for several centuries been the sole electors of the Pope.

These cardinals, or principal persons of the Church of Rome, are seventy in number, when the Sacred College, as it is called, is complete. Of these, six are cardinal bishops, viz., the bishops of Ostia, Porto, Albano, Sabino, Tusculum or Frascati, and Præneste or Palestrina, which are the six suburbanian churches; fifty are cardinal priests, who have all titles from parish churches in Rome; and fourteen are cardinal deacons, who have their titles from churches in Rome of less note, called diaconias or deaconries. These cardinals are created by the Pope when there happen to be vacancies. Sometimes he names one or two only at a time; but commonly he defers the promotion until there be ten or twelve vacancies or more; and then at every second promotion, the emperor, the kings of Spain and France, and of Great Britain when Catholic, are allowed to present one each, to be made cardinal, whom the Pope always admits if there be not some very great and evident objection. These cardinals are commonly promoted from amongst such clergymen as have borne offices in the Roman court; some are assumed from religious orders; and eminent ecclesiastics of other countries are likewise often honoured with this dignity. Sons of sovereign princes have frequently been members of the sacred college. Their distinctive dress is scarlet,

to signify that they ought to be ready to shed their blood for the faith and the church, when the defence and honour of either require it. They wear a scarlet cap and hat. The cap is given to them by the Pope if they are at Rome, and is sent to them if they are absent; but the hat is never given but by the Pope's own hand. These cardinals form the Pope's standing council or consistory for the management of the public affairs of church and state. They are divided into different congregations, for the more easy despatch of business; and some of them hold the principal offices in the pontifical court,—as that of cardinal-vicar penitentiary, chancellor, camerlengo or chamberlain, prefect of the signature of justice, prefect of memorials, and secretary of state. They have the title of eminence and most eminent given them. But here we consider them principally as the persons entrusted with the choice of the Pope.

On the demise of a Pope, his pontifical seal is immediately broken by the chamberlain, and all public business is interrupted that can be delayed. Messengers are despatched to all the Catholic sovereigns to acquaint them of the event, that they may take what measures they think proper, and that the cardinals in their dominions, if any there be, may hasten to the future election if they choose to attend; whilst the whole attention of the sacred college is turned to the preservation of tranquillity in the city and state, and to the necessary preparations for the future election. The cardinal chamberlain, during the vacancy of the Holy See, possesses great authority; he coins money with his own arms on it, lodges in the Pope's apartments, and is attended by bodyguards. He, and the first cardinal bishop, the first cardinal priest, and the first cardinal deacon, have during that time the government almost entirely in their hands. The body of the deceased Pope is carried to St Peter's, where funeral service is performed for him with great pomp during nine days, and the cardinals attend there every morning. In the meantime, all necessary preparations for the election are made; and the place where they assemble for that purpose, which is called the conclave, is fitted up in that part of the Vatican palace which is nearest St Peter's church, as this has long been thought the most convenient situation. Here is formed by partitions of wood a number of cells or chambers equal to the number of cardinals, with a small distance between every two, and a broad gallery before them. A number is put upon every cell, and small papers with corresponding numbers are put into a box. Every cardinal, or some one for him, draws out one of these papers, which determines in what cell he is to lodge. The cells are lined with cloth; and there is a part of each one separated for the conclaveists or attendants, of whom two are allowed to each cardinal, and three to cardinal princes. They are persons of some rank, and generally of great confidence; but they must carry in their master's meals, serve him at table, and perform all the offices of a menial servant. Two physicians, two surgeons, an apothecary, and some other necessary officers, are chosen for the conclave by the cardinals.

On the tenth day after the Pope's death, the cardinals who are then in Rome, and in a competent state of health, meet in the chapel of St Peter's, which is called the Gregorian Chapel, where a sermon on the choice of a Pope is preached to them, and mass is said for invoking the grace of the Holy Ghost. Then the cardinals proceed to the conclave in procession two by two, and take up their abode. When all is properly settled, the conclave is shut up, having boxed wheels or places of communication in convenient quarters; and there are also strong guards placed all around. When any foreign cardinal arrives after the inclosure, the conclave is opened for his admission. In the beginning every cardinal signs a paper, containing an obligation that if he shall be raised to the papal chair he will not alienate

any part of the pontifical dominion; that he will not be prodigal to his relations; and such other stipulations as may have been settled in former times or framed for the occasion.

We come now to the election itself; and that this may be effectual, two-thirds of the cardinals present must vote for the same person. As this is often not easily obtained, they sometimes remain whole months in the conclave. They meet in the chapel twice every day for giving their votes; and the election may be effected by scrutiny, accession, or acclamation. Scrutiny is the ordinary method, and consists in this: every cardinal writes his own name on the inner part of a piece of paper, and this is folded up and sealed. On a second fold of the same paper a conclave writes the name of the person for whom his master votes. This, according to the practice observed for some centuries, must be one of the Sacred College. On the outer side of the paper is written a sentence at random, which the voter must well remember. Every cardinal, on entering into the chapel, goes to the altar and puts his paper into a large chalice.

When all are convened, two cardinals number the votes; and if they are more or less than the number of cardinals present the voting must be repeated. When that is not the case, the cardinal appointed for the purpose reads the outer sentence, and the name of the cardinal under it, so that each voter hearing his own sentence and the name joined with it, knows that there is no mistake. The names of all the cardinals that are voted for are taken down in writing, with the number of votes for each; and when it appears that any has two-thirds of the number present in his favour the election is over; but when this does not happen, the voting papers are all immediately burned without opening up the inner part. When several trials of coming to a conclusion by this method of scrutiny have been made in vain, recourse is sometimes had to what is called accession. By it, when a cardinal perceives that one or very few votes are wanting to any one for whom he had not voted at that time, he may say that he accedes to the one who has nearly the number of votes requisite; and if his one vote suffices to make up the two-thirds, or if he is followed by a sufficient number of new voters for the said cardinal, the election is accomplished. Lastly, a Pope is sometimes elected by acclamation; that is, when a cardinal, being pretty sure that he will be joined by a sufficient number, cries out in the open chapel that such a one shall be Pope. If he is supported properly, the election becomes unanimous,—those who would perhaps oppose it foreseeing that their opposition would be fruitless, and rather hurtful to themselves. It is to be observed that the emperor of Germany and the kings of France and Spain claimed a right of excluding one cardinal from being Pope at every election. Hence, when the ambassador at Rome of any of these sovereigns perceived that any cardinal disagreeable to his master was likely to be made Pope, he demanded an audience of the conclave, was admitted, and there declared his master's will, which was always attended to for the common good. But each of those sovereigns was thus allowed to exclude only one at a time, and they unwillingly and seldom put this right in execution.

When a Pope is chosen in any of the three above-mentioned ways, the election is immediately announced from the balcony in the front of St Peter's; homage is paid to the new pontiff; and couriers are sent off with the news to all parts of Christendom. The Pope appoints a day for his coronation at St Peter's, and for his taking possession of the patriarchal church of St John Lateran, all which is performed with great solemnity. He is addressed by the title of Holiness, and Most Holy Father.

Let us now proceed to state what authority Roman Catholics attribute to the Pope thus chosen. They believe, then, that the Bishop of Rome is, under Christ, supreme pastor of the whole church; and, as such, is not only the first bishop in order and dignity, but has also a power and jurisdiction over all Christians, to preserve unity and purity of faith and moral doctrine, and to maintain order and regularity in all churches. Wherefore they hold, that when the Pope understands that any error has been broached against faith or manners, or that any considerable difference on such subjects has arisen in any part of Christendom, it belongs to him, after due deliberation and consultation, to issue out his pastoral decree, condemning the error, clearing up the doubt, and declaring what has been handed down, and what is to be believed. Some Catholic divines are of opinion that the Pope cannot err when he thus addresses himself to all the faithful on matters of doctrine. They well know that as a private doctor he may fall into mistakes as well as any other man; but they think that when he teaches the whole church Providence must preserve him from error; and they apprehend that this may be deduced from the promises of Christ to St Peter, and from the writings of the ancient fathers. It is to be observed, however, that this infallibility of the Pope, even when he pronounces in the most solemn manner, is only an opinion, and not an article of Roman Catholic faith. Wherefore, when he sends forth doctrinal decrees, the other bishops, who are also guardians of the faith in an inferior degree, may, with due respect, examine these decrees; and if they find them agree with what has always been taught, they either formally signify their acceptance, or they tacitly acquiesce, which, considering their duty, is equivalent to a formal approbation. When the acceptance of the generality of the bishops has been obtained, either immediately or after some mutual correspondence and explanation, the decrees of the Pope thus accepted come to be the sentence of the whole church, and are believed to be beyond the possibility of error.

Sometimes it happens that the disputes and differences may be so great and intricate that, to the end it may be seen more clearly what has really been delivered down, and to give all possible satisfaction, it may appear proper to convene all the bishops who can conveniently attend at one place, to learn from them more distinctly what has been taught and held in their respective churches. Roman Catholics believe that it belongs to the Pope to call such general councils, and to preside in them in person, or by his legates. They likewise hold, that when the Pope has approved the decrees of such councils concerning faith or manners, such decrees become final, and must be received as such by all Catholics. In all this they believe that the particular assistance of the Holy Ghost is with the pastors of the church, and that therefore "the gates of hell shall not prevail against it."

The see of Rome, according to the Roman Catholics, is the centre of Catholic unity. All their bishops communicate with the Pope, and by his means with one another, and so form one body. However distant their particular churches may be, they all meet at Rome either in person or by their delegates, or at least by their letters; and, according to the discipline of the latter ages, though they are presented to the Pope for their office from their respective countries, yet from him they must receive their bulls of consecration before they can take possession of their sees.

In matters of ecclesiastical discipline the Pope, as chief pastor, not only must take care that the canons actually in force be observed in all churches, but he may also make new canons and regulations when he sees it necessary or expedient for the spiritual benefit of the faithful, according to times and circumstances. But in doing this he must not

Pope. infringe the established rights or customs to the injury of any person; which if, through mistake or wrong information, he should ever do, the persons who think themselves aggrieved may remonstrate with respect and sue for redress. He may establish new episcopal sees where there have been none before, and he may alter the limits of former dioceses; but in such alterations he always of course consults the temporal sovereign, if in communion with him. He sends pastors to preach the gospel to all countries where the Catholic religion is not by law established; and to him appeals may be made from all parts of Christendom in ecclesiastical causes of importance.

The Pope may dispense with the observation of ecclesiastical canons when there are just reasons for it; he may—as indeed any man may—also dispense with vows when they are made with the express or tacit condition that he really may dispense with them; he may also, on some occasions, declare that obligations have really ceased when that is truly the case, from a great alteration of circumstances. But he can never grant any dispensation to the injury of any third person, and can never allow any

one to do what is unjust, or to say what he knows to be false, whatever advantage might be expected to accrue from it.

The reader who wishes to learn what may be urged for and against the supremacy of the Pope, and who is fitted by his knowledge of ecclesiastical history to understand the nature of the question at issue, may consult, on the one hand, the works of Bellarmine, with the chapter on Supremacy in Milner's Letters to a Prebendary; and on the other, Barrow's treatise On the Pope's Supremacy, together with Chillingworth's Religion of Protestants.

Appended is a general list of the Popes, with the dates of their election, from the time of Sylvester I., in 314 A.D., during whose pontificate Constantine convoked the great council of Nicaea, where it was decreed that the Bishop of Rome should be primate over the churches of those provinces which, in civil matters, were subject to the jurisdiction of the "Vicarius Urbis," or imperial vicar of Rome:—