CHILE

CHILE.

The republic of Chile occupies that long strip of land which lies on the south-western side of South America, extending from 24. to 55. 59. S. Lat.; and from 69. to 72. W. Long. It is bounded W. by the Pacific Ocean, and E. by the Andes, by which it is separated from the Argentine Confederation. On the N. Chile is separated from Bolivia by the extensive desert of Atacama; and it extends southwards to the extreme limits of that archipelago which embraces all the islands between Chiloe and the Straits of Magellan.reckoning its length from the desert of Atacama to Cape Horn, it comprehends 36 degrees of latitude. Its average breadth is only 150, and where greatest not more than 210 geographical miles. The superficial area of Chile is computed at 218,925 English square miles, which is about 3195 miles more extensive than that of France and Belgium together. Except where the Andes are intersected by ravines, which frequently change into vales or plains fit for cultivation,

these mountains with their parallel ranges and spurs occupy a great part of its area. South of the Cuesta de Chacabuco there are extensive plains, broken only by a few ridges of hills; but the highlands are almost continuous from N. to S. along the coast of the Pacific.

Under the dominion of Spain the Capitania-general of Chile extended from S. Lat. 24. to Cape Horn; but as no settlements were actually formed beyond S. Lat. 44., the length of the Spanish possessions may be estimated at 1400 English miles. The ranges of the Andes, which from their height and excessive coldness are uninhabitable, cover nearly one-third of the surface of Chile. Between the Andes and the sea there are two parallel ranges which decrease in elevation towards the coast, and are intersected by several smaller ridges. Many deep basins are thus formed, some of which are filled with water from the melted snows of the Cordilleras; while in others the waters have found an

outlet, and have left a fertile table-land in which pasture may be obtained when the great droughts have destroyed the herbage in the less elevated districts.

From the foot of the lower range of the Andes the land gradually descends towards the sea, but more precipitously near the shore, which is skirted by a comparatively low tract of country. Even this district, however, is crossed by numerous spurs from the Andes, and presents a series of barren mountain plains, intersected by deep quebradas, or fissures, which, during the melting of the snows in summer, are watered by large and rapid streams, and form the only cultivated districts in the country. As rain rarely falls in Chile, except in the two or three winter months, and the dews are light, the districts between the ravines are scorched by the sun and rendered almost destitute of vegetation, presenting a dreary extent of bare rocks or barren sands. In the Andes which separate Chile from the eastern part of the continent, there are few passes that can be traversed in safety, and in winter even these become quite impassable. The most frequented passes are, those of Dehesa, near Tupungato, to the east of Santiago; the Patas, in the province of Aconcagua; and the Partillo, Uspallata, Planchan, and Antuco. The northern division of Chile is partly occupied by the desert of Atacama, a dreary waste, which stretches for nearly a hundred leagues, with hardly a green spot in its whole expanse.

No part of South America has had its very peculiar geology so well investigated as Chile. Its stupendous mountains, rising in some places to the elevation of 23,900 feet above the level of the sea—its numerous volcanoes, three of them generally in a state of active eruption—and its very peculiar geological structure—make it, with the exception of Peru, the most interesting part of South America.

It may be said that in Chile various geological phenomena are still in active operation. The grand range of the Cordilleras has suffered the most violent rendings, and immense movements both upward and downward. There is the strongest evidence that the parallel ridges which compose the Cordilleras were thrown up at different periods, afterwards subsided some thousand feet, were then brought up by a gradual movement; again, during the old tertiary period, subsided to nearly their previous upheaving, and were afterwards brought up to their present level by a slow and often interrupted movement.

The Cordilleras and the Andes, though often used indiscriminately, are, in fact, as in Peru, different chains of mountains: the two run nearly parallel; the former is termed in the south Cordilleras de la Costa (Cordilleras of the Coast), and between it and the Andes are extensive plateaux, which gradually sink in elevation from central Chile to the south. For instance, Santiago the capital is at an elevation of 1830 feet above the level of the sea, whilst Rancagua, 63 miles further south, is 1558 feet; and Talca, 165 miles still further south, is only 311 feet above the sea.

Although the plain between the southern chains alters so rapidly in elevation, yet the northern chain from Aconcagua to Atacama, rising to a mean elevation of nearly 15,000 feet, preserves throughout little variety in its forms; but farther south, in Lat. 33. S., it assumes a different appearance; new rocks and formations show themselves on its surface. Towards Lat. 33., volcanic masses of a modern period are first met with; cones springing up into points, covered with snow and ice, the fires of whose craters have only lately become inactive. There, rising to an elevation of 23,000 feet, is the stupendous mountain of Aconcagua, which has been generally considered as a volcano; but recent observation has ascertained this not to be the case. Although its top is far above the line of perpetual snow, yet frequently no snow is visible for many months on its surface. This is caused no doubt by the extreme dryness of the air. Further south is El Partillo, with its immense escorias

of the Valley del Yeso, and the inaccessible volcano of San José, rising to an elevation of more than 18,000 feet above the level of the sea.

The whole chain of the Cordilleras, from Tierra del Fuego to Mexico, is penetrated by volcanic orifices, and those now in action are connected in great trains. In the Chilean range there are 23 volcanoes, some of them very ancient, without craters; some with craters, but quite extinct; others in the condition of solfataras; and others, such as Osorno, Villa Rica, and Antuco in the south, and San José in the province of Santiago, in occasional and fierce action.

The average width of the country between the Cordilleras and the sea is from 80 to 100 miles. It is crossed by various spur-like chains: the greater part of them, from the south to about Lat. 31., range nearly north and south; but in the northern parts of Chile, they run in every direction. The cultivated region of Chile may be considered to be between the river Biobio and the port of Coquimbo, that is to say, between seven degrees of latitude; and as the mean width is about two degrees of longitude, consequently the surface is equal to 7350 square Chilean leagues of 25 to a degree, from which must be deducted the part occupied by the Cordilleras of the Andes, forming at least one-third of this surface; therefore the actual part susceptible of cultivation is reduced to 4900 square leagues. However, several of the valleys of Huasco and Copiapo produce considerable quantities of fruit and vegetables.

There is the most positive evidence of the recent elevation of Chile from about 45° S. to the most northern part of the country; indeed, a similar elevation can be traced on to Peru to a distance of about 2000 geographical miles. As the land is generally steep, shells are seldom found at a greater distance than three leagues from the coast; but the pirena, astarte, gryphaea, and turritella have been frequently found at an elevation of 12,000 feet above Huasco and Copiapo. The marks of sea action are evident at a distance of 30 to 40 miles inland, by ancient beaches, and successive and perfectly formed terraces. In Chiloe, shells are found at an elevation of 350 feet; at Concepcion, 625 feet; at Valparaiso, 1300 feet; at Coquimbo, 252 feet. At Caldera, the port of Copiapo, the present line of the railway to an elevation of 300 feet above the level of the sea is cut through thick beds of shells of existing species.

On examining with attention the northern part of Chile, it is seen that there have been five ascensional movements of the coast. Round the Bay of Coquimbo the surface rises like an amphitheatre in five very marked stages, forming concentric terraces. The first terrace, a mile wide, rises to an elevation of about 23 feet—it consists of sand-duns, and towards the town of Serena, of salt and fresh water marshes, with shells similar to those found on the beach. A steep escarpment leads to the second terrace, about 70 feet above the level of the sea, on which the town of Serena is built, the upper part covering the third terrace to an elevation of 120 feet. The fourth terrace, which is narrow, rises 182 feet above the third, leading by a steep escarpment to the fifth, or upper terrace. Above the town, it is entirely composed of immense masses of rounded shingle, and stretches along the coast to a distance of 11 miles inland. About two miles from Port Coquimbo, this fifth terrace sinks about 100 feet below the surrounding level; a few inches below the sandy surface, there is a thick stratum of calcareous matter filled with shells which forms an excellent building stone and good lime. On advancing north, the same terraces are observed. On going up the valley of Huasco to the town of Ballenar, about 37 miles inland, the five terraces are perfectly defined, composed of gravel aggregated together in a matrix of clay. In the neighbourhood of Valparaiso the elevation of the coast is very apparent. On the south side of the town are numerous headlands, covered with broken shells to an elevation

Chile. of 230 feet; even at an elevation of 557 feet very comminuted shells are found, similar to those which exist in the neighbouring sea. The principal species are the patella, trochus, crepidula, and concholepas, some of which are occasionally to be found at an elevation of 1300 feet.

North of Valparaiso, near to Concon, are immense beds of the mesodesma-donaciforme, which supply lime for the town and many leagues round. The same fossil shell is found in such abundance near Coquimbo, to the elevation of 80 feet above the sea, that an English smelting establishment at Herradura, 2½ miles from the port of Coquimbo, has frequently purchased nearly 3000 quintals in a week for the purpose of making lime; and at Sangoy, where the same English company has another smelting establishment, the quantity is so great that large quantities are collected and delivered into the works at the low rate of two dollars per cajon of 64 quintals.

From the marks of action of the sea at different elevations in the land, we may suppose that the process of elevation has been interrupted by long periods of comparative rest; and from the similarity of the distant terraces, no doubt the periods were synchronous over wide spaces of the coast.

Chile is very subject to severe earthquakes, sometimes of such frightful intensity as to prove the existence of those powerful hidden forces which shake our firm-set earth. They manifest themselves by quick horizontal, vertical, and sometimes by a sort of rotatory vibration. They generally occur in a linear direction; but at other times partly in circles or long ellipses. The earthquakes of 1835 and 1851 were of the latter description, when the vibrations were propagated with decreasing intensity from a centre towards a circumference.

It is affirmed by all miners, that the most severe shocks are not felt in deep mines, although the loud rumbling sound, like a heavy cart passing rapidly along a narrow street, which almost always precedes the shock, is distinctly heard.

It is a very general opinion, that the atmospheric pressure is disturbed on the days when earthquakes occur; but the result of seven years' barometric observations in Chile refutes this opinion, as we have not observed the horary variation of the barometer to be affected either before or after earthquakes; though it is said that during the severe earthquake which nearly destroyed Valparaiso in November 1822, the barometer fell considerably.

It is, however, an undoubted fact, that sudden changes of the weather frequently succeed heavy earthquakes, such as the occurrence of rain at an unusual period of the year. Immediately after the great earthquake of February 1835, torrents of rain fell in Concepcion, although in the midst of summer, when rain is nearly unknown. Experience shows that about two desolating shocks may be expected in a century. The intensity of the shocks is supposed to be increased according to the time intervening between them, and the danger greatest when the volcanic vents are closed. Although they appear to be simply dynamic phenomena of motion, yet in Chile they have suddenly elevated whole districts above the ancient level.

By the earthquake of February 1835, the southern end of the Isle of Santa Maria was uplifted eight feet, the central part nine, and the northern end 10 feet, and the whole island more than the surrounding districts; but both it and Concepcion subsided a few weeks afterwards, and lost part of their first elevation. The sea is generally much agitated during and for a short time after an earthquake. At the time of the one before mentioned, which destroyed Concepcion and nearly all the towns in the south of Chile, two great waves rolled over the town of Talcahuano, and the small penal establishment in Juan Fernandez was nearly washed away; the deep sea, close in shore, was dry for a few moments, and smoke burst from the surface of the water. During a very smart earthquake at Coquimbo, in No-

vember 1849, the sea retired about 150 yards, and then rolled back about 12 feet high. An English ship, anchored in seven fathoms water, in the neighbouring bay of Herradura, nearly touched the bottom from the receding of the sea, which afterwards rolled in like a bore, and the water continued to ebb and flow slightly for an hour and a half after the shock.

The appearance of the country is agreeably diversified by lakes, which are especially numerous in the southern provinces. In some of these, such as Bacalemu, Cahuil, Vichuquen, and Bolleruca, which are situated near the coast, the water is brackish; but in Ranca, Villarica, and the lakes of the interior, it is quite fresh. They generally abound with fish; and are frequented by numerous varieties of aquatic birds. In some districts, and particularly in the Cordilleras, there are several valuable thermal springs. The most celebrated for their medicinal virtues are those of Colina, Cauquenas, Panimavida, and Chillan.

Chile, particularly in its southern division, is abundantly supplied with rivers and streams, which, however, from the nature of the surface, have generally a short and rapid course, and are navigable only for a few miles from their mouths. The Biobio has a course of nearly 200 miles, and though no less than two miles in breadth at its mouth, is too shallow for large vessels to enter. It is navigable for river craft as far as Nacimiento, about 100 miles from the sea. The Maule is navigable for river barges for about twenty miles, and the Aconcagua, the Canten, and the Callacalla (which last is deep enough for large vessels to enter), are considerable streams. All the navigable rivers flow through that part of Chile which is south of the Maipú, where the rains fall very abundantly. Near their sources many of them are very rapid, and during the melting of the snow frequently overflow their banks. This renders them easily available for irrigation; and thus large tracts, which would otherwise be barren wastes, are rendered susceptible of cultivation.

The following table gives the length of the principal rivers, and the provinces through which they flow:—

In a country like Chile, extending from the tropic of Capricorn to within twelve degrees of the Antarctic circle, and presenting great differences of elevation, considerable variety of climate may be anticipated. Omitting the cold and thinly inhabited region on the extreme south, and beginning with the province of Chiloé, Chile may be divided into three regions, which may be distinguished as the wet region, the corn and wine region, and the dry or mineral region. The wet region comprehends Valdivia, Arauco, and Chiloé, and is so much exposed to excessive rains, that in Chiloé it is

Chile. frequently impossible to harvest the wheat and barley. The corn and wine region embraces the eight provinces between Arauco and Coquimbo, and in these the rain falls in the months of June, July, and August, with more or less abundance as they approach the south. In April, May, September, and October, showers are more rare and uncertain. In the provinces south of Colchagua, the amount of rain being insufficient for agricultural purposes, it is necessary to resort to irrigation. The dry or mineral region, including Coquimbo and Copiapó, is very warm, and receives only four or five showers in the whole course of the year. These, however, are very abundant, and so fertilizing, that an almost instantaneous change takes place in the appearance of the country. In the neighbourhood of the Andes, as well as towards the south, the atmosphere is often cooled by nocturnal frosts. Spring commences in September, summer in December, autumn in March, and winter in June.

The mildness and salubrity of the climate is such that many have affirmed that it cannot be surpassed by any other country, and would be altogether unrivalled were it not for the scarcity of water in several districts. The following table, drawn from official sources, shows the average rate of mortality in the different provinces. Most of the observations are confined to the year 1848, but some of them embrace also the average of other years:—

From this table it will be seen that Valdivia, in a sanitary point of view, is the most favourably situated of all the provinces; and that Valparaiso and Santiago, in which are the two largest cities, are the worst. The following table shows the average number of births and deaths in the provinces of Valparaiso, Santiago, Talca, Maule, and Chiloé, during the several months of the year. It must be borne in mind, however, that in Chile the seasons are the opposite of ours—for example, from the 21st of December to the 21st of March, when it is winter with us, it is midsummer with them:—

From this table we learn that the deaths are most numerous in December, November, and January; and fewest in February, March, and April.

Constitution. The constitution according to which Chile is at present governed was adopted on the 25th of May 1833. By that constitution the sovereignty is declared to reside in the people; but the exercise of its functions is delegated to three distinct powers, the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. The legislative power is committed to the national congress, which consists of the chamber of deputies and the chamber of senators. The chamber of deputies comprehends 57 members, who are elected each for a period

of three years, in the proportion of one deputy for every 20,000 inhabitants. The country is divided into electoral districts. If, as is the case in some of these, the population does not amount to the above named number, but exceeds 10,000, the same electoral privilege is still conferred upon them.

According to the eighth article of the constitution, all who exercise the right of suffrage must be 21 years of age, if married, and 25 if unmarried. They must be able to read and write. They must possess immovable property, or an adequate capital invested in some branch of industry; or they must follow some employment the value of which shall be declared at periods of ten years' interval. By the last decennial law, promulgated in 1849, it is declared that the value of immovable property must not be less than L.200 in the provinces of Santiago and Valparaiso, that the capital in circulation must amount to at least L.400, and the annual income to L.40. In all the other provinces, the value of immovable property must not be less than L.100, the capital in circulation at least L.200, and the annual income not under L.20.

The senate is composed of 20 members, who are chosen by a select body of the electors of each province: every elector must have a clear annual income of L.110. This body must be equal to three times the number of deputies representing any particular province; and its members are chosen by the electors themselves from their own number. At electoral contests, the result of the proceedings is transmitted to a body known as the conservative committee, which sits in the capital. After having examined these proceedings, and satisfied themselves that everything has been conducted in accordance with legal forms, they declare the successful candidate.

A senator's term of office is nine years. The house of this branch of the legislature is renewed by thirds. In each of the first two periods of three years seven new senators are chosen, and in the last only six.

The functions of the chamber of deputies and of the senate are partly discharged in concurrence with each other, and partly exclusively. The former body alone possesses the power of accusing the higher officers of government before the senate for various political offences. It originates all money bills, and propositions relating to the recruiting of the military force of the country. The senate alone has the right of pronouncing judgment on those public functionaries against whom accusations have been brought by the members of the chamber of deputies. It confirms all the ecclesiastical nominations. In certain cases, it gives or withholds its consent to the acts of the executive.

In all the other proceedings of the legislature, the concurrent voice of the two houses is necessary. All laws for the benefit of the country may originate with either body. When a law has been rejected, or the veto of the president put upon it, it cannot be brought again before the chambers till the following year. The period during which the congress sits is limited to the three winter months; but when the affairs before it are of such a nature as to render additional deliberation necessary, the session may be prolonged by the president for 60 days. On the day before the regular session closes, the senate elect seven of their number to form the conservative committee, which replaces the congress during the period of its prorogation. The duties of this body are to observe the conduct of the president; to exercise in certain cases conjoint powers with him; and, generally, to see that the laws are duly obeyed. Members of the chamber must possess a clear annual income of L.110.

The executive power is committed to the president, who is the supreme chief of the nation and of the administration. He is elected with the same formalities as the senators, and by electors chosen in a similar manner. The office is held for a period of five years; but the president whose term

Chile. has expired may be immediately re-elected for the same period. On the termination of his second term of office, an interim of five years must be allowed to elapse before he can be elected a third time. The president of the republic possesses certain exclusive powers of a very important nature. He alone can appoint and remove at will not only cabinet ministers, clerks of department, and councillors of state, but also diplomatic ministers, consuls, and the higher provincial officers. He also inducts the higher legal and judicial functionaries; but the nomination of these officers, as well as of the ecclesiastical dignitaries, must proceed from the council of state. The president has the power of distributing the army and navy according to his pleasure; and when, with the sanction of the senate, he assumes the command of the national troops in person, he alone is vested with the right of bestowing naval and military commissions. In other circumstances, the appointments of this nature which he makes must be approved by the senate. In periods of tumult and insurrection, he can declare the towns and provinces of the republic in a state of siege.

The president is liable to impeachment for mal-administration for a year after the expiry of his authority. During that time, he is not allowed on any account to leave the country, except with the permission of congress. All the other officers of government are subject to the same law; but in their case the time is more limited.

Council of State. Nearly co-ordinate with the president in the executive department is the council of state. This body is composed of ministers in the exercise of their functions, of two members of the courts of justice, of an ecclesiastical dignitary, a general, an admiral, a chief of the administration of finances, two ex-ministers or diplomatic agents, and two former provincial intendants, governors of departments, or municipal magistrates, who must all possess the qualifications necessary for the rank of senator. The duties of the council of state are, to advise the president in the administration of the government, and to act as a check upon him in proceedings which they may consider as injurious to the interests of the country. It proposes the removal of such officers of government as have been guilty of negligence in the discharge of their duties. It settles all disputes with regard to government contracts. It decides all doubtful questions that may arise between the several administrative departments of government, or between these and the judicial tribunals. The president is also obliged to submit the annual fiscal estimates, and all laws contemplated or enacted by congress, to the deliberations of this body. Should the advice they give in any particular case be adverse to the laws, they are liable to impeachment by the chamber of deputies.

Cabinet ministers. The administrative department of government is conducted by four cabinet ministers. One presides over home and foreign affairs; another over justice, worship, and public education; there is one minister of war and marine; and another of finance. The president has no power of enforcing obedience to orders relating to any one of these departments until they have been confirmed by the appropriate minister. The ministers are individually responsible to congress for the due discharge of all the duties pertaining to their respective branches of the administration, and also for whatever is done by them in common as a cabinet. They are entitled to be present and to take part in all the debates of congress; but, unless holding at the same time the office of senator or of deputy, they are not allowed to vote in that body. Any one of them may be impeached by the chamber of deputies for treason against the laws of the state, or for the mal-administration of the duties of his office. An action may be brought against them even by private individuals who have suffered by any of their acts, if the senate, to whom appeal must in the first place be made, decide that there is sufficient ground for complaint.

Justice. The tribunals of justice may be conveniently divided into

three classes. Of these only two are properly judicial in their functions, the third being in the main political. The third class includes five tribunals, of which the congress collectively and in its separate branches form three with parliamentary jurisdiction, and the council of state one with administrative powers. The fifth is the mixed tribunal, which was formed under the treaty with Great Britain in 1839, guaranteeing the mutual right of search in vessels suspected of slave traffic. It consists of a judge, an arbiter named by each party to the treaty, and a notary. In all cases relating to the validity of a capture there is no appeal from its decisions.

The first of the other two classes, whose functions are more strictly judicial, comprehends the supreme court and the three courts of appeal. The supreme court has direct supervision over all the others. The courts of appeal are composed of a certain number of legal ministers or justices, with a corps of special ministers to aid in certain cases. These special justices, who form a remarkable feature in the Chilean system of legal administration, are taken from the intelligent classes connected with the military, the agricultural, the mining, and commercial interests of the country. In cases on trial pertaining to their respective interests, they sit on the bench and have an equal voice with the legal judges both as to the law and the fact. These courts, to which disputed points from all other parts of the country are brought for adjudication, are established in Santiago, Serena, and Concepcion.

The same class comprehends four other tribunals, which are presided over by judges who, having been advocates, are termed, in contradistinction to the inferior magistrates, learned judges. Of these courts one possesses the right of decision in all cases involving sums of more than L.30, or in which certain government officers are the parties. Its jurisdiction extends also to criminal cases. Another decides, in connection with the provincial intendant, fiscal causes; and its decision cannot be appealed from in any suits under L.40. The third of these courts, which is composed of one learned and of one commercial judge, together with the collector of customs, has the power of giving a final decision in revenue cases, involving confiscation. The fourth has jurisdiction in suits for libel. But before there can be any prosecution in such cases, they require to be heard before four judges of the fact, whose duty it is to decide whether there be just cause for carrying them before the seven judges, who finally decide the case. At the second hearing, the legal judge presides and decrees the penalty.

There are eleven kinds of inferior tribunals, some having as important spheres of jurisdiction as the lower grades of the superior courts; but differing widely in the nature and extent of their powers. They resemble each other, and differ from the superior courts in this—that the presiding judges are not educated lawyers.

The ecclesiastical and military tribunals, composed respectively of dignitaries of the church and officers of the army, decide in all cases pertaining to their several spheres of duty. The exchequer court, over which the chief of that department presides, takes cognizance of suits arising from the accounts of those employed in that branch of the administration. The tribunals of commerce, consisting of members appointed by all the commercial districts except Valparaiso, exercise jurisdiction in all cases relating to mercantile affairs. The remaining tribunals, composed of the various grades of provincial officers, take under their consideration a great variety of subjects relating to mining, public roads, theatres, some domestic matters, money claims, and the lesser crimes. The domestic court consists of five fathers of families summoned by the political chief of the province or department in which they reside. It hears and decides upon the complaints of minors against their parents,

Chile. for refusing assent to their marriage. Complaints of this nature are of more importance in Chile than in other countries; and as majority is not reached by single men till the age of twenty-five, while it is attainable through marriage at twenty-one, in the decisions of this tribunal are involved not merely questions of betrothal, but also the gain or loss of the privileges of citizenship for some years.

Provincial administration. For the administration of its internal affairs, Chile is divided into 13 provinces, each with subordinate departments, sub-delegations, and districts. The names of the provinces are Atacama, Coquimbo, Valparaiso, Aconcagua, Santiago, Colchagua, Talca, Maule, Nuble, Concepcion, Arauco, Valdivia, and Chiloé. Each of these divisions is governed by an intendant, who is nominated by the president, and holds office for three years. The departments are under the control of governors, who hold office for a similar term. The intendant generally acts as governor in that department in which the capital of the province is situated, and is at the same time mayor of the municipal corporation; but the authority of this body is very limited, as it cannot dispose even of its local funds without the permission of government. The sub-delegations are directed by sub-delegados, who are appointed by the governors for a period of two years. Their jurisdiction extends only to minor criminal cases, and to civil suits involving sums of between L.8 and L.30; but they have also appellate powers from the decision of the inspector's court in actions for sums under L.2, 8s. The districts are presided over by inspectors, who are chosen by the people, and hold an office similar to that of justice of the peace. They manage also the local postage arrangements. Their decision is final in all suits for sums under L.2, 8s., but they also dispose of cases involving sums as high as L.8, with an appeal, however, to the subdelegado. The offices of subdelegado and inspector are compulsory; and those who decline to undertake their duties are liable to fines equal to the sums limiting their respective legal jurisdictions.

Church. The Roman Catholic faith is the only form of religion recognized by the constitution of Chile; and the profession of any other is strictly prohibited by law. For the purposes of ecclesiastical administration, the country is divided into four dioceses (comprehending the archbishopric of Santiago, and three suffragan bishoprics), and 157 parishes. A home mission, consisting of 2 prebends and of 7 missionaries, is also supported by government at the annual expense of L.4000. Each missionary receives a salary of L.62, 12s. per annum, for which he is expected to say mass daily, and teach reading and writing in the schools. Great efforts have been made to induce the Indians to adopt the religion sanctioned by the state. In the island of Chiloé, which is chiefly inhabited by native tribes, a propaganda has been established for this purpose, and nine missionaries have been sent to spread the faith among the Araucanian Indians. These attempts have as yet been crowned with little success among the adults. Schools have been established for the young; but notwithstanding liberal donations of clothing and other articles on the part of the priests, the attendance is said to be very scanty.

In return for her exclusive privileges, the church in Chile yields a large revenue to the public finances. In 1853 the tithes yielded the sum of L.105,388, while all the expenses for public worship amounted only to L.53,385, 4s., of which L.4800 was paid as salaries to the archbishop of Santiago, the bishops of Serena, Concepcion, and Ancud.

Although no form of dissent is professedly allowed to exist in Chile, a tacit toleration has for some years been accorded to an English Episcopal and also an American Presbyterian chapel at Valparaiso, where the American and English residents constitute a considerable population. Both of these chapels, however, are very small and poorly attended. Notwithstanding this religious indifference on the part of the Protestants, the government stands too much in awe of the priesthood to allow them full toleration; and any important concession to the professors of the Reformed faith would inevitably lead to a revolution, and the consequent transference of power into the hands of an intolerant faction. The power

of the Roman Catholic priesthood is particularly manifested in the almost insuperable obstacles by which they endeavour to prevent the marriage of a Protestant and a Catholic. If a Protestant proposes to marry a Roman Catholic Chilena, he must either publicly apostatize from his own faith, or purchase a dispensa, by making a liberal present to the bishop of his diocese. But in all such marriages it is made an indispensable condition that the children be educated in the Roman Catholic faith. The same bigotry prevails in the laws which regulate the interment of Protestants. The only regular burying ground from which heretics are not excluded is that of Talcahuano, and this privilege is only accorded by the uncommon liberality of Señor Burgos, for a long time curate of the place. The members of the clergy, with a few honourable exceptions, cannot be considered as occupying a favourable position either in point of morality, education, intelligence, or liberal feeling.

Much attention is now given in Chile to the subject of education, and much of the attention which government has paid to the formation of educational establishments is due to the exertions of the present president. The university of Chile (founded 1842), which occupies the first place in rank and importance, is not to be regarded as a seat of learning, but merely as a corporate institute, to whose members the superintendence of education in the provinces is confided, and who act as examiners of the pupils of the national institute, previous to matriculation. These duties are intrusted to a principal, five deacons, a secretary, and five representatives from the faculties of science, philosophy, humanity, medicine, law, political economy, and theology.

The national institute differs from an English college only in this—that it receives pupils at a much earlier stage of their studies. It is liberally provided with the means of imparting education, from the elementary branches to the advanced courses, preparatory to the study of theology, medicine, and law. There are also classes for practical instruction in the rudiments of mining and surveying. From none except boarders in this establishment is any fee exacted. In 1853, the number of students was 682, of whom 232 were boarders. The educational staff comprehends a rector, a vice-rector, and 35 subordinate masters, whose salaries range from L.400 to L.40. There are also eleven inspectors, whose emoluments vary from L.40 to L.80.

The expense of this establishment, amounting annually to L.7000, is defrayed partly by government, and partly by the fees received from the boarders. In Santiago, government also supports a military academy (annual charge about L.6000), a school for the instruction of mechanics (L.5000), a training school for teachers (about L.2500), and a seminary for the education of priests (L.1200). In addition to these, an agricultural school, an academy of painting, an academy of music, a school for the deaf and dumb, and other useful institutions, are all supported at the national expense. The care with which government provides for education is not confined to the capital. A lyceum is established in every provincial capital, and is supported by local taxation, government grants, and fees from pupils. In these institutions boarders pay an annual sum of L.20, and day scholars of L.2, 8s.; but many receive the instruction gratuitously. The directly practical branches of education receive the larger share of attention, but the learned languages are not neglected. The lyceum of Talca, Concepcion, and Serena possess the privilege of granting degrees in mathematics and chemistry. Besides these, many private educational establishments exist all over the country. In Valparaiso there are several schools, generally superintended by foreigners, for instruction in English and other modern languages. These attract pupils from the whole western coast of South America.

Chile is as yet very imperfectly supplied with most of the other aids to a sound national education. The people are far from being lovers of books; and the only public library worthy of notice is that of Santiago, which contains 20,000 volumes, including many interesting works formerly belonging to the Jesuits, and several curious MSS. relating to the Indians. The lyceum of Concepcion and the merchants' club of Valparaiso possess small collections of books; and there is a badly-kept museum at Santiago.

The following statistics, gathered from official sources, illustrate the state of education throughout the republic. The

Chile. whole population of Chile, amounting to 1,079,924, comprehends about 215,979 children, who may be expected to be at school; but the total number of children attending the primary schools is 23,131 (including 17,528 boys, and 5003 girls)—so that government educates one girl for every six, and the municipal corporations one girl for every three boys. Thus, upon an average, one child in every ten receives education; and for every one that pays for it, two receive it gratis.

The total number of primary schools is 571, the principal masters of which are assisted by 403 subordinate masters. The branches of instruction taught in these establishments are principally reading, writing, arithmetic, and the catechism. The salaries of the teachers amount to L.20,519, 8s. Of this sum government contributes L.8437, and the municipal corporations L.6143; while the remainder is made up by fees. The average salary of a schoolmaster in Chile is L.3 per month; but salaries as high as L.400 are paid to the directors, principals, and other functionaries. The total annual expenditure for educational purposes (1853) was about L.57,625—a sum which very nearly coincides with that expended on religious worship during the same period.

Army and navy. The army of Chile for the year 1853 numbered 2657 men, including the national guards, but exclusive of invalids. The government had previously granted permission to raise 3122; but it was considered unnecessary to embody the entire number. The whole of the troops are under the superintendence of general inspectors. Of superior officers there are one lieutenant-general, five generals of division, three brigadier-generals, twenty colonels, fifty-one lieutenant-colonels, and one hundred and twenty-six captains. But several of these officers are either on the retired list, or engaged in other departments of military service. One brigadier-general superintends the military academy (founded in 1842), in which about 40 cadets receive instruction.

The fleet of Chile, which acquired so much distinction for its exploits under Lord Cochrane, and was then manned chiefly by British or North American seamen, is now (1853) composed of the old frigate "Chile" (at present used as a store-ship), two brigs, including one at present on the stocks, one brigantine, one bark, and two steamers. A naval school was established at Valparaiso in 1845.

The total expenditure in the war department (1853), amounted to L.311,909, 4s., of which L.144,553, 17s. was set down for the maintenance of the regular army; L.50,702, 8s. for the national guard; and L.42,832, 14s. for retired and invalided officers, including the sums paid to the Monte Pío, or fund for the support of the widows and orphans of soldiers and sailors. The annual pay of a private in the Chilean service is L.19, 4s.; of a lieutenant, L.96; of a captain, L.144; of a lieutenant-colonel, L.336; and of a colonel, L.542. The general in chief has a yearly salary of L.1300; generals of division, L.700; and brigadier-generals, L.542.

The naval expenditure during the same year amounted to L.48,339, 6s. The salary of a vice-admiral is L.1300; of the captain of a first-rate ship, L.763; of the captain of a corvette, from L.110 to L.180; and of a midshipman from L.84 to L.110.

In the general war expenditure is included the sum of L.10,000 voted for unforeseen, and of L.15,510 voted for extraordinary expenses. The recent increase of the expenditure in these departments may be seen from a comparison of the estimates in 1845, 1849, and 1851. In 1845, the sums required for the army and navy amounted to L.215,114, 5s.; in 1849, to L.339,839, 6s.; and in 1851, to L.405,079, 14s. The increase in the last-mentioned year is due to the revolution, which is said to have entailed upon the state an additional expenditure of L.168,146, 7s., exclusive of the sums appropriated by the revolutionary party.

Population. The population of Chile, which consists chiefly of the descendants of the Spaniards and aboriginal tribes, has been very variously estimated, and from the unsettled social condition of the country, it is difficult to arrive at any satisfactory results. The government, however, have lately instituted an office of statistics, which has already extended its operations over some of the principal provinces, and from it the most valuable information may ultimately be obtained. From the data at present possessed, some have estimated the population of Chile at 1,400,000; but the detailed census gives a smaller number, as will be seen from the following table:—

Table of the Provinces and Departments, with the present Population of each.

The cities and towns of Chile, with the exception of Valparaiso, Cities, are generally built upon the same plan. The most striking peculiarity is, that they are divided into squares of equal size, the sides of which are about 137 English yards in length, and inclose an area of about four acres. Within each of these quadras there are parallel rows of broad and well-paved streets, intersecting each other at right angles. The houses are also built in the form of a square, inclosing one or more courts, into which the various apartments look; and in consequence of the continued dread of earthquakes, they are massive and spacious. Few are erected with a second story. They are generally built of timber and large bricks formed of mud mixed with chopped straw and dried in the sun. The unoccupied spaces are in most cases laid out in gardens, and adorned with fruit-trees and flowers. In the larger cities con-

Chile. deable taste and elegance are displayed in the internal decoration of the houses of the wealthy, especially of the apartments destined for the reception of visitors. Every drawing-room contains its piano professedly from the first London or Paris makers; and as the Chileans are passionately fond of dancing, a pile of fashionable waltzes, quadrilles, and polkas, may generally be seen beside it.

Public buildings. The most splendid public edifice in Chile is the mint, which was built of hewn stone, at a cost of £1,165,000, and contains the apartments of the president of the republic. In ecclesiastical architecture Chile is greatly inferior to most Roman Catholic countries. The majority of the churches are very plain; and the internal decorations, paintings, and images are for the most part of a very paltry description. The campana in Santiago, however, is one in the erection of which considerable taste has been displayed. The cathedral church has also been designed on a very grand scale; and although still unfinished, has already cost £300,000. It has been rendered insecure by a shock which it sustained during the earthquake of 1850. The cathedral of Serena is small, but much admired for the style of its architecture, which, with the light magnesian limestone used in its erection, is well calculated to resist the dangers arising from the frequency of earthquakes.

In costume the wealthier classes in Chile can scarcely be distinguished from those of London and Paris, and have discarded the picturesque dress of their Spanish ancestors.

In complexion the natives present considerable variety. Among the peasantry the Araucanian copper colour still prevails, but in consequence of the large infusion of European blood, a greater variety of shade may be found in the upper and middle classes. In general their complexion closely resembles that of the natives of southern France.

Amusements. The amusements of the upper classes are also borrowed from the habits of European society. In the ball-room the dances are those of the Old World, with the exception of the zambaquea, a dance peculiar to the republics of South America, with which all social festivals are concluded. In fashionable assemblies the piano is the usual accompaniment; but amongst the poorer classes its place is taken by the guitar.

Theatrical amusements do not appear to be extensively patronized in Chile. In the whole republic there are only five theatres; and in these the old Spanish plays have been entirely superseded by the vaudeville of France. The opera has been tried in Valparaiso, Santiago and Copiapo, but with very little success. Races and military reviews are common in Chile. The former of these are held on courses about six hundred yards in length; and as the issue of the race depends on a successful start, considerable ingenuity and tact are shown in the training and management of the horses.

Mineral productions. Chile is rich in almost every class of metals; but the silver mines of late years have yielded enormous quantities of ore. The metals at present discovered are gold, silver, copper, lead, antimony, cobalt, zinc, nickel, bismuth, iron, molybdenum, and quicksilver; but the only ores which are worked are gold, silver, copper, and occasionally quicksilver. The latter will now be abandoned in consequence of the low price of mercury caused by the quantity produced in California. The metals are found in all the series of rocks between granite and trachyte, in veins which generally run from N. and N. W. to S. and S. E.; in some places, however, their course is irregular, or they extend E. and W. The auriferous veins run nearly parallel to the grain or imperfect cleavage of the surrounding granite rocks. Gold is found most abundantly in the beds of detritus, derived from the degradation of the upper portion of the rocks. Copper ores, containing a small quantity of gold, are generally associated with micaceous specular iron. In the hills of Altrue, about four leagues from Rancagua, in the province of Santiago, are the only gold mines worked with any spirit, excepting some new mines near Copiapo, and they are remarkable for the variety of minerals mixed with the gold, such as galena, blende, copper and iron pyrites, and peroxide of iron. These substances are found disseminated in quartz veins, running nearly N. and S. Near Illapel are some very poor gold mines, in the beds of the gypseous formation, in altered feldspathic clay-slate, which alternate with purple porphyritic conglomerate.

Silver ores. Until 1832 the only silver mines in Chile were those of Dehesa, San Francisco, San Lorenzo, Sema and San Pedro Nolasco in the province of Santiago, and Arqueros mineral district about 17 leagues from Coquimbo; but these mines now produce very little silver, and are nearly abandoned for the rich silver mines in the province of Atacama, near to Copiapo. Within a circuit of 25 leagues from Copiapo, there are 19 silver mineral districts; the richest are Chañarcillo and Tres Pun-

tas. In Chañarcillo the upper part of the mines produce native silver, iodide, and bromide, associated with chloride of silver, and carbonate of lead. In the "Colorado" mine of Chañarcillo, embolite with native silver is occasionally found. In the mine of San Antonio, in the same district, is found bismuthic silver ore, combined with native silver, copper, and arsenic. As the mines become deeper, the silver ores are changing principally into what the natives call "metales fríos," (cold ores); these contain different proportions of antimony, sulphur, and one sort a little arsenic. The dark red silver ore is a pyrogylite, containing sulphuret of silver and antimony, with sometimes a little arsenic. The gray ore contains silver, arsenic, and antimony. Of these two sorts, upwards of 5000 tons were exported to England during 1852, as the natives are unable to extract the silver by the usual plan of amalgamation adopted with the other ores. The export of the "metales fríos" to England will in a great measure cease, as an English establishment is forming at Caldera, the port of Copiapo, to treat them on an improved plan. Some of the mines in Chañarcillo yield nearly pure silver; the most productive are in the hands of four or five large capitalists. The ground near some of the richest mines is sometimes sold at enormous prices, the price being in some regulated by the probability of the rich veins of metal running into it. In Copiapo a regular traffic is carried on in buying and selling "barras" (a 24th part) in different mines.

A railroad runs from Caldera to Copiapo, a distance of 54 miles, which is to be continued on to Chañarcillo, about 50 miles from the city; and a tram-road is projected to the rich mineral district of Tres Puntas (8400 feet above the sea), which, when completed, will enable the miners to send down the poor silver ore which they now throw away.

Copper. The mines of copper may be said to occupy the first rank in the productions of Chile. The exports of copper ingots and ores in 1852 were equal nearly to 4,000,000 dollars, according to their market value at the time of shipping them. Copper is found in more or less abundance from the province of Santiago to the most northern confines of Chile. It is generally discovered in the lower granite and metamorphic schistose series. The copper ores found in Chile consist of sulphurets, copper pyrites, oxysulphurets, found in Andacollo, with thin laminae of native copper, arsenical copper (sometimes called domeykite), found in the Calabazo mine near Coquimbo, and that of San Antonio, near Copiapo, gray copper, red oxide, malachite, azarite, hydrosilicate or chrysocolla, olivenite, protoxide and deutoxide. Vanadiate of copper has lately been found in cavities in an arseniophosphate of lead, along with amorphous carbonate of lead and copper, in Mina Grande or La Marquesa, near Arqueros. That rare ore, the muriate of copper, or atacamate, occurs at Remolinos and Santa Rosa in veins in granite. The principal mining districts are Aconcagua, Illapel, Tamaya, about 40 miles from the coast, and 70 from Coquimbo. This latter district is a mountain about 3500 feet above the sea, which produces about 150,000 quintals a-year, of various kinds of sulphurets, of a produce from 9 to 64 per cent.; Tamibillos, 10 leagues from Coquimbo, producing principally poor sulphurets; Runeral, near the river, entirely poor carbonates; Andacollo, carbonates, oxides, oxysulphurets, and native copper; La Higuera, black sulphurets and pyrites; Herradura de Carisal and Huasco, carbonates and sulphurets of low produce. In the Cordilleras above Huasco are some mines containing ores of copper, silver, and lead combined together; but the silver does not exceed 70 marks the cajon of 64 quintals Spanish.

Cobalt is found in the province of Santiago, near the Cordillera called Caro del Volcan; it is an arseniate containing from 15 to 20 per cent. of cobalt. At Tamibillos is found glance, cobalt, and arsenite, or erythrine; the former sort is frequently combined with nickel. The mines have been worked some years, and the ores shipped to England. In Huasco similar ores are found, but the mines have lately been abandoned.

Nickel has been found in considerable quantities in a mine Nickel in the Cordilleras above Copiapo.

The sulphuret of zinc is found in various parts, likewise anti-mony, lead, manganese, bismuth, mercury, and molybdena; iron ores of every description are very abundant; amongst the latter is coquimbite, or white copperas, and copiapite, or yellow copperas. It is much used by the natives for dyeing, tanning, and in the manufacture of ink.

Gypsum is found in immense beds, particularly in the val-Gypsum.

Chile. ley of the Pinquenes, and other places in the province of Santiago. The fine massive variety called alabaster is found at the Salto de Agua, near to Santiago, of a quality nearly equal to that of Italy.

Lapis Lazuli. Lapis Lazuli has been found in the Cordilleras above the province of Coquimbo, but it is impossible to convey large slabs to the coast, as the principal use of the small pieces is to make ultramarine; and as the artificial equals the native in brilliancy of colour and permanency, it is not likely to be of much value.

Coal. In the province of Concepcion, the coal mines are becoming of great importance. At present they are confined to two districts, Coronel and Lota; the former has eleven mines in full work, but the latter not so many. The coal will answer for domestic purposes, but is useless for smelting copper ores.

The subjoined table shows the number, names, and produce of the Chile coal-pits, situated in the province of Concepcion, together with the number of miners employed in them, and the average value of the coal at the pit-mouth:—

The average price of coal at the pit-mouth may be quoted at L. 1, 1s., and the average annual produce may be estimated at about 174,000 tons.

Vegetable Productions. The value of the vegetable products bears no proportion to that of the mineral. This is owing chiefly to the scarcity of rain, which renders the country arid and desolate, except in those few and isolated districts in which irrigation has been brought to bear successfully on the soil. The hills and plains are sparingly covered with a peculiar kind of short and wiry grass, upon which large numbers of cattle and horses are maintained. In bad years, when the winter passes away without rain, this grass is entirely burnt up, and the insufficiency of pasture causes a large mortality among the live stock.

The principal trees of Chile are the carrob or algarrobo, the chañar, and the carbon tree, which produces excellent firewood. The quisco or great torch thistle grows to the height of fifteen or eighteen feet, and bears smooth and hard spines nine inches long, which are used by the country people for knitting needles. The wood, when stripped of its bark, is employed by the peasantry in the construction of their cottages. Timber is abundant in all the provinces south of Santiago, but chiefly in Arauco, Valdivia, and Chiloe, which may be termed the forest region of Chile. There are altogether above a hundred different kinds of trees, of which not more than thirteen ever shed their leaves. Several have been found serviceable in ship-building; but for purposes of house-carpentry, none afford an adequate substitute for pine. Ornamental woods are scarce, and generally too soft for the use of the cabinet-maker. The most important trees for the supply of timber are the Chilean cedar, the roble or Chilean oak, the laurel, the cypress, the patagus, and the luma. The most valuable is perhaps the Chilean cedar, a soft but durable wood, and not liable to warp. The trunk is divided into pieces of eight feet long, and so straight are its fibres that they are readily split into small boards six or seven inches broad, and about half-an-inch thick—a single trunk yielding five or six hundred. In Valdivia and Chiloe they form the chief article of export, and are used for purposes of exchange. The roble grows to the height of the English oak, and retaining its soundness in water, furnishes excellent stakes. The bark, when prepared with lime, is used for tanning, and imparts to leather a reddish colour. The timber of the luma bears a closer resemblance to the English oak than that of the roble. The laurel is a tall handsome tree, but its wood is hard, and warps so much that it is only suitable for the coarsest work. The cypress grows to a height exceeding that of the loftiest trees in England. Its wood is of a red colour, and is used for beams, doors, pillars, and ornamental flooring. In the south of Chile, the quillay tree flourishes in great abundance. Its bark, when properly prepared, is of

great service in clearing the colours used in dyeing and in cleansing articles of silk and woollen cloth.

The Araucanian pine, which covers the Andes at Valdivia, is often forty yards in height, and four in girth. It bears a highly nutritious nut, which is very generally used as food by the inhabitants of the district. In the gardens of Coquimbo, a fruit tree, known by the name of the lucumo achraes, is much cultivated. Its fruit, which is about the size of a small orange, resembles somewhat a hard boiled egg, but is too dry and insipid to form a palatable article of food.

The potato, whose introduction into Europe formed an important era in the history of agriculture, is indigenous to Chile, or, as some assert, to Peru. In the equatorial regions of South America this plant was formerly cultivated on the sides of the Cordilleras at an elevation of many thousand feet above the limits of perpetual snow in the latitudes of Europe. It is still extensively cultivated in Chile. Much attention is also bestowed on the production of the French bean. This vegetable is a favourite dish with all classes, and when dry, a cheap and nutritious article of food for those of limited means.

The supply of the various kinds of fruit is very abundant in Chile. In the districts in which wheat is grown, in addition to the more common species of fruit, peaches, figs, oranges, melons, olives, quinces, and pumpkins abound to an almost unlimited extent, but, compared with those of England, are generally very indifferent in quality. But in some districts, where the gardens are cultivated with greater care, as in the neighbourhood of the capital, the produce becomes very superior. In the vicinity of Valparaiso there are no market gardens, and vegetables require to be brought from the valley of Quillota on the backs of mules.

In Chile the most formidable animal is the puma. On account of its ravages in the farm-yard, it is frequently hunted with dogs, or caught by the lazo. The guanaco roams about among the lower regions of the Chilean Alps in herds numbering from twenty to one hundred. The vicuña has fixed his abode at a higher elevation. The haemul is not found in such numbers, and is unknown in the Andes beyond the bounds of Chile. In the museum of Santiago, the remains of one of these animals, carefully preserved, forms part of the national arms. It was taken by means of the lazo, and brought alive to the capital, but survived only a short time. Otters, wild cats, foxes, and chinchillas are very numerous.

Among domestic animals, the horses of Chile, which, however, have been domesticated only within the last few years, are inferior in strength and height to those of England, but greatly superior in point of patient endurance. The mule was formerly universally preferred, and is still in general use. It will drag, on an average, a load of 355 lb. for the distance of twenty-five or even thirty-five miles per day.

Great attention is paid by the occupiers of large estates to the rearing of cattle, which, when carefully reared, attain to a respectable size. The breed of sheep, compared with that of cattle, is small, and generally unsuccessful. None of the other domestic animals are reared to any extent.

Among the birds of Chile the most remarkable is the condor, which is easily recognised by the white ruff encircling its neck. As its wings on an average extend eight or nine feet, its flight has a very majestic appearance. Humboldt mentions having seen one flying at the height of 22,000 feet above the level of the sea. They scent an exposed carcass from a great distance, and soon gather round it in immense numbers. The turkey-buzzard is also very common; and when these birds meet round the same prey with the condors, the coveted prize becomes the subject of fierce contest. These two species are most abundant in the northern districts, while eagles, hawks and owls, are more numerous in the south. The only song-birds worthy of notice are the tenca, the thrush, the tado (a kind of blackbird), and the moyca (a kind of red-breast); but none of these can rival the notes of our English birds. The tenca is said to emulate the mocking-bird in imitative power. The tapaculo (Pteropachus albicollis), a bird about the same size as the thrush, rarely flies, but runs about with great agility, emitting an odd but cheerful note. The chingob, or sparrow, has far gayer plumage than his European representative. Besides these, parrots, flamingoes, partridges, and woodpeckers abound in several localities. The pelican, the albatross, the penguin, and the shag, of which there are numerous varieties, frequent the shores.

Great varieties of fish are found off the coast of Chile, and of these the pichihucu, which is caught chiefly in the bay of Coquimbo, is regarded as a choice delicacy. The shell fish, which are also various and plentiful, are (with the exception of the oyster, which is found only on the coast of Chiloe, and is very small) of much finer quality than any to be procured in England.

Of the reptiles of Chile the lizards are the most numerous, and they are very harmless. Serpents are found varying from twelve to thirty inches in length. The insect tribes swarm in numbers of which the inhabitants of colder regions can form no conception, the beetle family alone possessing from 3000 to 4000 species which are not to be found in Europe.

Agriculture, as a science, is scarcely, if at all, known in Chile, and everything connected with the farm is still of the most primitive description. The plough is a clumsy one-handled instrument, formed from the crooked trunk of a tree. In using it the peasant grasps its handle in his right hand, while in his left he holds a long sharp-pointed stick to goad on the oxen, which are invariably yoked not by the shoulder but by the horns. The operation of treading out the corn is performed by mares. For this purpose the sheaves are piled up in bundles in the centre of an extensive circus, having an empty space of between ten and twenty feet between the heap and the inclosure; and some of the bundles being spread over this space, a troop of from ten to one hundred mares are made to gallop over them, until all the grain has been beaten out. Winnowing is performed by throwing up spadefuls of grain into the air on windy days. All the other operations of the farm are performed in an equally unskilful and tedious manner. So rude is the mode of harvesting wheat, barley, and beans, that at least from six to seven per cent. of the produce is lost, and goes to breed immense swarms of vermin on the farm.

Maize, which is the great staple of both the northern and southern divisions of the American continent, is extensively cultivated in all parts of Chile. It is even more productive than wheat, and is preferred as an article of food by the greater portion of the inhabitants. The wheat of Chile is remarkably fine; and in productiveness far exceeds anything known in Europe. As the corn plant spreads out into a large branch with numerous stems, half the quantity of seed used in England is quite sufficient to cover the field with an abundant crop. Notwithstanding the fertility of the soil, the crops ripen as slowly as in Europe, and failures are equally common, the blight of one year sometimes occasioning the total loss of the crop in the next.

The provinces of Aconcagua, Santiago, Talca, Nuble, Maule, and Concepcion, from the greater mildness of the climate and more abundant supply of water, are more productive than the rest, yield annually large crops of wheat, barley, maize, and French beans.

The lands of Aconcagua produce about fifty or sixty fanegas of wheat on every quadra, equal to about thirty or forty bushels an acre; Santiago from thirty to thirty-five fanegas on every quadra; Colchagua from twenty-five to thirty; Maule from fifteen to eighteen; Nuble, Talca, and Arauco from fifteen to twenty; and Concepcion from eight to ten. The total produce of wheat may be estimated at 833,945 quarters, and its annual value about one million sterling. As the land is every year more extensively cultivated, the quantity of wheat produced has for some years been rapidly increasing. The price of wheat has been also considerably raised. Between 1840 and 1850 the average price was from eighteen to twenty-four shillings per quarter, while in 1851 and 1852 the average price has ranged forty-two to forty-four shillings per quarter.

The backward condition of agriculture in Chile is owing to the thinness and natural indolence of the population, the frequent and long-continued droughts, and the absence of the necessary means of communication. The want of proper means of transportation from the interior to the coast, and of convenient markets for the disposal of the surplus crops, were sometimes so severely felt that a good harvest was often a real loss to the Chilean farmer. All stimulus to improvements in agriculture was thus wanting, and Chile, in deficient harvests, compelled to import grain from Peru. The opening up of the trade with California, however, inspired the agriculturists of Chile with an energy before unknown; and great efforts were made to supply this new market. Many speculators thought the occasion favourable for increasing the price of grain so

much that, even by the long voyage round Cape Horn, the United States could supply California at a cheaper rate. Certain intelligent speculators, chiefly Englishmen, who were associated in the management of flour-mills, agreed to reduce the price of flour. But many proprietors and farmers continued to resist this proposal. They did not appear to comprehend that their true interest was, not to raise prices to an exorbitant height, but to extend the sphere of their operations and to bring into cultivation the yet sterile portions of the soil. The government has for several years taken vigorous measures to encourage emigration from Europe into Chile, chiefly with the view of promoting the agricultural interests of the country. A great number of German agriculturists have already settled in the province of Valdivia; and every year is making additions to their number. Between 1848 and 1852 a single house in Hamburg sent out more than a thousand individuals. The presence of these industrious settlers cannot fail to exercise a favourable influence on the habits and pursuits of the native population.

Manufactures are here as yet only in their infancy. In Manufactory Santiago a cloth factory has been recently commenced by a French company, under the protection of government, but hitherto it has produced nothing but the coarser kinds of cloth, such as are used in the army. All the other looms in Chile are worked by the hand, and used in the production of carpets and ponchos, some of which, woven of Vicuña wool, are of a very fine texture. A large portion of the population wear home-made stuffs, especially woolen. The importation of British goods is, however, increasing; and the facility with which foreign stuffs can be imported has checked the establishment of important manufactures. Coarse earthenware, cordage, combs, leather, saddles, and wooden stirrups, are made in several parts of the country. In Valparaiso and Maule ship-building is carried on. In the cities and larger towns most of the mechanical trades which exist in other parts of the world are pursued.

The commerce of Chile has vastly increased since the time when the country lay torpid under the yoke of Spain. As soon as it had recovered from the unsettled condition caused by the revolution, business of all kinds acquired new energy, and the trade, freed from its oppressive restrictions, extended to the larger ports of the United States and Europe. A few years were sufficient to show a large increase in its export and import trade, and Valparaiso soon became a flourishing port.

The precious metals are the most valuable exports from Chile. While obtaining annually from her mines metal to the amount of L.1,500,000, she exported in the year 1851 gold to the value of L.59,950, silver to the value of L.709,467, and copper to the value of L.414,503. Flour, wheat, barley, and biscuits figure largely in her exports, but with considerable variations in amount. In 1850 there were shipped more than 68 million lb. of flour, 1851, 44 million, and in 1852 only 41 million. Above 62,000 quarters of wheat were exported in 1850, in 1851 the quantity was 26,470, and in 1852, 55,570 quarters. In barley, however, there has been a considerable increase. From 37,750 quarters in 1850 it rose to 96,190 quarters in 1852. The increased export of wheat and flour in 1850 arises from the extensive shipments made in that year to California.

In the latter half of 1852 the exports of wool amounted in value to L.32,330, pulse to L.26,808, coal to L.13,970, hides and skins to L.3762, guano to L.5562, and charqui or jerked beef to L.6393. Among the minor articles of export are figs, dried peaches, walnuts, cayenne pepper, wine, brandy, bones, horns, hoofs, leather, ham, fat, cheese, butter, rags, and timber.

In return for her various exports Chile receives from England cotton goods, from France silks and various articles of luxury, and from other countries a variety of articles for domestic use. Chile has reciprocal treaties of commerce with Austria, Brazil, Belgium, Bremen, Sardinia, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Prussia, Sweden, Norway, Tuscany, Hamburg, Lubeck, Oldenburg, the United States, Peru, Ecuador, and the Sandwich Islands. Her commercial relations are most extensive with Great Britain and the British colonies, the imports into Chile amounting in 1852 to L.1,159,613, and the exports to L.1,093,772. Next in importance is the trade with France, the United States, and California. With the other republics of South America her commercial transactions, which were once considerable, appear to be on the decline.

The revenue of Chile is in a very prosperous condition, exhibiting a surplus of receipts over expenditure in the returns of several years. In 1845 the revenue amounted to L.1,083,169, 13s., leaving, after the necessary outlay, a surplus of L.410,215. In 1849 the revenue, including the surplus from 1848, was L.1,352,210. The surplus of 1849 was L.57,048, which, together with the receipts of 1851, amounting to L.885,381, 8s., were entirely swallowed up during the revolution of the latter year. With the restoration of peace in 1852, the revenue rose to L.1,096,096, which, with the sum of L.24,000 paid by Peru as interest for its debt, gives an increase of L.234,714, 12s. over the income of the preceding year.

The catastro is a duty of 5 per cent. levied upon the sale of lands. The alcabala is a duty of 4 per cent. on the sale and exchange of immovable property, and of 2 per cent. on the sale of mines. Pesje consists of tolls and pontages, and is levied on cattle, mules, vehicles, &c.

The customs levied at the different ports on foreign goods (1851) were as follows:—

Owing to the civil war of 1851, the ports of Coquimbo and Talcahuano remained closed against all commerce, both foreign and domestic, from the 7th September to the end of December in that year.

The exports of these two ports consequently fell off, as compared with the preceding year, L.59,474, 1s. 6d. in value; and the number of vessels which entered and sailed was only 517 in 1851.

The custom-house returns show a corresponding increase in the amount of duties received:—

Chile has lately imitated the postal arrangements of England, and letters are forwarded on a stamp, costing about twopence-halfpenny, to all quarters of the republic. The number of letters which passed through the post-office of Santiago in 1852 was 71,168.

Government derives considerable profit from its monopoly of tobacco and playing cards. To prevent the smuggling of tobacco (in which, however, their success is very partial), the authorities are obliged to maintain an expensive establishment of officers along the coast, and even amid the mountains; and so stringent are the laws in regard to the growth of tobacco, that when it springs up, as it often does, spontaneously in the court-yards of the houses, the inhabitants are liable to a fine if it is not immediately rooted up. But for these oppressive restrictions, tobacco would undoubtedly rank high among the exports of Chile, and yield a large revenue to government in tithes.

The national expenditure for the year 1853 is thus distributed:—

The first sum includes the salary (L.2400) of the president of the republic, the salaries of the intendants and legations, the sums annually paid to the Indians, the grants to the hospitals, and the money expended in promoting colonization. The second sum in-

cludes the salary (L.900) of the president of the supreme court; and the third the salaries of the employees of the exchequer, the treasury, the mint, the customs, and the interest of the national debt, which last amounts to L.1,732,595.

In 1851 several important restrictions were removed from the customs code of Chile, which had been only partially modified in 1834. The exportation of national produce was then declared free in principle, but a small duty was to be maintained for a short time upon a very few articles. All imports, with the exception of iron, steel, zinc, cotton, mercury, coal, agricultural tools, surgical instruments, and books, are liable to a moderate duty. Jewellery pays 2 per cent.; horses, mules, and dried fruit, 6 per cent.; shoes, linen stuffs, furniture, and articles used only by the wealthy, 30 per cent. The duty on white wine is reduced to 10 reals per dozen, and on red to 8 reals. Teas pay 2 reals the pound. Grain of all kinds is subject to a moveable tariff. As long as the price in the home market does not exceed 16s. 8d. the fanega of 150 lb., foreign grain pays an import duty of 12 reals the fanega; but if the price rises to 20 shillings, the duty falls to 8 reals, and if it exceeds 25 shillings the import duty ceases altogether.

Many of the merchants of Valparaiso are desirous of the complete abolition of all restrictive duties; but government will probably delay any further steps in this direction until the advantage of the reform already made has been tested by further experience.

The effect of this legislation, introduced under the administration of General Bulnes, has hitherto been to increase the revenue.

The weights and measures of Chile are the same as those used in Spain, but according to the decree of January 1848, those of France are to be substituted in January 1858. The largest dry measure of capacity is the fanega, which is subdivided into twelve alvades, and contains 5,430,626 cubic inches. The usual corn measure is the half fanega, which is a long parallelepipedon having one of its narrow sides trapezoidal. The imperial bushel contains 2,218,274 cubic inches, so that the fanega of Chile is to the former as 2.448 to 1. The average weight of a fanega of wheat is 157 lb.

The old table of long measure is divided into lineas, pulgadas, pies, varas, and cuerdas, or lines, inches, feet, yards, and cuerdas. Corresponding exactly in value to troy weight there are the Spanish granos, onzas, and libras—or grains, ounces, and pounds; and to avoiddupols weight, onzas, libras, and quintales, or cwt. In liquid measure the English quart is equal to 1.022 Spanish cuartillo, and the imperial gallon to 4.069 cuartillos. Gold is bought by the castellano or marco. Its relative fineness is expressed by quillates or carats, four granos or grains making one quillate. The weight of the marco is equal to 4800 Spanish grains, or to 7 oz. 7 dwt. and 22 gr. English troy weight. The standard fineness of gold is 21 quillates. The relative fineness of silver is expressed by dineros, the dinero being equal to 24 granos; and the standard fineness of that metal is ten dineros and 20 granos. The old gold coins are the ounce, equal to 17 dollars, 2 reals, L.3, 9s. sterling money; the half ounce equal to 8 dollars, 5 reals, L.1, 14s. 6d.; the quarter ounce, equal to four dollars 2½ reals, 17s. 3d.; and the escudito, equal to 2 dollars 1½ reals, 8s. 7½d. Among the silver coins besides the real, whose value is 6d., there are now pieces representing various values, expressed in centavos, a copper coin of which one hundred make a dollar. There are silver pieces of 5, 10, and 20 centavos. One of 50 centavos is equal to a half dollar or 2s. English money. The new gold and silver coins contain nine-tenths of pure metal, and one-tenth of alloy. The copper coins are quite pure, containing no alloy. Their names, value, and weight may be most conveniently represented by means of the following table:—

The communication between the several towns of Chile is now greatly facilitated by roads, railways, and steam-vessels. The excellent road from Santiago to Valparaiso was constructed at a great cost by General O'Higgins, when president of the republic. A road, generally kept in good repair, connects the towns of Atacama and Concepcion. By far the most pleasant for the traveller is that by which Santiago and Talca is united. A railroad has been already established between Copiapo and Caldera; and in 1852 the president M. Montt laid the first stone on the line (about 20 miles in length) between Santiago and Valparaiso, and it is now

rapidly advancing to completion. When finished it will be the most extensive work of the kind in South America. Proposals for railways from Serena to the sea, from Copiapo to Tres Puntas, and from Concepcion to Talcahuano, have also been laid before congress. A line of electric telegraph has also been established between Valparaiso and Santiago.

In 1835, the exclusive right of steam navigation between the ports of the republic was granted to a company, which commenced its operations in 1840. A similar privilege was afterwards extended to the same company by the governments of Peru, Ecuador, and New Granada. The communication between England and Chile is maintained by way of the Isthmus of Panama. Steamers sail between England and Chagres, from which by travelling across the isthmus the Pacific is gained in two or three days, and the remainder of the journey continued in steam vessels. The voyage from England to Chile by this route occupies about thirty or forty days.

The name Chile is supposed to be derived from "Tchili," History. a word belonging to the ancient language of Peru, signifying "snow." The country first became known to Europeans in the sixteenth century. It was then to a considerable extent under the dominion of the Incas; but had been previously inhabited by certain tribes of Indians of a warlike and ferocious race, who at the period of the Spanish invasion still maintained their independence in a great portion of the country.

In the time of the Inca Yupanqui, grandfather of the monarch who occupied the throne of Peru on the arrival of the Spaniards, and the tenth in succession from Manco Capac, the reputed founder of the Peruvian empire, the first attempt was made by the Incas to extend their dominion over the territory of Chile. Yupanqui, leading his army across the desert of Atacama, and penetrating into the southern regions of the country, made himself master of a considerable portion of it. The permanent boundary of the dominions of this prince is said by some writers to have been determined by the river Maule; while others are inclined to think that the Rapel constituted the extreme limits of the Peruvian empire towards the south. The latter opinion is to some extent supported by the fact, that the remains of an ancient Peruvian fortress, apparently marking the frontier, are still found upon the banks of the Rapel; while no such remains are known to exist in any part of the country situated further to the south. It is also worthy of remark, that this place of defence has evidently been built in the same manner as the frontier forts of Callo and Asuay, which were in all probability intended to answer a similar purpose in the province of Quito.

All the endeavours that were afterwards made by the Inca to extend his dominions further south were unattended by success. The better portion of the country still remained in possession of its native defenders till the arrival of the Spaniards in the year 1535, under the command of Almagro, once the friend and companion of Pizarro. For two years, amid almost unparalleled hardships, this general endeavoured to make head against the natives, who obstinately defended their soil; but at the end of that period he was obliged to retrace his steps over the Andes into Peru. Undaunted by the failure of Almagro, Pizarro resolved to attempt the conquest of Chile. He accordingly sent forward on this expedition one hundred and fifty Spanish troops, with a body of Peruvian auxiliaries under the command of Don Pedro de Valdivia, and was preparing to follow in person with a larger force, when he was assassinated in 1541.

Meanwhile Valdivia entered Chile, overran a great part of it, and fighting his way onwards, encamped at length on the banks of the Mapocho, where he founded the city of Santiago, the present capital of the republic. For the period of twelve years he maintained his position in the country. By the end of that time he had penetrated into the southern division of Chile, where, in addition to several other cities, he founded that which is now known by his name. His life and conquests were at last brought to an end in a desperate engagement with the Araucanian Indians.

Chile. After these events, the war continued to be carried on with various success for the long period of 180 years. At the end of that time, however, the Indians had succeeded in altogether recovering their original possessions, and all the cities founded by Valdivia fell into their hands. For another century, however, they were exposed to the constant inroads of the Spaniards, who were unwilling to give up all hope of ultimately conquering the southern part of Chile. At length, in the year 1722, this sanguinary war was brought to a termination by a treaty which defined the river Biobio as the boundary of the Spanish conquests.

That part of the country which remained in possession of the Indians lay chiefly between the river Biobio and the island of Chiloé. All the territory north of this river was entirely subject to the dominion of the Spaniards. It was divided by them into thirteen districts or provinces. Most of these provinces were very irregular in size, some of them extending from the Andes to the sea, while others, whose locality was nearer to the mountains, or upon the sea-coast, occupied only about half of that space. In the political contest between Spain and her American colonies, the inhabitants of Chile declared their independence, which, after a contest of some years, was acknowledged by the parent state.

A long period of profound peace followed the treaty which had been concluded with the Araucanians in 1722. During that time, however, changes of great importance were gradually developing. A new and important class of inhabitants had arisen in the country, composed of the Creoles or natives of Chile, who were of Spanish extraction, and who spoke the Spanish language. By a perverse course of misgovernment, the authorities in Spain completely alienated the minds of this class from the mother country. It was unfortunately a maxim with the home government, that the colonies existed only for the sake of Spain. The viceroys, captains-general, and officials of all grades, instead of conciliating the Chilenos, regarded them only as a means of furthering their own aggrandisement. Their insolence and tyranny persisted in for many years at length excited against them so bitter a feeling of hatred and discontent, that nothing but the opportunity was wanting to blow into a flame the smouldering fires of rebellion. In 1810 that opportunity occurred, when the mother country was overrun by the armies of France, and no longer able to vindicate her own claims to a national existence. In July of that year the Chilenos took the first step towards asserting their independence, by deposing the president Carrasco. A junta, which was then formed, assumed the government with the expressed intention of conducting it according to the old system. Their real design, at first kept secret, was to declare their independence, and to separate entirely from the mother country on the first favourable opportunity.

In April 1811 the first blood was spilt in the cause of Chilean independence. On the day appointed for the election of members to the national congress, the Spanish rulers attempted to overawe the leaders and people of Chile, of whose dissatisfaction with their government they were fully conscious. A battalion of royal troops, which had been drawn up in the great square of Santiago, was attacked by a detachment of patriot grenadiers, and routed after considerable loss of life on both sides. In the same year, Don Juan Jose Carrera, a young man of great talents and promise, was nominated by the Junta supreme president of the congress which was now convened, and was at the same time appointed general-in-chief of the army about to be formed.

Hostilities were commenced by the Spanish troops which were sent from Lima, Coquimbo, and Chiloé. In the skirmishes that took place during the early part of the contest, the Chilean troops had generally the advantage.

In 1813 a powerful army, under the command of General Paraja, invaded Chile, but was twice defeated by the repub-

lican troops under Carrera. The royalists, however, speedily received large reinforcements; and after a severe contest, Chile was once more obliged to own for a time the sovereignty of Spain. For three years the people submitted to the old system of tyranny and misgovernment, till at length the patriot refugees, having levied an army in La Plata, and received the support of the Buenos Ayreans, marched against the Spaniards, and completely defeated them at Chacabuco in 1817.

The patriots next proceeded to organize an elective government, of which San Martin, the general of the army, was nominated the supreme director. Their arrangements, however, were not completed when they were attacked once more by the royalists, and routed at the battle of Chancharayada with great loss. Betrayed into a fatal security by this success, the royalist troops neglected the most ordinary military precautions; and being suddenly attacked by the patriots in the plains of Maipú, were defeated with great slaughter. It is believed that not more than 500 men escaped from the field of battle. This victory secured the independence of Chile.

The new republic had no sooner vindicated for itself a place among the nations of South America, than it resolved to assist the neighbouring state of Peru in achieving a similar independence. This object it at last effected after a bloody war of six years' duration. No small share of this success, however, is to be attributed to the ability with which Lord Cochrane conducted the naval affairs.

Till 1823 General O'Higgins held the chief directorship at Santiago, but in that year he was compelled to resign in consequence of a popular tumult. For a few weeks, a provisional triumvirate discharged the duties of an executive government. General Freire was next chosen director. During the period of three years in which he held the reins of government, the country was harassed by constant dissensions; and for the four years subsequent to his resignation continued in a state of disorder bordering upon anarchy. From 1826 to 1830 the government was administered by no fewer than six different directors, in addition to a second provisional triumvirate.

In 1828, under the administration of General Pinto, a constitution was promulgated, which had the effect of temporarily reconciling political differences and calming party spirit.

In 1831, however, when General Prieto was raised to the chief magistracy, a convention was called for the purpose of revising this constitution. The result of its deliberations was the present constitution of Chile, which was promulgated on the 25th of May 1833. Since this period Chile has enjoyed remarkable prosperity; its government has been administered with firmness and regularity, and it has assumed a position among the nations; for, aided by the counsels of his prime minister Portales, General Prieto completely succeeded in restoring order, and in promoting the material prosperity of the republic.

After holding office for ten years Prieto retired, and was succeeded by General Bulnes, a very distinguished officer of the war of independence. Like his predecessor, he was fortunate in finding an able and intelligent minister to counsel and assist him. Manuel Montt was to him what Portales had been to Prieto, and under his guidance Chile continued in its onward path of peaceful prosperity.

The insurrectionary movements which took place in Europe in 1848 extended their influence even to the western shores of South America. Imitating the anarchists in Europe, the revolutionists formed clubs, selected emblems, and displayed banners. Their irritation was increased by the fact that for twenty years they had been deprived of all participation in the government. When the time for the presidential election of 1851 approached, they brought forward, as candidate for the presidency, Ramon Errazuriz, who had formerly belonged to the conservative party, and who