GRANADA

GRANADA, New, is the most important of the three republics into which the South American republic of Colombia resolved itself at the dissolution of that confederation in 1831. Till 1810 it was a vice-royalty under the Spanish crown, but subsequently a part of the republic of Colombia, the middle and western portions of which it now embraces. New Granada is bounded on the N. by the Caribbean Sea, on the E. by the republic of Venezuela, on the S.E. by Brazilian Guiana, on the S. by the republic of Ecuador, and on the W. by the Pacific Ocean. It lies mostly between the equator and 12. N. Lat., and between 70. and 83. W. Long. Area about 480,000 square miles.

Several offshoots of the Andes traverse the western and larger portion of the republic; but the eastern portion belongs to the immense llanos or plains of the Orinoco. On the borders of Ecuador, not far north of the town of Pasto, the great chain of the Andes separates into two branches—the western branch, called the Cordillera de la Costa, running parallel to the coast of the Pacific; and the other to the east, containing several paramos or elevated plains, as well as the sources of the Japura and Putumayo, affluents of the Marañon. Further north rise the Rio Grande or Magdalena, and its largest tributary the Cauca, which flow nearly due S. to N., and fall into the Caribbean Sea by delta mouths nearly seven miles broad. Again, in N. Lat. 1. 50., the Eastern Cordillera parts, forming two branches nearly parallel, inclosing the broad, rich valley of the Rio Grande. Of these chains, the most easterly, stretching to the Sierra Nevada de Merida, along the right bank of the Rio Grande, is called the Eastern Cordillera de Cundinamarca; the valleys of the Rio Grande, and its tributary the Cauca, are separated by the Central Cordillera; and the

valley of the Cauca is separated from the Choco districts by the Western Cordillera. These three Cordilleras are by some designated respectively—Cordillera de la Suma Paz, from the colossal groupe of this name near Santa Fe de Bogotá; Cordillera de Quindiu; and Cordillera de Choco. The eastern chain does not exceed 13,000 feet in elevation so long as the central one rises to the perpetual snow-line; but at the point where the Western Nevadas cease, the eastern chain rises to the snow limit (N. Lat. 5. 5.), and is collectively the most elevated of the three Cordilleras. The Peak of Tolima (N. Lat. 4. 46.), which rises to the height of 18,270 feet, and is the culminating peak of the Andes in the northern hemisphere, belongs to the Quindiu chain. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, which extends along the coast between the Cundinamarca and the Quindiu chains, does not properly belong to the Andes. About 30 miles from the shore this Sierra rises abruptly from the plains between the Sea of Maracaibo and the Gulf of Darien to the height of nearly 19,500 feet. The vast tract of country between the Western Andes and the Pacific contains the basins of the rivers San Juan and Atrato, as well as a narrow tract along the sea-shore. This narrow strip has a soft, alluvial, and very fertile soil, but is almost always in a swampy state from the incessant rains which drench it, and render it most insalubrious, especially for Europeans. Hence it is abandoned almost exclusively to native tribes and a few negroes, who are employed in washing the gold sand found along the western declivity of the Andes in considerable quantity, and is here and there intermixed with platinum. The most southern of the tablelands which extend along the western declivities of the Eastern Andes, as well as those of Tunja and Bogotá, are at an average elevation of 9000 feet above sea-level; and on them are cultivated the cereals and fruits of Europe, as well as the root called aracacha. Those further north are much less elevated, and adapted to the cultivation of tropical grains, fruits, roots, coffee, sugar, tobacco, and cotton. The low country, extending between the plateaux of Cucuta and Girona and the mountain group of Santa Marta, is mostly covered with extensive forests, and almost destitute of population from the insalubrity of the climate, caused by the almost incessant rains, numerous swamps, and frequent inundations. It contains the extensive lake of Zapatos.

The llanos or plains of the Orinoco extend over the entire tract, stretching away to the western banks of the Orinoco and to the Cassiquiare, between the Rio Negro on the S. and the Rio Apure on the N. As far south as the Vichada, the northern part is a complete level, averaging only 300 feet above sea-level near the mountains, whence it gradually but almost imperceptibly declines towards the Orinoco. With the exception of a few palms that occur at great intervals all over the plain, and some low bushy trees along the rivers, this district is quite destitute of trees. During the rainy season, which is from April till November, rain falls in torrents, accompanied with fearful thunderstorms, which usually occur between two and four o'clock in the afternoon; but the contrast is very striking in December, January, and February, when a cloud never crosses the sky. This immense plain is not at all fit for cultivation; but innumerable herds of cattle and horses find abundant pasture on it during the rainy season, though they suffer much during the dry months from November till April. The wet season is, on an average, 8° Fahr. hotter than the dry, and the mean annual temperature is 80° Fahr. The part of this great plain south of the River Vichada is covered with immense forests, infested with numerous wild beasts; and it is somewhat hilly in several districts, especially between the rivers Negro and Guaviare, where steep rocks start out of the plain abruptly to an elevation of from 300 to 600 feet. No breeze ever passes over this part of

New
Granada. the plain, and its temperature averages three or four degrees above that of the northern portion. In it also rain falls every day in the year, except during December and January, sometimes in the form of dense mist, and oftener in great torrents. Such is the state of the climate, that the most S.E. part of it, inclosed by the Atabapo, Negro, Orinoco, and Cassiquiare, is uninhabited, though covered with enormous forest-trees. At all seasons since A.D. 1788 the navigation between the Atlantic and the Pacific has been practicable for boats by means of a canal dug in the Raspadura Ravine between the two rivers, under the superintendence of a monk.

The principal rivers of New Granada are the Magdalena and Cauca, which run their whole course within the territory of the republic, taking their rise in the Andes near the southern frontier, and, after flowing nearly the entire length of the country from S. to N., unite in one channel, and discharge their combined waters through a delta by three channels into the Caribbean Sea, about W. Long. 75. Besides these two principal streams, a large number of the tributaries of the Orinoco, having their sources in the different ranges of the Andes, drain the llanos of the east. Of these the principal are the Apure, Meta, Vichada, Guaviare, Rio Negro, and Japura on the mutual boundary with Ecuador. The lakes of New Granada are inconsiderable; the most celebrated is the Guatavita, not far from the city of Bogotá, into which, it is affirmed, large treasures were thrown by the natives during the Spanish invasion and conquests.

The mineral riches of New Granada are considerable, and mostly occur in the western declivity of the three chains of the Andes. They consist of salt-rock, lead, iron, copper, mercury, platinum, silver, and gold. Along all the central and western declivity of the Andes gold is found, and is obtained by washing the sand of the rivers as well as that on the sides and foot of some hills. It is found on the plateaux of Cucuta and Girona in the Eastern Andes, where silver also is obtained in considerable quantity. There are also some very rich mines in the mountain region between the Rios Cauca and Magdalena N. of N. Lat. 5½. Platinum is found in the western declivity of the Western Andes, and mercury in the valley of Santa Rosa, near Antioquia, and near the Pass of Quindiu in the Central Andes. Copper is found in the Eastern Andes, near Pamplona, and N. of Tunja. Iron and coal occur in the mountains bordering on the table-lands of Bogotá, and lead in various parts of the Eastern Andes. In some mountains N.E. of Bogotá large masses of rock-salt are found, and it is worked by the government. Large quantities of salt are furnished also by salt-springs in the same mountains.

From the great diversity of surface, soil, and climate of New Granada, the natural productions are extremely varied, embracing almost every variety found in the temperate as well as in the tropical zone. The chief objects of culture over the table-lands of Bogotá, and the district north of it along the western slopes of the eastern range, are the cereals as in Europe, the aracacha-root, and potatoes; but in the river-valleys, and on the coast-plains, maize is the chief grain cultivated with rice, sweet potatoes, and plantains. As articles of commerce are cultivated coffee, cotton, cocoa, tobacco, some sugar, and indigo. The forests abound with numerous kinds of useful timber trees; but those converted into articles of export are the logwood, Brazil, Nicaragua, and fustic trees, which grow most abundantly in the forests of the Santa Marta chain. The balsam of Tolu, so named from a village near Cartagena, is collected largely on the banks of the Rio Sinu, and ipecacuanha on those of the Rio Magdalena; cinchona, or Peruvian bark, is obtained in large quantities in the region of the Sierra de Santa Marta, as well as in several other places; cochineal of the finest quality is procured from the banks of the Sogamozo.

Previous to the discovery of this country by Europeans, horses and cattle were unknown in these regions; but now tasajo, or jerked beef, and hides, as articles of commerce, are furnished by the immense herds of cattle which the llanos support; and mules, horses, and cattle are exported to the West Indies.

The population of New Granada are descendants of the Spaniards who have settled there during the three last centuries, and some of the native tribes intermixed with a few negroes. Very different degrees of civilization are found among the native tribes. Before the invasion of the Spaniards, those of the table-lands along the Eastern Andes had organized a political system and made some progress in the simpler arts of civilization. These, with the Indians in the valley of the Upper Magdalena, are still the best husbandmen in the republic. Between the Pacific and the Western Andes, nearly all the population are descendants of the aboriginal native tribes, whose progress in the arts of civilized life is very small, and almost exclusively owing to the few Spanish priests scattered among them as missionaries. None but the descendants of Europeans dwell in the treeless llanos; and their occupation is the care of the herds of mules, horses, and cattle. Wandering Indians, still in a very barbarous state, occupy the southern wooded portion of the llanos. The numbers of the respective races occupying New Granada have been estimated by Hubner as follows:—

Total estimated population in 1853..... 2,353,000

Agriculture holds the first place in the industry of New Granada. Rice, cotton, tobacco, cocoa, sugar, and tropical fruits, are among the productions of the coast region; while the elevated plains yield maize, wheat, and all the products of a temperate zone. The cultivation of the soil, however, is carried on very carelessly; and reclaimed land bears but a small proportion to the whole. On the llanos towards the Orinoco, almost the sole occupation of the people is the rearing of cattle and horses. Agriculture is chiefly in the hands of the converted Indians, who manifest a very decided predilection for these labours of peace. Manufacturing industry is of so little importance that it can hardly be said to exist in the republic. It is limited to home-made coarse woollens and cottons, adapted for the use of the lower classes only. At Bogotá the capital, and the other principal towns, indeed, straw-hats, carpets, and some other articles are made, but in no case does the native industry become commensurate with the demands of the country, so that nearly all manufactured goods in use are imported. Mining is carried on, but only to a very inconsiderable degree. There is a silver mine at Santa Ana, in Bogotá, the only one now worked; and gold is collected in a few localities. Emeralds, diamonds, and pearls, are also obtained. The salt mines of Zipaquirá are, however, extensively worked. With the exception of this last, the mining business of the country is left entirely to the poor and ignorant.

The principal ports of New Granada are,—on the Caribbean Sea, Santa Marta, Cartagena, Chagres, Rio de la Hacha, and Portobello; on the Pacific, Panamá and Buenaventura. Steamers now navigate the Magdalena; and the only railway in the country is that from Aspinwall to Panamá.

The commerce of this republic was much more extensive before its independence than at present. This arises from

New Granada. almost incessant internal war, the unsettled state of the government, and the inadequate means of communication with the interior, which, for want of roads, cannot export its superabundant produce. Another great hindrance is the swampy insalubrious nature of the climate over the tracts bordering on the sea, endangering the lives of those who traverse them. So thoroughly inaccessible is the valley of the Upper Cauca, which is the most fertile tract in the republic, that none of its produce can be exported except what is carried over its inclosing mountains on the backs of men. It is everywhere surrounded by lofty mountains, and the Cauca becomes unfit for navigation on issuing from the valley. The exports of New Granada average annually about L.900,000; while the imports somewhat exceed L.1,000,000. The total value of the exports from New Granada to the United Kingdom in 1854 was L.376,065; of imports therefrom L.284,695; of which L.270,722 were goods of British manufacture. The trade of the interior is carried on chiefly by mule-carriage, the roads being exceedingly bad; but of late years considerable improvement has been made in this respect.

New Granada enjoys a republican form of government, based on the written constitution of 1832, which was a close copy of the constitution of the United States of North America. On this, however, some amendments have since been made. Every man born in the country, able to read and write, and that without distinction of class or colour, is a citizen; and foreigners are naturalised at the age of twenty. The supreme government is centralized, and not as in the United States federal. The legislature consists of a chamber of deputies, with 65 members, elected by the people, and a senate of 39 members, elected by provincial colleges. The president, in whom the chief executive power is vested, is chosen for four years. Justice is administered by an independent judiciary, consisting of a supreme court, and provincial and other inferior courts; and all judges are appointed by the president, with the consent of the senate. Representation is based on population, but each province must be represented by at least one deputy. All religious sects are tolerated in the state, but the Roman Catholic is the only religion that receives support from the public treasury. They do not, however, recognise the supremacy of the Pope—the Archbishop of Bogotá being considered the head of the church. The bishops of Cartagena, Mompo, Neyva, Pamplona, Santa Marta, and Popayan, are his suffragans, and exercise authority in their particular dioceses. Education, formerly greatly neglected, has of late years received the attention of government, and the public generally have become alive to its great importance. Public schools, on the Lancasterian system, are established in all the large towns. In Bogotá there is a university; and in the provincial capitals colleges, or high schools, have been established. Bogotá has also an observatory, a public library, and several special schools; and in several places associations have been formed for the promotion of science, art, and literature. Much, however, is still wanting to a complete educational system.

The armed force of the republic is still small. The army proper consists of less than 2000 men; while the active militia does not amount to 6000. In time of war, however, every male adult is liable to military service. The navy is only fit for coast service.

The war of the revolution bequeathed to the state a bankrupt treasury and a heavy debt. In 1852 the national liabilities amounted to $37,060,888; and this sum is being constantly increased by unsatisfied interest, and a deficiency in the annual receipts. The expenditure in 1851-2 amounted to $2,145,779, while the receipts were $1,553,513.

The republic of New Granada is now divided into five

departments, which are again subdivided into 18 provinces:—