ADAM (אָדָם), the word by which the Bible designates the first human being.
The meaning of the primary word is, most probably, any kind of reddish tint, as a beautiful human complexion; but its various derivatives are applied to different objects of a red or brown hue, or approaching to such. The word Adam, therefore, is an appellative noun converted into a proper one.
That men and other animals have existed from eternity, has been asserted by some: whether they really believed their own assertion may well be doubted. Others have maintained that the first man and his female mate, or a number of such, came into existence by some spontaneous action of the earth or the elements, a chance combination of matter and properties, without an intellectual designing cause. We hold these notions to be unworthy of a serious refutation. An upright mind, upon a little serious reflection, must perceive their absurdity, self-contradiction, and impossibility.
It is among the clearest deductions of reason, that men and all dependent beings have been created, that is, produced or brought into their first existence by an intelligent and adequately powerful being. A question, however, arises, of great interest and importance. Did the Almighty Creator produce only one man and one woman, from whom all other human beings have descended?—or did he create several parental pairs, from whom distinct stocks of men have been derived? The affirmative of the latter position has been maintained by some, and, it must be confessed, not without apparent reason.
But the admission of the possibility is not a concession of the reality. So great is the evidence in favour of the derivation of the entire mass of human beings from one pair of ancestors, that it has obtained the suffrage of the men most competent to judge upon a question of comparative anatomy and physiology. The late illustrious Cuvier and Blumenbach, and our countryman Lawrence, are examples of the highest order. But no writer has a claim to deference upon this subject superior to that of Dr J. C. Prichard.
It is evident upon a little reflection, and the closest investigation confirms the conclusion, that the first human pair must have been created in a state equivalent to that which all subsequent human beings have had to reach by slow degrees, in growth, experience, observation, imitation, and the instruction of others: that is, a state of prime maturity, and with an infusion, concretion, or whatever we may call it, of knowledge and habits, both physical and intellectual, suitable to the place which man had to occupy in the system of creation, and adequate to his necessities in that place. Had it been otherwise, the new beings could not have preserved their animal existence, nor have held rational converse with each other, nor have paid to their Creator the homage of knowledge and love, adoration and obedience; and reason clearly tells us that the last was the noblest end of existence. Those whom unhappy prejudices lead to reject revelation must either admit this, or must resort to suppositions of palpable absurdity and impossibility. If they will not admit a direct action of divine power in creation and adaptation to the designed mode of existence, they must admit something far beyond the miraculous, an
infinite succession of finite beings, or a spontaneous production of order, organization, and systematic action, from some unintelligent origin. The Bible coincides with this dictate of honest reason, expressing these facts in simple and artless language, suited to the circumstances of the men to whom revelation was first granted. That this production in a mature state was the fact with regard to the vegetable part of the creation, is declared in Gen. ii. 4, 5: "In the day of Jehovah God's making the earth and the heavens, and every shrub of the field before it should be in the earth, and every herb of the field before it should bud." The reader sees that we have translated the verbs (which stand in the Hebrew future form) by our potential mood, as the nearest in correspondence with the idiom called by Dr Nordheimer the "Dependent Use of the Future." (Critical Grammar of the Heb. Lang., vol. ii. p. 186; New York, 1841.) The two terms, shrubs and herbage, are put, by the common synecdoche, to designate the whole vegetable kingdom. The reason of the case comprehends the other division of organized nature; and this is applied to man and all other animals, in the words, "Out of the ground—dust out of the ground—Jehovah God formed them."
It is to be observed that there are two narratives at the beginning of the Mosaic records, different in style and manner, distinct and independent; at first sight somewhat discrepant, but when strictly examined, perfectly compatible, and each one illustrating and completing the other. The first is contained in Gen. i. 1. to ii. 3.; and the other, ii. 4. to iv. 26. As is the case with the Scripture history generally, they consist of a few principal facts, detached anecdotes, leaving much of necessary implication which the good sense of the reader is called upon to supply; and passing over large spaces of the history of life, upon which all conjecture would be fruitless.
In the second of these narratives we read, "And Jehovah God formed the man [Heb. the Adam], dust from the ground [האדמה, haadamah], and blew into his nostrils the breath of life; and the man became a living animal" (Gen. ii. 7). Here are two objects of attention, the organic mechanism of the human body, and the vitality with which it was endowed.
The mechanical material, formed (moulded, or arranged, as an artificer models clay or wax) into the human and all other animal bodies, is called "dust from the ground." This would be a natural and easy expression to men in the early ages, before chemistry was known or minute philosophical distinctions were thought of, to convey, in a general form, the idea of earthy matter, the constituent substance of the ground on which we tread. To say, that of this the human and every other animal body was formed, is a position which would be at once the most easily apprehensible to an uncultivated mind, and which yet is the most exactly true upon the highest philosophical grounds. We now know, from chemical analysis, that the animal body is composed, in the inscrutable manner called organization, of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, lime, iron, sulphur, and phosphorus. Now all these are mineral substances, which in their various combinations form a very large part of the solid ground.
In the Scripture narrative, we are told, "God created man in his own image: in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them." (Gen. i. 27.) The image (צֶלֶם, tselem, resemblance, such as a shadow bears to the object which casts it) of God is an expression which breathes at once archaic simplicity and the most recondite wisdom: for what term could the most cultivated and copious language bring forth more suitable to the purpose? It presents to us man as made in a resemblance to the author of his being, a true resemblance, but faint and shadowy: an
outline, faithful according to its capacity, yet infinitely remote from the reality: a distant form of the intelligence, wisdom, power, rectitude, goodness, and dominion of the Adorable Supreme.
On man was also conferred the shadow of the divine dominion and authority over the inferior creation. The attribute of power was given to him, in his being made able to convert the inanimate objects and those possessing only the vegetable life, into the instruments and the materials for supplying his wants, and continually enlarging his sphere of command.
In such a state of things knowledge and wisdom are implied: above all, moral excellence must have been comprised in this "image of God;" and not only forming a part of it, but being its crown of beauty and glory.
In this perfection of the faculties, and with these high prerogatives of moral existence, did human nature, in its first subject, rise up from the creating hand. The whole Scripture-narrative implies that this state of existence was one of correspondent activity and enjoyment. It plainly represents the DEITY himself as condescending to assume a human form and to employ human speech, in order to instruct and exercise the happy beings whom God created for immortality in the image of his own nature.
The noble and sublime idea that man thus had his Maker for his teacher and guide, precludes a thousand difficulties. It shows us the simple, direct, and effectual method by which the newly-formed creature would have communicated to him all the intellectual knowledge, and all the practical arts and manipulations, which were needful and beneficial for him. The universal management of the "garden in Eden eastward" (Gen. ii. 8), the treatment of the soil, the use of water, the various training of the plants and trees, the operations for insuring future produce, the necessary implements and the way of using them;—all these must have been included in the words "to dress it and to keep it" (ver. 15).
Religious knowledge and its appropriate habits also required an immediate infusion: and these are pre-eminently comprehended "in the image of God." It is not to be supposed that the newly-created man and his female companion were inspired with a very ample share of the doctrinal knowledge which was communicated to their posterity by the successive and accumulating revolutions of more than four thousand years: and it is impossible that they could be left in gross ignorance of the existence and excellencies of the Being who had made them, their obligations to him, and the way in which they might continue to receive the greatest blessings from him.
The next important article in this primeval history is the creation of the human female. The narrative is given in the more summary manner in the former of the two documents:—"Male and female created he them." (Gen. i. 27.) It stands a little more at length in a third document, which begins the fifth chapter, and has the characteristic heading or title by which the Hebrews designated a separate work. "This, the book of the generations of Adam. In the day God created Adam, he made him in the likeness [דמוית, demuth, a different word from that already treated upon, and which merely signifies resemblance] of God, male and female he created them; and he blessed them, and he called their name Adam, in the day of their being created" (ver. 1, 2.) The reader will observe that, in this passage, we have translated the word for man as the proper name, because it is so taken up in the next following sentence.
The second of the narratives is more circumstantial: "And Jehovah God said, it is not good the man's being alone: I will make for him a help suitable for him." Then follows the passage concerning the re-creation and the naming of the inferior animals; and it continues—"but for Adam he found not a help suitable for him. And Jehovah God caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man [the Adam], and he slept: and he took one out of his ribs, and closed up the flesh in its place: and Jehovah God built up the rib which he had taken from the man into a woman, and he brought her to the man: and the man said, this is the hit; bone out of my bones, and flesh out of my flesh;
Adam. this shall be called woman (ishah), for this was taken from out of man (ish)" (Gen. ii. 18-23).
This peculiar manner of the creation of the woman has, by some, been treated as merely a childish fable; by others, as an allegorical fiction intended to represent the close relation of the female sex to the male, and the tender claims which women have to sympathy and love. That such was the intention we do not doubt; but why should that intention be founded upon a mythic allegory? Is it not taught much better, and impressed much more forcibly, by its standing not on a fiction, but on a fact?
Another inquiry presents itself. How long did the state of paradisaic innocence and happiness continue? Some have regarded the period as very brief, not more even than a single day; but this manifestly falls very short of the time which a reasonable probability requires. The first man was brought into existence in the region called Eden; then he was introduced into a particular part of it, the garden, replenished with the richest productions of the Creator's bounty for the delight of the eye and the other senses; the most agreeable labour was required "to dress and to keep it," implying some arts of culture, preservation from injury, training flowers and fruits, and knowing the various uses and enjoyments of the produce; making observation upon the works of God, of which an investigation and designating of animals is expressly specified; nor can we suppose that there was no contemplation of the magnificent sky and the heavenly bodies; above all, the wondrous communion with the condescending Deity, and probably with created spirits of superior orders, by which the mind would be excited, its capacity enlarged, and its holy felicity continually increased. It is also to be remarked, that the narrative (Gen. ii. 19, 20) conveys the implication that some time was allowed to elapse, that Adam might discover and feel his want of a companion of his own species, "a help correspondent to him."
These considerations impress us with a sense of probability, amounting to a conviction, that a period not very short was requisite for the exercise of man's faculties, the disclosures of his happiness, and the service of adoration which he could pay to his Creator. But all these considerations are strengthened by the recollection that they attach to man's solitary state; and that they all require new and enlarged application when the addition of conjugal life is brought into the account. The conclusion appears irresistible that a duration of many days, or rather weeks or months, would be requisite for so many and important purposes.
Thus divinely honoured and happy were the progenitors of mankind in the state of their creation.
The next scene which the sacred history brings before us is a dark reverse. Another agent comes into the field and successfully employs his arts for seducing Eve, and by her means Adam, from their original state of rectitude, dignity, and happiness.
Among the provisions of Divine wisdom and goodness were two vegetable productions of wondrous qualities and mysterious significance; "the tree of life in the midst of the garden, and the tree of knowledge of good and evil" (Gen. ii. 9).
We see no sufficient reason to understand, as some do, "the tree of life" collectively, as implying a species, and that there were many trees of that species.
The "tree of the knowledge of good and evil" might be any tree whatever; it might be of any species even yet remaining, though, if it were so, we could not determine its species, for the plain reason that no name, description, or information whatever is given that could possibly lead to the ascertaining. One cannot but lament the vulgar practice of painters representing it as an apple-tree, and thus giving occasion to profane and silly witticisms.
Yet we cannot but think the more reasonable probability to be, that it was a tree having poisonous properties, stimulating and intoxicating, such as are found in some existing species, especially in hot climates. On this ground the prohibition to eat or even touch the tree was a beneficent provision against the danger of pain and death.
But the revealed object of this "tree of the knowledge of good and evil" was that which would require no particular properties beyond some degree of external beauty, and fruit of an
immediately pleasant taste. That object was to be a test of obedience. For such a purpose, it is evident, that to select an indifferent act to be the object prohibited, was necessary; as the obligation to refrain should be only that which arises simply, so far as the subject of the law can know, from the sacred will of the lawgiver. There was no difficulty in the observance of their Creator's precept. They were surrounded with a paradise of delights, and they had no reason to imagine that any good whatever would accrue to them from their seizing upon any thing prohibited. If perplexity or doubt arose, they had ready access to their Divine benefactor for obtaining information and direction. But they allowed the thought of disobedience to form itself into a disposition, and then a purpose.
Thus was the seal broken,—the integrity of the heart was gone,—the sin was generated,—and the outward act was the consummation of the entire process. Eve, less informed, less cautious, less endowed with strength of mind, became the more ready victim. "The woman, being deceived, was in the transgression;" but "Adam was not deceived" (1 Tim. ii. 14.) He rushed knowingly and deliberately to ruin. The offence had grievous aggravations. It was the preference of a trifling gratification to the approbation of the Supreme Lord of the universe; it implied a denial of the wisdom, holiness, goodness, veracity, and power of God; it was marked with extreme ingratitude; and it involved a contemptuous disregard of consequences, awfully impious as it referred to their immediate connection with the moral government of God, and cruelly selfish as it respected their posterity.
The instrument of the temptation was a serpent; whether any one of the existing kinds, it is evidently impossible for us to know. Of that numerous order many species are of brilliant colours, and playful in their attitudes and manners; so that one may well conceive of such an object attracting and fascinating the first woman. Whether it spoke in an articulate voice, like the human, or expressed the sentiments attributed to it by a succession of remarkable and significant actions, may be a subject of reasonable question.
This part of the narrative begins with the words, "And the serpent was crafty above every animal of the field" (Gen. iii. 1.) It is to be observed that this is not said of the order of serpents, as if it were a general property of them, but of that particular serpent. Had the noun been intended generically, as is often the case, it would have required to be without the substantive verb; for such is the usual Hebrew method of expressing universal propositions: of this the Hebrew scholar may see constant examples in the Book of Proverbs.
Indeed, this "cunning craftiness, lying in wait to deceive" (Eph. iv. 14.), is the very character of that malignant creature of whose wily stratagems the serpent was a mere instrument. The existence of spirits, superior to man, and of whom some have become depraved, and are labouring to spread wickedness and misery to the utmost of their power, has been found to be the belief of all nations, ancient and modern, of whom we possess information. It has also been the general doctrine of both Jews and Christians, that one of those fallen spirits was the real agent in this first and successful temptation. Of this doctrine, the declarations of our Lord and his apostles contain abundant confirmation.
After their fearful transgression, the condescending Deity, who had held gracious and instructive communion with the parents of mankind, assuming a human form, visibly stood before them; by a searching interrogatory he drew from them the confession of their guilt, which they aggravated by evasions and insinuations against God himself: he then pronounced sentence on them and their seducer. On the woman he inflicted the pains of child-bearing, and a deeper and more humiliating dependence upon her husband. He doomed the man to hard and often fruitless toil, instead of easy and pleasant labour. On both, or rather on human nature universally, he pronounced the awful sentence of death. The denunciation of the serpent partakes more of a symbolical character, and so seems to carry a strong implication of the nature and the wickedness of the concealed agent. The human sufferings threatened are all, excepting the last, of a remedial and corrective kind.
Of a quite different character are the penal denunciations upon the serpent. If they be understood literally, and of course
applied to the whole order of Ophidia (as, we believe, is the common interpretation), they will be found to be flagrantly at variance with demonstrated facts in their physiology and economy.
But all difficulty is swept away when we consider the fact, that the Hebrew is הַנְחָשִׁי הַיָּהַן hannachash haiah, the serpent was, &c. and that it refers specifically and personally to a rational and accountable being, the spirit of lying and cruelty, the devil, the Satan, the old serpent. That God, the infinitely holy, good, and wise, should have permitted any one or more celestial spirits to apostatise from purity, and to be the successful seducers of mankind, is indeed an awful and overwhelming mystery. But it is not more so than the permitted existence of many among mankind, whose rare talents and extraordinary command of power and opportunity, combined with extreme depravity, have rendered them the plague and curse of the earth; and the whole merges into the awful and insoluble problem, Why has the All-perfect Deity permitted evil at all? We are firmly assured, that He will bring forth, at last, the most triumphant evidence that "He is righteous in all his ways, and holy in all his works." In the meantime, our happiness lies in the impleite confidence which we cannot but feel to be due to the Being of infinite perfection.
The remaining part of the denunciation upon the false and cruel seducer sent a beam of light into the agonized hearts of our guilty first parents: "And enmity will I put between thee and the woman, and between thy seed and her seed: he will attack thee [on] the head, and thou wilt attack him [at] the heel." Christian interpreters generally regard this as the Protevangelium, the first gospel-promise, and we think with good reason. It was a manifestation of mercy; it revealed a Deliverer, "who should be a human being, in a peculiar sense the offspring of the female, who should also, in some way not yet made known, counteract and remedy the injury inflicted, and who, though partially suffering from the malignant power, should, in the end, completely conquer it, and convert its very success into its own punishment." (J. Pye Smith, Scripture Testimony to the Messiah, vol. i. p. 226.)
The awful threatening to man was, "In the day that thou eatest of it, thou wilt die the death." The infliction is Death, in the most comprehensive sense,—that which stands opposed to Life,—the life of not only animal enjoyment, but holy happiness, the life which comported with the image of God. This was lost by the fall; and the sentence of physical death was pronounced, to be executed in due time. Divine mercy gave a long respite.
The same mercy was displayed in still more tempering the terrors of justice. The garden of delights was not to be the abode of rebellious creatures. But before they were turned out into a bleak and dreary wilderness, God was pleased to direct them to make clothing, suitable to their new and degraded condition, of the skins of animals. That those animals had been offered in sacrifice, is a conjecture supported by so much probable evidence, that we may regard it as a well-established truth.
From this time we have little recorded of the lives of Adam and Eve. Their three sons are mentioned with important circumstances connected with each of them. Cain was probably born in the year after the fall; Abel possibly some years later; Seth, certainly one hundred and thirty years from the creation of his parents. After that Adam lived eight hundred years, and had sons and daughters, doubtless by Eve, and then he died, nine hundred and thirty years old. In that prodigious period, many events, and those of great importance, must have occurred; but the wise providence of God has not seen fit to preserve to us any memorial of them, and scarcely any vestiges or hints are afforded of the occupations and mode of life of men through the antediluvian period.
ADAM of Bremen was a canon of the cathedral of Bremen, and lived in the latter part of the eleventh century. He wrote a church history, in four books, treating of the propagation of the Christian faith in the north, entitled Historia ecclesiastica ecclesiasticum Hamburgensis et Bremensis, ab anno 788 ad an. 1072; and also another work particularly interesting to geographers, called Chronographia
Scandinavia, or, De Situ Daniae et reliquarum trans Adam. Daniam regionum natura. The time of his death is not known.