NEWYORK

perature, backward seasons, and early frosts. The western or lake region has a similar climate to that of Long Island. Summarily, this state has the summer heats of Spain and Italy, and the rigour of its winter is equal to those of the northern portions of Europe.

Corresponding to the varieties in its characteristics of surface, soil, and climate, we find, as we should expect, that this state has an exceedingly diverse vegetation. Within its borders are trees, shrubs, grasses, &c., of both extremes of the States—the north and the south. Its most important natural growth is that of its forest trees, which once covered its whole territory, and yet occupy the immense tracts that have not been brought under cultivation. The most common trees in the forest are the varieties of oak, pine, beech, &c.; but scarcely any variety, found under similar latitude and climate, is wanting. The mountain sides and woods are clothed with a shrubby undergrowth. The native grasses are numerous and widely distributed, but only a few of them are valuable, and the cultivated meadow grasses are of foreign origin. The whole number of flowering plants in the state is about 1450,—of which 1200 are herbaceous, and 150 may be regarded as ornamental. Of woody plants, there are 250 species, including 80 that attain to the stature of trees. Of plants that are reputed medicinal there are, native and naturalized, about 160 species.

From the diversity of the climate, which exercises a great influence upon the number and distribution of its animals, it results that its classes of the animal kingdom comprise those found in both the northern and southern portions of Europe. The families Cervidae and Mustelidae may serve as examples of the one; while the Vespertilionidae and Muridae will illustrate the other. The previous explanation of the natural divisions of the state points out the four principal zoological districts, each sufficiently distinct in itself, but of course so much blended at the lines of separation as not to be contradistinguished. The forests were formerly ranged by the moose, stag, and reindeer, but these are now seldom met with. The existing animals are the American deer, black bear, puma, &c., descending in size to the hares, squirrels, and smaller quadrupeds. The Mastodon has been found in a fossil state in several places; the most perfect and gigantic skeleton being that found in 1845 near Newburgh, Orange county, weighing 2000 lbs., and owned by Dr. John C. Warren of Boston, by whom it has been described in one of the memoirs published by the Smithsonian Institution. Teeth and other remains of elephants, &c., have been occasionally dug up. Of birds of prey the species are numerous; of birds of passage, 20 different tribes and 149 species; of the Scansorioe, the genus Picus (woodpecker) is very common; of the Gallinacee, several species; of the Grallatores, or waders, there are 62 species in 7 families; and of the Palmipedes, or swimming birds, there are many varieties. In regard to the Reptilia, Amphibia, Pisces, Mollusca, Crustacea, and Insecta, we have not room for even a condensation of the results of the survey of the state.

The state of New York, in common with other portions of North America, possesses many interesting but obscure traces of once powerful nations, which seem to have existed previous to those savage tribes who occupied the country at the period of its discovery by Europeans. The ruins of fortifications, mounds, &c., the traces of agriculture, and the remains of rude art which have been brought to light in various parts of the state, display marks of high antiquity, and bespeak the existence of a people entirely distinct from the Indians who were found here by the first European discoverers. These works consist chiefly of earthen parapets, the sites of which, with a view to defence, appear to have been selected with much judgment; and greater skill was exercised in their construction than has been displayed by the Indian races known to us. The forms of these

remains are various, being circular, elliptical, triangular, and New York State. square; and they are generally placed in situations which command the adjacent country. Near many of the forts are mounds of earth raised for cemeteries, in which human bones, in various stages of decay, are common. These may have been the burial places, in some instances, of the more recent Indian tribes. The number of forts and mounds in the western part of the state much exceeds 100. The enclosed areas of the fortifications vary from 6 acres to 100 feet in diameter; and the earthen walls which inclose them, in their present abraded condition, are from 10 to 12 feet in height, and from 6 to 8 feet in breadth. Some of these breastworks bear or have borne trees, whose age has been estimated at more than two hundred and seventy-five years, and which may have been preceded by others. There are indications that the architects of these works were not so greatly advanced in civilization as the Toltecs or Aztecs of Mexico, and thus their origin is surrounded with additional mystery.

At the time of the first settlement of New York, the Indian principal Indian tribes in the region now comprised in the tribes. state were those of the celebrated confederacy of the Five Nations, viz., the Mohawk, Oneida, Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga. It is asserted by a writer in 1741, that this confederacy was established, as the Indians say, one age or one man's life before the white people settled at Albany (1615), or before white men came to the country. Long before they were known to the Europeans, these nations had acquired a decided superiority over other Indians; and this they long retained, extending their conquests as far as South Carolina. In 1714 they were joined by the Tuscaroras, and from that time the confederation was known as that of the Six Nations. In 1608 Champlain, by his attack, had rendered them hostile to the French, and their hostility continued until the French lost Canada. Their alliance with the English continued so firm, that on the breaking out of (and in fact before) the Revolutionary war, they were induced to engage against the Americans. The Six Nations then numbered about 10,000, and had 2000 bold and skilful warriors. Including these, there were, within the Indian department of the northern provinces, 130,000 Indians, of whom 25,420 were fighting men. But if their employment by the British government was disastrous to the Americans, it was equally so to the Indians. A considerable portion of the Oneidas refused to join with the other tribes against the colonists. The bond of this confederacy was severed never to be reunited. The war made sad havoc with their warriors, and at its close the remnants of the tribes passed away before the influx of settlers. In 1788 and 1789 the Six Nations, by treaty, conveyed to the state a large tract of their territory; and by other purchases, &c., the Indian title to nearly all lands in the state was extinguished. Certain reservations, chiefly in the western counties, were made, portions of which the Indians and their descendants have continued to hold to the present time. Their total number in 1845 was 3753; in 1855, 3934.

The history of New York commences with 1609. On the third day of September in that year, Henry Hudson, an Englishman by birth, in the service of the Dutch East India Company, anchored his vessel, the Crescent, within Sandy Hook. Almost at the same time Champlain was invading New York from the north. After a week's delay, Hudson sailed (Sept. 11) through the Narrows, and anchored in New York harbour. Ten days (Sept. 12th to 22d) were employed in exploring the river. Hudson, the first of Europeans who penetrated so far into the country, went sounding his way beyond the Highlands, till the Crescent had sailed some miles above the city of Hudson, and a boat had advanced a little beyond Albany. Frequent intercourse was held with the astonished Indians. Having completed his discovery, Hudson descended the

New York stream to which time has given his name; and, on the fourth day of October, set sail for Europe.

The right of possession of the country was claimed for the United Provinces; and, in 1610, merchants of Amsterdam fitted out a ship with various merchandise to traffic with the natives. The voyage was prosperous, and was renewed. In 1614 the first rude fort was erected—probably on the southern point of Manhattan Island. In the next year (1615) the settlement at Albany was begun, on an island just below the present city. This was the remote port of the Indian trader, and was never again abandoned. Yet at this early period there was no colony; not a single family had emigrated; the only Europeans on the Hudson were commercial agents and their subordinates. The Dutch West India Company was incorporated, June 3, 1621, for twenty-four years, and became the sovereign of the central portion of the United States, though colonization on the Hudson was neither the motive nor main object in its establishment. Its first ship arrived in the harbour of New York in 1623. This is the era of the permanent settlement of the country, which in its development shortly assumed the form of a colony.

In 1624 Peter Minuits, the commercial agent of the West India Company, arrived with several families, and thenceforward held the office of director (governor) until 1633, when he was succeeded by Wouter Van Twiller, who in 1638 gave place to William Kieft. During the administration of the latter, the colony was troubled by controversies with the encroaching English, and suffered from the provoked hostilities of the Indians. In 1647 Peter Stuyvesant became governor, and by his exertions a provisional treaty was made with the surrounding English colonies. In 1664 Charles II. granted to his brother James, the Duke of York, the territory claimed by the Dutch. On 8th September of that year, Colonel Nichols, commissioned for the purpose, compelled Stuyvesant to surrender, and changed the name of New Netherlands to New York. In 1673 the Dutch retook the colony, but in the next year they finally surrendered it to the English, who held possession until the American Revolution. During this lengthy period New York suffered much from the Indian depredations and ravages in the wars waged between the French and English. In 1690 Schenectady was burned by the savages, and many of its inhabitants massacred. Apart from these wars, no very important event occurred for many years preceding the negro plot in 1741. On 7th October 1765, the first continental congress of the colonies met in New York city; and from that time, until the close of the Revolution, the general history of New York is almost identical with that of the united colonies.

A considerable portion of the active hostilities of the revolutionary war took place on the soil of this state. At its commencement the American militia captured Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and Whitehall, and thus secured the command of Lake Champlain. The most prominent occurrences in New York were,—the defeat, in the autumn of 1776, of the Americans on Long Island and at White Plains; the surrender, on 17th October 1777, of Burgoyne, the British general, with his 6000 troops; and the capture, on the 16th July 1779 of Stony Point by the Americans, under General Wayne. Jay, Hamilton, and others distinguished in the national councils, were natives of New York.

The colonial government was suspended in May 1775, from which time, to 20th April 1777, a provincial congress governed; of which Nathaniel Woodhill was president from August 1775. On 9th July 1776, the fourth session of this body met, by adjournment, at White Plains, and having received the Declaration of Independence, approved it. On 12th March 1777, a constitution for the

state was reported by a committee of the congress; on New York the 20th April following it was adopted; and it so remained through the war, and afterwards. On 26th July 1788 it was ratified by the state legislature, and it thence continued to be the organic law, without change (excepting a few amendments in 1801) until 1821, when it was revised by a convention elected for that purpose; and their revision was duly ratified by the people. In 1846 a new constitution, prepared by a convention, was approved by the people; and to this was made, in 1854, an amendment relative to the public debt.

The present constitution came into operation 1st January 1847. The right to vote is granted to every white male adult citizen resident of the state one year, of the Abstract county four months, and of the election district thirty days; and to coloured persons having paid tax on freehold estate of L.52, and been citizens for three years. General elections are held on the Tuesday after first Monday in November. The legislature assembles on the first Tuesday in January. Senators (32) are elected for two years; assembly-men (128) for one year; and both receive 12s. 6d. per diem for a hundred days' session, with mileage. The Judiciary is thus constituted:—The court for the trial of impeachments consists of the senate and the judges of the court of appeals, and its judgment extends only to removal or disqualification for office, with liability to indictment. The court of appeals is composed of 8 judges, of whom 4 are elected by the electors of the state, and 4 are selected from the justices of the supreme court having the shortest time to serve, and its chief judge is chosen from those elected. The supreme court, having general jurisdiction in law and equity, comprises 8 districts, in each of which 4 justices are elected for eight years. County courts (except New York county) consist of 1 judge, elected for four years. Municipal courts have uniform organization and jurisdiction; justices of the peace are elected for four years. Any male adult citizen of good morals, and requisite ability, may practice in all state courts. The governor, elected by the people for two years, must be thirty years old, state resident for five years, and United States citizen. Of the administrative officers, the secretary of state, comptroller, treasurer, attorney-general, and state engineer, are elected by the people for two years.

In 1814 the state had a fund applicable to the support of its government, amounting to L.916,017. In 1817 the construction of the Erie and Champlain canals was commenced; and in defraying their cost the public monies were exhausted, and a debt was created. Before the year 1835 the state had formed 656 miles of canal, at a cost of L.2,427,631, of which the Erie Canal, 364 miles long, cost L.1,488,285. The public debt, though it has been gradually increasing, has never been a burden to the taxpayers of the state; since the receipts from the tolls, &c., of the canals, have not only paid the expenses of the canals and a large share of the ordinary expenses of government, but have earned a surplus, used in discharging the interest of the debt. On 30th September 1856, the total canal debt was L.4,670,056. The work of enlarging the canals, which, for several years, has been in progress, has resulted in an increase of the canal debt; but, it is confidently believed, that when this is completed, the canals will amply repay all the cost of construction and maintenance, and thereafter, afford a large revenue to the state. In 1856 the assessed value of taxable property in the state was nearly L.292,000,000; but this assessment, as in all the states, is much below the real value.

The following table exhibits the result of the census of New York during the period preceding the War of Independence:—

In 1774 it was estimated that the colony of New York embraced a population of 161,098 whites, and 21,149 blacks; or 182,247 in all. Of the enumerations in 1776 and 1782, only fragments now remain. In 1786 a full census gave to the state a total of 238,897; of which there were 219,956 whites, 18,889 slaves, and 12 Indians paying taxes. The following table is a synopsis of the enumerations of the state from 1790 to 1850, taken by United States authority:—

The increase of population in this state during these sixty years was not only greater in absolute numbers, but was also greater in proportion than in any other of the free states, the ratio having been 810.68 per cent.; while Maine, which exhibited the next greatest growth, increased its population 504.07 per cent. during the same period. On 1st June 1855, the population had increased to 3,466,212; of which there were 45,286 coloured persons.

The state census of 1845 first directed inquiries concerning place of birth, which were of a general character. Similar, but more minute inquiries, were made in the national census of 1850, and still more careful investigations in the state census of 1855. A synopsis of the returns of the three periods thus presented:—

The published results of the census of 1850 and 1855 Migrations confirm the well-known fact that the Americans are migratory in their character, and that the tendency of their migration is westward. In 1850 the number of persons born in this state, but then residing in other states, was 547,218; and the number of those born in other states, but then residing in this state, was 288,100; showing an excess of 259,119 given to other states. The census of 1855 plainly shows that a very large proportion of the inhabitants of the western counties were born in the eastern counties.

The following table shows the respective numbers of the Origin of population, on the 1st June 1855, born in foreign countries (having over 100 emigrants in the state), and the percentage of the same in the total population:—

In 1821, by a provision of the state constitution as then revised and adopted, the elective franchise was extended to all white male citizens, of the age of twenty-one years, who paid taxes or performed military duty, or who were by law exempt from taxes or military service. In 1826 the constitution was amended by entirely abolishing the property qualification of white voters by a popular vote of 127,077 for, to 3215 against it. Since 1821 the state census period has been decennial, commencing with 1825. Its successive returns of the total population, and of the number of voters and aliens, have been as follows:—

The constitution of 1821 provided that no man of colour Persons of should vote unless possessed of a freehold worth L.52, above colour. all incumbances, and for three years a citizen, &c.; also, that no person of colour should be taxed unless possessed of said real estate. In the adoption of the constitution of 1846, this provision was retained by a special vote of

¹ The two tables for 1850 are both derived from the official United States census. Their discrepancies are owing to the circumstance that the tables from which these totals were taken were prepared for different purposes, in different ways, and at different times, involving the examination of the names of many millions of persons, and easily giving opportunity for some errors. The first is perhaps the more correct. It is taken from Tables XL. and XLVII. of the Compendium, 8vo, and is composed thus:—

New York 114,900 for, to 3901 against retaining it. The returns of this class have been as follows:—

One of the most prominent indications of the recent enumerations is the tendency of the population to centralize in cities and large towns, and apparently at the expense of the rural districts. These changes, however, inevitably result from the greater changes in the general condition of the state and the whole Union. The increase of the facilities of intercommunication has concentrated the trades that they may take advantage of the division of labour. The unlimited field of enterprise offered in manufactures, trade, and commerce, has caused a remarkable growth of cities and towns along the lines and at the centres of the great routes of transportation and travel; and these localities have also received the greater share of the foreign immigration. In 1855 the eight chief cities contained nearly one-third of the whole population of the state. The following table shows their growth:—

In 1855 there were twenty-eight townships, with an aggregate population ranging from 5000 to 14,000, which contained one or more flourishing villages; and fifty-four other townships, with a population ranging from 4000 to 6500, with villages, &c.

In the western and other agricultural sections of the state, the increase of population has been checked by the extensive emigration therefrom to the western states and territories. This emigration has drawn off a considerable share of the best class of the native population. However, it should be considered that, in many sections, agriculture itself requires less manual labour than formerly. The well provided farmer of the present day has his machines for sowing, hoeing, reaping, and threshing, and other improved implements of agriculture.

The employments of the male population over fifteen years of age were thus summed up in the census of 1850:—

Owing to the absence of uniformity in the schedules on this subject in the several enumerations, there are no reliable data for comparing the number of persons in the various occupations at different periods.

New York stands unrivalled among the states of the

Union in most of the great branches of national industry. New York State. In some few particulars it is surpassed by some states, which have greater natural advantages for the prosecution of those branches,—as Maine, in making lumber and building vessels; Pennsylvania, in raising coal and producing iron; and Massachusetts, in manufacturing cotton and woollen goods, and in prosecuting the coast fisheries. But, taken altogether, the industrial pursuits in New York are more varied and more valuable in their results than those of any other state.

Agriculture employs the greater part of the population, Agricultural exclusive of the inhabitants of the cities and large villages, &c. Great efforts have been made, especially by agricultural societies, to introduce everywhere the best modes of culture, and with much success. Improvements of this class have been particularly made in the vicinity of the city of New York; although in that section this result has been directly owing to the great demands of the populous city. For example, the western part of Long Island has soil that is naturally of moderate fertility; but it has been greatly improved, and it is now noted for its market produce.

Comparison of some of the Returns in 1850 and 1855.

In 1850, average number of acres in the farms, 113; average value of same, L.675; average value of farming implements and machinery, L.25. According to the census of 1850 (in which the returns of products are for the year ending 1st June 1850) New York ranked as first of the states in its aggregate production of oats (26,552,814 bush. out of 146,594,179 in the whole Union), of buckwheat (3,183,955 out of 8,956,812), of barley (3,585,059 out of 5,167,015), of Irish potatoes (15,398,368 out of 65,797,896), of peas and beans, of market garden products, of orchard products, and of hay, maple, sugar, honey, and hops. The wheat crop was 13,121,498 bush., or 13 per cent. of the whole United States' crop, and ranking as the third state in this respect; that of Indian corn was larger, amounting to 17,858,400 bush., though only 3 per cent. of the United States' crop. It also ranked as first of the states in the amount of its live stock (valued at L.15,325,099 out of L.113,370,936 in the whole Union), in the value of animals slaughtered, and in its products of butter and cheese. Its product of wool was about one-fifth of all in the Union, greatly exceeding that of every other state, excepting Ohio, which was a trifle larger.

In manufactures New York is very extensively engaged. Manufactures. Its aggregate productions of this class of industry in 1850 not only exceeded the corresponding product of any other state, but amounted to nearly one-fourth of all manufactures produced in the United States.

Statement of Establishments in 1850, each producing to the amount of L.104, or upwards, yearly.

Per cent. profit of the total, 53.86; total females employed

¹ This return of unimproved land is of that attached to farms.

New York (included in the above) 51,612—in cotton works 3668, woolen 2412, tanning 31; total annual wages of all persons employed L.8,360,623. From the census of 1850 it appears that of the classes of manufactures specifically mentioned New York then ranked as first of the states only in the manufactures of iron-casting, those of tanneries, and of salt, beer, and ardent spirits; indicating that its products, aside from the great classes, were of many kinds. It also appears that, in distilleries and breweries, New York employed more capital than any other state (amounting to L.538,726 out of L.1,772,409 in the whole Union); that its product of beer was about four-sevenths, of rum about two-fifths, and of whisky and high wines about two-ninths of all made in the Union. The census of 1855 returned the following statements:—

Mining. The products from mining, so far as reported in 1850, are included in the preceding total of the manufactures. The localities in which this branch of industry is prosecuted are referred to in the previous descriptions of the geology and mineralogy of the state. The census of 1840 reported that 1898 persons were then employed in mining.

Lumber business. The lumber business of this state is a source of much wealth. The forests about the Sasquachanna and Delaware furnish large quantities of pine for the Philadelphia and Baltimore markets. Albany is noted as one of the greatest markets for lumber in the world, though the greater part of it is not obtained from New York, but from Canada, Michigan, and Ohio.

Fisheries. The interest of New York in the coast fisheries is important, but there are no official or reliable returns on this subject. In the deep-sea fisheries the state is not largely engaged, and less so now than formerly. The number of vessels in the whale fishery, January 1, 1856, was 31, with aggregate tonnage of 10,493 tons, showing a great decrease from former times.

Building of vessels. The building of vessels is very extensively prosecuted. The amount of tonnage built within this state annually, during the last four years, has uniformly averaged one-fifth of the whole built in the Union. Nearly all of the great American steam-ships have been built in New York city.

Tonnage owned in New York. The amount of tonnage owned in this state is proportionably less than the commerce, because many vessels which are employed in its carrying-trade are built, owned, and registered, or enrolled in other states. New York, however, owns two-sevenths of the total tonnage, and one-third of the steam tonnage of the whole United States.

Statement of 30th June 1856.

Tonnage of the several Districts in 1856.

Total tonnage owned in the state, 1,508,810; consisting of 731,283 enrolled and licensed, and 774,526 registered.

The internal improvements of New York are remarkable for their extent and cost, and have most beneficially influenced the prosperity of the state and of the Union. Most of the canals were constructed, and are now owned by the Internal state, and these have an aggregate length of about 800 miles. All the railroads have been formed by incorporated companies, and without the aid of the state, excepting its subscription of L.625,000 to the New York and Erie Railroad. In the interior, especially in the vicinity of large towns, there are many excellent plank-roads, which have probably cost, in the aggregate, at least L.1,000,000. The state's receipts from the canals have of late years varied between L.540,000 and L.625,000 annually; and about one-third of this is expended for the care, repairs, &c., of the canals. The Erie Canal was constructed during 1817-25, 364 miles long and 40 feet wide, at a cost of L.1,488,286; at various periods sections of it have been enlarged, and this work of improvement is still in progress. The Delaware and Hudson Canal was built, and is owned by an incorporated company; 83 miles of its length is within New York. In 1832 the first two lines of railroad were opened, viz., from Albany to Schenectady 15 miles, and from the latter place to Saratoga Springs. Statistics (September 30, 1855) of railroads in New York:—Length of track laid, 2611½ miles; length of double track, including sidings, 912½ miles; total cost of road, equipment, and other expenditures, L.26,851,679; total amount of funded and floating debt, L.16,276,209; capital stock paid in, L.14,404,560; gross receipts in fiscal year 1855, L.4,492,224; do. expenses, L.2,520,448. Length of main line of Erie Railroad, New York city to Dunkirk, 461 miles; New York Central Railroad, Albany to Buffalo, 298 miles; Hudson River Railroad, New York to Albany, 144 miles.

The total amount of the domestic and coasting trade of this state is not known with any exactness; but this, undoubtedly, is in a ratio corresponding to the extent of its canals and railroads, and the amount of its foreign commerce, as compared with other states.

The foreign commerce of New York comprises about two-fifths of the exports of all the United States, and somewhat more than three-fifths of the imports,—thus averaging more than half the foreign commerce of the nation.

The following table is made up from the returns of the collection districts for fiscal year 1856:—

Soon after the organization of the state government, provision was made for an efficient system of public education. Every town is divided into a suitable number of districts, and in each is a school maintained at the public expense. Statistics of the year 1855:—

It may be justly concluded that there is comparatively only a small proportion of the children and youth in the state who do not spend a portion of their time in school.

Eighteen collegiate institutions, in the census of 1850, were reported to have 174 teachers, 2673 pupils, and an annual income of L.30,864; and 883 academies, &c., were reported to have 3130 teachers, 49,262 pupils, and annual income of L.168,817.

Libraries other than private in the State in 1850.

The Press. In 1810 there were 66 newspapers, with circulation of 4,139,200; in 1828, 161; and, in 1834, 267 issues; of which 21 were dailies. The returns of subsequent periods are as follows:—

In 1855, number whose circulation was reported... 540
Copies printed per annum of those reported.....193,291,621
Estimated copies per annum of all classes.....241,749,902

Churches. The following table presents the statistics of the principal religious denominations, according to the census of 1855, preceded by the total, which embraces over forty sects. These returns are of those religious societies that have each a regular chapel of their own, not including those that worship in schoolhouses and places of secular use:—

Average value of churches, L.1290; average accommodation, 421; average number of inhabitants to each church, 683. Percentage of accommodation to total population, 61.73; of attendance do., 32.41; of membership do., 20.23.

Pauperism. By census of 1825 the percentage of paupers to total population was 0.34; do. 1835, 0.31; do. 1845, 0.32. The census of 1855 made no report on this subject. It is known, however, by the annual reports of the secretary of state, that pauperism has, since 1845, been much increased,

though in no greater ratio than the foreign immigration, to New York City, which it is in a very large degree attributable.

During the year 1855 there were convicted in the courts of record of the state 1842 persons, as follows:—Of Crime, offences against the person, 397 (383 males and 14 females); offences against property with violence, 278 (275 males and 3 females); offences without violence, 586 (507 males and 79 females); offences against the currency, 37 (36 males and 1 female); all other offences, 544 (513 males and 31 females). In all the courts there were 6744 convictions, and of these 5076 were of foreigners.

There are three state prisons, in which for the 8 years State 1847-55, the average yearly number of prisoners was about 1700; and the average yearly increase was 86. Number on 1st December 1855, 1901 (1679 whites and 222 blacks); and of these 92 were white females, and 14 black females.

The state has two establishments for the reformation of juvenile offenders. The older one, at Randall's Island, city refuge of New York, was opened in 1825; and, up to the close of 1856, had received 6880 children and youth, of whom it is believed that 70 per cent. were there reformed.

The state maintains numerous public institutions for Public institutions unfortunate by nature or calamity. These are very extensive, and conducted according to the best practice known in similar establishments. The chief of these are—the lunatic asylum at Utica; institution for the deaf-and-dumb at New York; institution for the blind at New York; and the asylum for idiots at Syracuse. At New York also, partly sustained by the state, are the City Hospital, Bloomingdale Asylum for the insane; emigrant hospitals; institutions for scamen; dispensaries, &c. (F. II.)

NEW YORK, city and port of entry, New York county, state of New York, lies at the head of New York Bay, and at the confluence of the Hudson River and the strait called East River, which connects Long Island Sound through New York Bay with the Atlantic Ocean. It is the commercial metropolis of the state of New York, and the greatest emporium in the New World. In general importance it surpasses all other great cities of the world, excepting London and Paris. Its area comprises (the city and county having the same limits) the whole of Manhattan or New York Island, and several small islands immediately adjacent. The separation of the former from the mainland is caused by the water-course called Harlem River, connecting the Hudson and East Rivers; but this is, in fact, of little account; for, although the stream is, or might be, of considerable service in navigation, it is crossed by bridges and the Croton Aqueduct. The extreme length of New York Island is about 13½ miles; its width through the greater part of its length is about 2 miles; but at each extremity it decreases irregularly; and its area is about 14,000 acres, or 22 square miles. Lat. of the City Hall 40. 42. 43. N., Long. of do. from Greenwich 74. 0. 3. W.

New York enjoys from nature almost every advantage Harbour, that could be desired to build up a great emporium. It bay, and extends between two rivers, each of which is navigable for rivers, the largest vessels; and the harbour, below their confluence, might contain the navies of all nations. The width of the Hudson River is quite uniform, and is somewhat more than a mile; while that of the East River varies, being, in some narrow localities, not more than two-fifths of a mile, though generally much greater. The harbour or inner bay is of irregular elliptical form, about 8 miles long and 25 miles in periphery. This is not only one of the best but one of the most beautiful harbours in the world. Its southern part is surrounded with small settlements, connected by elegant villas and their gardens. Toward its northern part the number of vessels at anchor increases; and beyond these is the dense forest of masts, bearing the flags of all nations, crowded around the wharves of the great city and its suburbs. In it are three islands ceded to the national go-

vernment, and fortified for the defence of the city. By the strait called "the Narrows," 7 miles from the lower part of the city, and which is, for the space of a mile, about 1 mile wide, with extreme depth of 86 feet, it communicates with the outer harbour, or bay proper, which extends thence to Sandy Hook Light, 18 miles from the city, and opens directly out into the ocean, forming one of the best roadsteads on the Atlantic coast. On the bar, at Sandy Hook the depth of water in the old channel is 21 feet at low tide, and 27 or 28 feet at high tide; but, in the New or Gedney's Channel, it is 32 at low tide, and 38 or 39 at high tide. The channel inside varies from 35 to 72 feet. The rise of the tide is nearly 7 feet. The depth of water at the wharves is sufficient for the vessels which they respectively accommodate, and increases rapidly outwards. The currents in the rivers and bay are very strong, keeping these waters open when the rivers and bays much farther south are frozen up. In very severe winters the East River is obstructed for a short time by ice; which, in a few cases, has collected so as to form a solid mass.

The harbour has for a long period been well provided with defences, and these are being steadily augmented by the general government. The principal works are at the Narrows, which is the most important and most readily accessible avenue of approach. On the Long Island side, or shore of the channel, are Fort Hamilton and Fort Lafayette. On the Staten Island side, or shore of the channel, are batteries Hudson and Morton, Fort Richmond (in 1857 not completed), and Old Fort Tompkins. Quite near the lower point of the city there are fortifications on three islands,—Governor's, Bedlow's, and Ellis's,—and to these may be added Castle Clinton, which is now entirely dismantled, but occupies a good position, and might again be put in serviceable condition. The passage by the East River from Long Island Sound is defended by Fort Schuyler, a powerful work, situated at a narrow pass in the river, about 17 miles from the lower part of the city. Since 1854 there has been in construction a monster iron steamer, or steam battery, designed for use in the waters of the bay from Sandy Hook upwards, and intended to be, in fact, a moveable fort of great efficiency. In 1857 Congress provided for the commencement of a fort opposite Fort Schuyler; for the erection of another on the site of old Fort Tompkins; for the repairs of those already established; and for extensive fortifications at Sandy Hook.

The island was originally much diversified; and, in its upper portion, where least peopled, it still retains somewhat of its original character. The elevated rocky portions subsequently mentioned, vary from 70 to 130 feet above tide water—the valleys being often deep, and the hills precipitous. With the increase of population improvements have been made according to a uniform system, in laying out avenues and streets, levelling them, providing sewerage, &c. The island is traversed centrally throughout its lower part by a ridge, on each side of which the ground slopes gently to the water. There is also a line of elevation along the western side of the island in its upper part, from which the ground descends to the Hudson and the East River. A considerable portion of the lower part of the city, particularly that near the rivers, is artificial ground. The Battery, a public park at the southern extremity, was made upon a low ledge of rocks, much beyond the original water-line, at first of 10 acres; but since 1854 it has been extended to 17 acres.

The island lies upon the upturned edge of the primitive range which extends through Westchester county and the New England States into Canada. The basis rock is gneiss, except for about 1 mile at the northern extremity, which is limestone, granular and primitive, and considerably quarried. The middle and northern portions are, or were, rough and broken, from the almost constant outcropping of the rock. The rock begins to make its appearance

in the neighbourhood of Thirtieth Street, and thence extends northward to Manhattanville. In many places it occupies large patches. On the west side of the city, not far from the Hudson River, between Fiftyeth and Sixtieth Streets, and in some other parts, streets were cut through it. The lower portion is everywhere covered with alluvial and diluvial deposits, and is comparatively level. The soil is a sandy alluvion, and less fertile than in many other parts of the state.

The history of the city is directly divided into three periods, during which it has belonged to the three governments,—Holland from 1609 to 1664; Great Britain from 1664 to 1783; and the state of New York since 1783. The most prominent events in each period are thus stated:—

Dutch period.—1609, September 3, Hendrick Hudson entered New York Bay; 1613, the settlement of New Amsterdam was commenced; 1621, the Dutch West India Company commenced operations; 1626, the island was purchased of the Indians; 1652, New Amsterdam was incorporated, and the government passed from the West India Company into the hands of two burgomasters and five assistants, called schepens, and one schout or sheriff; 1664, September 9, the English took the province.

English period.—1664, name changed to New York; 1673, July, retaken by the Dutch and called New Orange, and held by them until ensuing year (treaty of 9th February 1674); 1686, James II. abolished the representative system, &c.; 1689, Leisler insurrection; 1690, a colonial congress assembled here; 1696, city lighted by ordinance; 1711, slave-market established in Wall Street; 1720, two per cent. laid on European imports; 1725, New York Gazette appeared; 1730, enlarged charter granted by Governor Montgomerie; 1732, stage routes established to Boston and Philadelphia, travelled once a month; 1741-2, "Negro plot" and yellow fever; 1765, a colonial congress assembled here; 1776-83, Revolution; 1776, September 21, a few days after the city had fallen into the hands of the British, a conflagration, destroying from one-eighth to one-fourth of the whole city; 1783, November 25, evacuation by British army.

American period.—1789, April 30, Washington inaugurated first president of the United States at Federal Hall, on site of present custom-house; 1798, 2086 deaths by yellow fever, which returned in 1803, 1805, and 1822; 1807, Fulton's steamboat on Hudson River; 1811, great fire; 1812, war with Great Britain, which suspended commerce; 1126, Erie Canal completed and great celebration; 1832, Asiatic cholera, 4360 deaths; 1835, December 16, 17, conflagration of 648 buildings, loss L.5,200,000; 1837, commercial revulsion; 1842, October 14, celebration of completion of Croton Aqueduct; 1845, conflagration of 546 buildings, loss L.1,250,000; 1849, cholera; 1850, Collins' steamers to Liverpool; 1851, May, Erie Railroad completed to Dunkirk; 1852, avenue railroads; 1853, World's Fair at Crystal Palace; 1854-5 (winter of), temporary depression of business, and suffering among the poorer classes; 1857, May 1, new city charter partially carried into effect; June 16, culmination of the riot resulting from opposition to the reorganization of the police department, followed through the summer by disturbances about municipal affairs; September and October, a terrible financial panic, which increased daily to 14th October, when the banks suspended specie payment; 1858, January 4, new city charter carried into full effect, with installation of new officers.

The foregoing enumeration of the principal occurrences in the annals of the city does not constitute or comprehend a correct outline of its real history. For a correct understanding of this, we must compare the progress of the city with the outline history of the domestic and foreign commerce of the United States; and by so doing it is readily

New York apparent that the remarkable prosperity of the former has resulted from the general prosperity of the latter.

Commercial interests originated the settlement of New York, developed its rapid growth, have always directly influenced its changes of fortune, and are now the main support of its greatness. With the fluctuations of the course of events, in regard to general commerce, there has always been a corresponding change in the ratio of increase of the population of the city and its general prosperity. After the close of the Revolution, an activity in business was everywhere apparent; and the citizens, by their persevering industry, were ultimately enabled not only to materially advance their own private interests, but also to promote the prosperity of the community at large. During the ten years from 1790 to 1800, the population of the city increased from 33,131 to 60,489, or at a ratio of 82.16 per cent. During this period the old world, involved in wars, was making constant demand upon the productiveness and industry of the new world. In the latter, the produce of New York and the Western States was pressing to the Atlantic, whence the shipping of the port of New York carried it abroad, returning again with goods for distribution, both in its own and neighbouring markets. Thus the business of the city increased wonderfully, and its attendant advantages drew thither capital and men to participate in the profits from the large investments there made. During the next decade, 1800 to 1810, there was a falling off of the ratio of increase of both population and wealth, and business enterprise was greatly depressed. Though the increase of population during this period was at a ratio of 59½ per cent., viz., from 60,489 in 1800 to 96,783 in 1810, the increase in wealth was but 8 per cent.; viz., from L.5,101,323 to L.5,407,572. In the first half of the succeeding 10 years, 1810-20, the foreign commerce of the city was entirely suspended for 3 years by the war of 1812-14 with Great Britain; after which, from 1815 to 1820, it again revived, and greatly promoted the prosperity of the city and nation. During this period, 1810-20, the increase in valuation was from L.5,407,572 to L.14,485,568, or 163 per cent.; while the increase in population was from 96,783 to 123,706, or only 28½ per cent.; which ratio is less than that of any other decade, and clearly illustrates the connection of the city's growth with commerce, since, during this same period, the increase of the population of the state was more rapid than ever before. From 1820 commerce steadily increased until 1825, in which year it reached a climax that was not again attained until 1831. In 1826 the completion of the Erie Canal opened a new avenue for trade and commerce, and assisted in the formation of the great speculations which soon characterized the financial career of the city. The reaction that followed this unnatural prosperity for a time prostrated all branches of business, and most seriously affected the commercial interests of the city. Since its recovery from that reverse of fortune, its commercial prosperity has, for the most part, been steadily augmenting, though of course somewhat affected by the changes in the tariffs of the national government, and by the changing relations of the nations with which it has had intercourse.

Progress of Population of the City Proper.

The census of 1855 (June and July), is known to have

been very defectively taken, and it is highly probable that a correct enumeration would have shown a permanent population of above 700,000. The population of the immediate suburbs should also be considered in this account, since these are, in fact, parts of the metropolis.

On the East River side is the city of Brooklyn, which, Suburbs since 1854, has comprised the former cities of Brooklyn and their Williamsburg, and the town of Bushwick. The following growth. ing table states the progress of population from 1840, in each of its divisions and in the whole of King's county, which consists of the city and several towns:—

On the New Jersey side of the Hudson, opposite the lower part of the city, are Jersey city and Hoboken. The population of the former, in its present area, was 11,473, and in 1855, 21,715; that of the latter was, in 1850, 2668, and in 1855, 5842; and this growth was but a continuance of previous duplication. Newark, the largest city in the state of New Jersey, situated 8 miles west of Jersey city, in 1830 had 10,953 inhabitants; in 1840, 17,290; in 1850, 38,894; and in 1855, 53,440; and this growth was, in great part, owing to that of New York, since the greater part of the business consists in producing manufactures for the New York market. The manufacturing city of Paterson, 16 miles from Jersey city, had 7596 inhabitants in 1840, 11,334 in 1850, and 23,960 in 1855; and its business likewise centres in New York.

Origin of Population of New York in 1845-50-55.

Origin of those Born in the United States.

Summary of those Born in Foreign Countries.

In 1850 the population comprised 13,815 free coloured persons, and we have the following statistics concerning them:—

Sixty of this class were engaged in pursuits requiring education, of which one-third were Mulattoes.

The census of 1855 is the first that affords data for comparison of the number of single, married, and widowed in the population. In the city the percentages of these classes were—single, 60.78; married, 34.41; widowers, 1.04; and widows, 3.63.

The number and percentages of aliens and voters since 1821 in the city have been as follows:—

Of adults (above 20 years) unable to read and write there were in the city in 1840, 7775 whites. The same class in 1850 (also above 20 years) consisted of 17,140 whites, and 1667 coloured; or a total of 18,807—of whom 2358 were native, and 16,449 foreign born. In 1855 the total number, white and free coloured, above 21 years, was 25,858, originating as follows:—

In 1855 the total value of dwellings, including the value of their lots, was reported at L.56,975,391, being an average of L.1333.

The number of all classes reported in 1855 as holding land by deed, contract, or perpetual lease, was 14,784, or 2.34 per cent. of the whole population. The total value of real and personal estate in the city and county of New York, for the year 1856, was L.106,612,599, of which L.70,935,849 was of real estate.

The valuation, as stated previously, is less than the real value of property assessed. In 1856 the total valuation of the "moneyed or stock corporations deriving an income from their capital" was L.19,648,062, consisting of L.17,363,539 personal estate, and L.2,284,523 real estate; on which the tax for city purposes was L.271,248.

The general plan of the city is regular. In the old or southern part, now devoted wholly to business, the principal streets were in part formed according to the shape of the island, and hence its plan is not continuously uniform, although each of its large divisions is by itself comparatively regular. The uniform plan of avenues and streets com-

mences at Houston Street, 1 mile from the City Hall, and New York 14 miles from the Battery. Above this point the island is divided longitudinally by fourteen parallel Avenues, 100 feet wide, which are crossed at right angles by 156 streets, numerically designated, running directly from river to river, and 80 feet wide, excepting sixteen. The latter are 100 feet wide, of which Fourteenth Street is the first that extends entirely across the island. The principal street is Principal Broadway, especially that main portion of it which occupies streets. the central ridge of the island, extending in a straight line, and with uniform breadth of 80 feet, nearly 24 miles, from the Battery to Tenth Street (Grace Church). It is mainly occupied by stores, but it also contains the principal hotels and theatres, besides several banks and other prominent structures. Although a very large proportion of the buildings in this street are of costly construction, so that there is not a more splendid business thoroughfare in the world, yet its general aspect is impaired by a remarkable diversity of architecture, for almost every block comprises several fronts of marble, sandstone, and brick. The Bowery is the next most important of the thoroughfares; it is more plainly built, and is traversed by some of the city railroads. Fifth Avenue is the central street of the most elegant and fashionable portion of the city, and is wholly occupied by very costly private residences, which are chiefly constructed of brown sandstone; and several fine churches. Like all other large cities, however, New York has many streets which are lined with cheap, miserable, and densely-peopled tenements, which, with their inmates, afford a sad contrast to the display of wealth and magnificence in other sections.

Besides the great central park, the city has seventeen public squares and other areas, for the most part of small parks. extent, though varying in size, their aggregate area being 170 acres; they are generally inclosed with handsome iron fences, and ornamented with trees, fountains, &c., affording pleasant promenades. The new central park, designed in 1853, and not yet completed, extends from Fifty-ninth to One Hundred and Sixth Street, between Fifth and Eighth Avenues. It is 2 1/2 miles long by half a mile wide, comprising 776 acres, including the present distributing reservoir (occupying a position nearly central), the ground taken for a new reservoir, and the Arsenal grounds belonging to the state, and valued, as first taken in its unimproved state, at L.1,076,947. Its surface is somewhat uneven, and its natural configuration is used as the basis of the improvements. There are two beautiful parks, each comprising a square, which are private property.

Owing to the natural shape of the island, to the fact that it was first settled at its southern extremity, and to the eligibility of that section for the extension of trade and commerce, it has resulted that the growth of the city has, with successive years, been manifested by an increase of houses and business buildings in a northward direction. In the southern and business section the number of dwellings has yearly decreased, the old houses being pulled down, and stores or other establishments erected. Therefore in that section the number of inhabitants, instead of increasing or remaining stationary, has rather diminished, and the absolute increase of population has been most apparent in the northern section. In the spring of 1853 the city was quite compactly built from the Battery to Forty-second Street, 4 miles. In that year, and somewhat before, a great impulse was given to the northward movement by the erection of the Crystal Palace; and also by the sale on the part of the city of large tracts of ground in that section. The increase, since 1853, of population in the northern sections has been very great, and in part attributable to the introduction and extension of city railroads.

The several sections of the city are characterized by considerable uniformity in their respective styles of building. In the upper parts many of the blocks consist of houses

New York City. constructed precisely alike. Building lots are almost everywhere of equal width. In the older streets the buildings are almost wholly of brick, which is now by far the chief building material in all sections; though of late years the use of freestone, marble, granite, and iron, for the front of buildings, has become quite general.

Public edifices. The City Hall occupies the centre of the park, in the lower part of the city. It is a very large and handsome edifice, built, in combined Ionic and Corinthian orders, of white marble, except its north side, and surmounted by a cupola, which is crowned by a statue of Justice. It was constructed between the years 1803 and 1812, at a cost of L.112,232. It contains 28 apartments, used as the public offices of the mayor and other members of the city government. The principal apartment, called the Governor's Room, contains a fine collection of portraits of men celebrated in the civil, military, and naval history of the country. In the common council-room is the identical chair occupied by Washington when president of the first American Congress, which assembled in this city. In the rear of this edifice is another large building, occupied by the principal courts and some public offices; and east of it is the Hall of Records, in which are preserved all the records and public documents of the city.

The Merchants' Exchange, occupying an entire block, is built of Quincy granite, and cost about L.375,000. Its front has a recessed portico with 18 columns, each of which is a solid block of granite, 38 feet high, 4½ feet in diameter, and weighing over 40 tons. Its central rotunda is elaborately constructed of white marble, and lighted by a very lofty dome, which is in part supported by 8 Corinthian columns of Italian marble, 41 feet high.

The Custom-House (on the site of the old Federal Hall, where General Washington was inaugurated the first president) is built of white marble, in the Doric style, after the model of the Parthenon, with two grand porticos, each having 8 massive columns; its principal hall is circular, surmounted by a dome, supported by 16 Corinthian columns, 30 feet high, beautifully wrought with capitals of the most exquisite workmanship. Its construction occupied seven years (1834-41); and its cost, ground included, was L.248,900.

The Post-Office is not noteworthy for its architecture, though it is so for its history. It was formerly the Middle Dutch Church, and was erected before the Revolution. Much of its interior wood-work and its steeple were brought from Holland during the Revolutionary war; this church, in common with others used by the British, was much injured from its occupation as a prison, hospital, &c. In 1790 it was repaired, and continued to be used for public worship until rented by the United States government for the general post-office of the city.

The Hall of Justice, or city prison, is an extremely massive granite building of Egyptian architecture, and occupies an entire block. Its gloomy aspect has obtained for it the general name of "The Tombs." Its front has a recessed portico, supported by 14 huge columns. It is chiefly occupied as a prison, though in part by the criminal courts, and in part as a police station.

The Crystal Palace was erected in 1853 for the World's Fair, or "Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations," on Reservoir Square, 3 miles from the City Hall. Since the close of that exhibition it has been used only at intervals, and then for sundry fairs, exhibitions, and festive assemblies. It has a somewhat octagonal form; each main diameter is 365½ feet long, and the area of its flooring is 173,000 square feet. The dome is 100 feet in diameter, and 123 feet high. Excepting the floors, the building was constructed entirely of iron and glass, requiring 1800 tons of iron, 55,000 square feet of glass, and 750,000 square feet of timber.

The State Arsenal, 4½ miles from the City Hall, is a large edifice, containing arms and munitions belonging to the state. It was erected in 1848, and is in the Gothic castellated style, presenting a massive and appropriate appearance.

The City Armoury, or Down-Town Arsenal, is a handsome structure in the Gothic style, two stories high, built of blue stone. It is constructed on the best plan for defence; as, for example, its windows are only 18 inches wide, so that in case of an attack it could be defended with success by fifty men. In January 1855 the citizen soldiery of the city (comprised in the First Division, New York State Militia, in four brigades) consisted of—infantry, 3906; cavalry, 1291; and artillery, 1589: total, 6786.

The hotels of New York are generally very large, and noted for their excellence; while a considerable number cost fully L.200,000, and are remarkable for their splendour. Upon Broadway alone there are about twenty-five, all elegant in their appointments, and generally accommodating from 200 to 800 guests. Prominent among these, as the oldest, and not surpassed in substantial excellence by any of the more recent establishments, is the Astor House, a rare example of popular favour, deservedly secured and long and surely retained. It was erected by John Jacob Astor, at a cost of L.165,000, and opened in May 1836. The building is constructed of Quincy granite, in the most substantial manner, and contains about 400 rooms. The St. Nicholas Hotel, opened in 1853, and subsequently much enlarged, now constitutes the most capacious and costly hotel in the world. It is built of white marble and freestone, and is noted for the splendour of its apartments and its general magnificence. The Metropolitan Hotel, built of freestone, and a very imposing and attractive edifice, was opened in September 1852. Of similar character with these three are the Clarendon, Everett, Brevoort, St. Germain, and Lafarge. To this list might be added others of nearly equal rank. The United States Hotel, built of marble, at a cost of L.72,000, containing about 250 rooms, was the first of the mammoth hotels. Many other hotels are very large, elegant, and well appointed; but their great number precludes particular mention. Hotel-keeping, as practised in New York by the best houses, is brought nearer perfection than in any other city in the world.

Until the summer of 1852 the omnibuses of the city afforded almost the only means of cheap and regular conveyance. Up to that time these were very extensively used by the people, as they yet are, except in certain thoroughfares, where they have been superseded by the railroads. The city cars of the Harlem Railroad commenced running in June 1833, and at the same rate of fare as the stages. In August 1852, notwithstanding the strenuous opposition of thousands against the establishment of railroads through the leading avenues of the city, the Sixth Avenue and the Eighth Avenue lines commenced operation; and in July 1853 the Second Avenue and the Third Avenue lines. These channels of travel are now better patronized than the stages ever were, or ever would have been, had the roads not been formed. On each line the fare is 2½d., without regard to the length of the routes, which vary from 2½ (Fourth Avenue) to 5½ miles (Third Avenue). The cars (which are drawn by horses or mules, and are about twice the length of an omnibus) run day and night, at intervals varying from two to thirty minutes, according to the public requirements. Their successful operation has resulted in their establishment in other cities.

There are thirty lines of omnibuses, having in all about 600 in daily use. The routes of these lines vary in length and from three to five miles. The uniform fare is 3d. With hacks, &c. these Broadway is often completely blocked from morn till midnight, all efforts to remove or supersede them having proved ineffectual. The number of hacks is not propor-

New York tonnage to the population of the city, owing mainly to the greater facilities afforded by the more popular conveyances, and somewhat to the extortionate demands of the hackmen, though their rates are duly prescribed by law. By census of 1855, 1741 persons were occupied as drivers; 5838 as carters and draymen; 3052 as porters; and 1004 as boatmen and watermen.

Ferries. Between New York and its immediate suburbs across the rivers, steam ferry-boats are constantly plying. On the principal ferries these are run throughout the night as well as the day. From the populous part of the city there are, across the East River, fourteen ferries, and across the Hudson four; and from the upper part of the island there are others across each river. On the East River the ferryage is (excepting for the longest routes) 1d.; on the Hudson 1½d. The number of passengers, vehicles, &c., crossing daily is very great. In the morning and towards night the boats are often crowded. To many places near the city steamboats are run, especially in summer, at very low rates of fare.

Manufactures. In its manufactures, as well as commerce, New York is the first city in America. In 1850 the number of hands employed in manufactures, mining, or the mechanical arts (establishments producing annually to the amount of L.104), was 80,302; capital invested L.6,126,615; product annually L.1,882,958. The branches which are here most extensively prosecuted are those directly developed by the great trade and commerce.

Building of vessels. Ship-building is carried to a high degree of perfection; and in speed, beauty of model, and internal convenience, the vessels built here are nowhere surpassed.

Table showing the number of vessels of all kinds built in the district of New York, with their aggregate measurement, from 1843 to 1857, compiled from the Treasury Reports:—

The construction of splendid ocean steamers has, since 1846, formed a distinguishing feature in the business of the New York ship-yards. Of these there have been launched about 120, all of which have fully satisfied, and in fact exceeded, the expectations of their builders; while several have become celebrated throughout the world as superior to all, of every other nation, previously afloat. So great, however, has been the rivalry between American and British ship-builders, that, since 1850, the marine of each nation has been yearly increased with new steamers, constructed to surpass all their predecessors. This rivalry, still continued, promises to furnish both of these countries, and others also, with a vast number of steamers, which will greatly promote their respective interests, and aid in extending civilization over the globe.

Tonnage in steam navigation. The increase in the amount of the tonnage employed in steam navigation since 1848, and owned in the district, is exhibited in the following table:—

The following statement from the annual reports of the Total Secretary of the United States Treasury exhibits the registration, the enrolled and licensed, and the total tonnage belonging to the district of New York, in each decennial year from 1825:—

Nearly all of the enrolled and licensed tonnage is employed in the coastwise trade; but there are no complete official accounts of this trade. The law exonerates vessels engaged in it from entering or clearing at the custom-house, unless they have foreign goods or distilled spirits on board; and comparatively few vessels which arrive from a domestic port come within this exception. The record of clearances coastwise (as many such vessels take foreign goods or spirits) exceeds the number entered; but even this list is far from including all which are engaged in this trade. The following summary, derived from the custom-house records, is for the calendar years mentioned:—

The coastwise trade is carried on entirely by American vessels, built and owned within the United States, as foreign vessels are by law prohibited from engaging in it.

In addition to the foregoing, we give the following statement of coastwise arrivals for three years, collected from the returns of Mr James Thorne, boarding-officer, United States revenue department, Whitehall:—

NOTE.—In the above no sloops are included. These, if added to the many schooners from Virginia and Philadelphia, with wood and coal, which, though consigned here, discharge their cargoes at Brooklyn, Williamsburg, Jersey city, and the adjacent towns on the Hudson, and are not boarded owing to the remoteness of these points for general business, would make the number much greater. The officer estimates the schooners that arrive at the above places and are not reported, at eight per day; which he thinks is an estimate rather under than over the actual number. This would give for each year 2920 additional schooners to be added to the coastwise trade, making the whole number of coastwise arrivals in 1855, 9222; in 1856, 9029; and in 1857, 9017. In the above statement the steamers arriving from New Orleans, via Havana, are included.

The trade of the city with the interior of the Union

New York vastly exceeds its foreign commerce; but of this there are no full reports. The available data consist of the accounts of the articles brought to tide-water by the Erie Canal, and Trade with the statistics of freight-traffic on the railroads which centre in the city. Of the latter the most important is the Erie Railroad, which bears a relation to the entire southern portion of the state, and northern portion of Pennsylvania, very similar to that sustained by the Erie Canal to the northern part of the state. The eleven railroads leading from the city have an immense and ever-increasing traffic; and they directly connect the metropolis with every important section of the country. The receipts of the city from the Erie Canal are approximately known, because the greater part of the receipts at tide-water at Hudson, near Albany, from the same source, are directly sent to New York. The following statement shows the aggregate tonnage and value of the property which came to the Hudson River, on all the canals, during the year 1856:—

Of the total tonnage, the amount from Western States and Canada, arriving by way of the Erie Canal, was 1,212,550. The amount of the produce of the state of New York, arriving by all the canals, was 374,580 tons. Number of barrels of flour by all the canals, 1,130,509; bushels of wheat, do., 11,776,332 (or 2,355,266 barrels of flour; total, 3,485,775 barrels wheat flour); bushels of corn, do., 9,587,714.

The property which went up the canals in 1855 was in tons 638,597, and in value L.23,634,234; the same in 1856 was in tons 650,943, and in value L.27,944,001. Aggregate of property brought and taken in 1855, L.39,667,732; in 1856, L.43,420,325.

In surveying the business of New York, and comparing it with that of other American cities, it is at once seen that the point in which it is relatively greatest is its foreign commerce. From this source, more than any other, New York derives its general pre-eminence. Compared with the other great seaports of the world, the ocean commerce of New York is more extensive than any, excepting perhaps London and Liverpool. For this branch of industry the city naturally possesses uncommon advantages; but its remarkable prosperity has been owing mainly to the enterprise of its merchants. The following table is a summary view of the percentage of New York in the entire foreign commerce of the United States, at intervals of five years from 1825:—

The next two tabular statements, derived from the "United States Treasury Report on Commerce and Navigation," exhibit the number of vessels and amount of tonnage entered into and cleared from the district of New York for foreign ports, in each fifth year from 1826. The years end with September to 1840, thence with June:—

Vessels and Tonnage entered into District of New York. New York City.

The number of arrivals from foreign ports entered at the custom-house is always greater than the official record of clearances, because many vessels entering from abroad clear for a coastwise port.

Vessels and Tonnage cleared from District of New York.

The next tabular statement exhibits the value of imports, ports, the duties collected thereon, and the value of exports, and ports in each fifth fiscal year from 1820. The years end with September 30th to 1840, and thereafter with June 30th:—

The returns previous to 1852 are from a United States Treasury document, and those of subsequent years are from the statements published in Hunt's Merchants' Magazine. Imports. The latter also presents the following classification of im-classified. ports and exports:—

The imports in 1857, at New York, were even greater than the total imports into the whole United States in any fiscal year previous to 1853. Prior to 1855 about one-half of the imports at this port were dry goods, but since that date the enormous increase has been chiefly in general merchandise:—

Which were disposed of as follows:—

Under the inducement to await the operation of the new tariff, which provided for an important reduction in duties on 1st July 1857, the stock in bonded warehouses had on that day accumulated to the amount of L.7,695,466, against the corresponding value of L.2,928,627 one year previous.

Exports classified, &c.
The exports to foreign ports during the fiscal year 1857 were larger, both in specie and produce, than during any previous year. Classification for two fiscal years:—

Moneyed institutions.
For a series of years the city of New York has proved to be the regulator of the policy adopted in financial affairs throughout the Union, and may now be considered as its financial centre. This has naturally resulted from its being the leading channel of imports and exports; and thus it has become the pivot upon which almost the whole business of the country has turned. Since 1849 this has especially been the case, by the constant influx of vast amounts of gold from California; which, being brought first of all into the city of New York, has materially aided in augmenting the number and capital of all classes of its moneyed institutions. Meanwhile, other causes have been producing a gradual and powerful concentration of capital at New York from all parts of the Union. During the same period the banks and private bankers of every state have increasingly made this city the depository of their surplus funds, and more particularly since the practice of allowing from 4 to 6 per cent. interest has prevailed. Hence, of late years, exchange on New York has been considered as equivalent to cash funds on hand by all engaged in the banking business. New York has for many years been a creditor of the whole Union. Thereby it has obtained a vast credit, and, consequently, the control of immense capital, belonging, in small and large sums, to remote parties. This rapid accumulation of capital has not only aided to build up New York, but it has at length been regarded as belonging permanently to the interests of the city. From 1849 to 1857 the imports of New York increased 133 per cent.; the bank capital 160 per cent.; the average bank loans 125 per cent.; and the average bank deposits about 225 per cent.

In 1830 the capital of the banks in the city was L.3,183,330; on 1st February 1834 (twenty-one banks) L.3,929,472; and on 1st January 1837 (twenty-four banks) L.4,346,080. The general banking law was passed by the legislature 18th April 1838. In 1845 the number of banks was twenty-four, and their capital L.4,809,184; and there was no increase until 1849. In that year the capital was raised to L.5,095,390; at the close of 1850 it was L.5,634,645; in July 1852 (forty banks), L.7,465,610; in January 1854 (fifty-seven banks), L.9,928,622; in July 1856, L.11,077,146; and in July 1857 (sixty-six banks), L.13,453,352.

Without presenting an account of the progress of the

banks during a series of prosperous years, and their usual New York operations in such years, we shall briefly sketch the City. features of their condition through the year 1857, which opened favourably with a very buoyant stock market. The banks Throughout January money was in good demand, and a in 1857. moderate stringency existed. In February the rates gradually declined, and stock securities were pretty well sustained. In March there was more active movement, with an advance in prices. In April money was abundant, and the banks gradually increased their discount lines upon an increasing specie basis and a larger deposit account; and on the 11th of the month their loans were L.24,036,395, being a higher point than ever before known. The highest point in 1856 was 2d August, L.23,381,488; and the highest in 1855 was on 1st September, L.20,924,365. Through May the money market was easy, stocks were buoyant, and the banks maintained a very uniform movement in the discount and specie departments. On 6th June the loans and discounts were L.24,028,868, and for four weeks remained above L.24,000,000, and at about the same amount; but in that time the specie decreased from L.2,736,395 to L.2,271,058, owing to the active shipments. From 3d July the loans increased daily until 8th August (the highest point of the expansion), when they amounted to L.25,432,756, being an increase of L.1,454,796 in five weeks, or at an average of L.48,489 each business day. With this expansion in discounts there was a steady decrease in the specie reserve. During the last of the five weeks just mentioned the loans and discounts increased L.308,373, while the specie decreased L.245,965. Thus, on the 8th August, the loans and other chief items of the accounts of all the banks in the city were, in comparison with their condition on 3d January, as follows:—

Apprehensions of coming troubles were immediately excited in the minds of many financiers. Thenceforward the banks rapidly contracted their loans; at the same time their specie reserve ran down, and the money market daily became more stringent. The remarkable extent of this contraction is readily apparent from the following tables:—

Increase of the Currency, &c., in Nineteen Weeks.

Decrease of the Currency, &c., in Four Weeks.

The foregoing statements show that the contraction in four weeks after 8th August, was much greater than the expansion in nineteen weeks before that date.

The next table shows, on comparison with the first table, that the contraction in six weeks after 8th August was also much greater than the expansion during the thirty-one weeks before that date; viz., from 3d January:—

On 26th September the banks in Philadelphia and Baltimore suspended specie payments; but the banks in New York city, and in part of New England, published that they were able to maintain themselves as specie-paying institutions. This announcement inspired hope; but the banks, instead of giving to their customers the expected (and in fact promised accommodation), continued to diminish their loans. The financial panic waxed more intense, surpassing description. Commencing in August, business of almost every kind was gradually brought to a stand. In almost every place the operations of manufactories, and shops and stores, were reduced; and thousands of operatives and employees were discharged. Through September the gloom deepened every day. Men were everywhere calling for aid, and in vain. Property seemed to have no fixed or certain value. In the fore part of October the number of mercantile suspensions and failures augmented rapidly over the corresponding daily announcements in September. The paper of many of the most prominent and reputable mercantile firms, of several of the largest private banking-houses, and of some great railroad corporations, was protested. The suspension of a few of the banks in the city, and of a score of those in the interior of the state, and perhaps a hundred in other states, aided in bringing about the general suspension by inducing a general run upon all other banks. On Tuesday, 13th October, nineteen banks ceased to pay specie to bill-holders and depositors; but to the latter either paid notes or closed their doors entirely. In the evening of that day all other banks resolved to suspend on the ensuing day. This course was immediately followed throughout the Union.

It is generally considered that the panic which brought on the crisis was owing chiefly, if not wholly, to the imprudent course of the banks in expanding their discounts, and then too suddenly contracting them. The actual suspension of the banks was owing to the disgust and indignation of the mercantile classes, who, having been injured by the banks, retaliated by using their own power. On this point, the London Times of 26th October remarked that—"The entire suspension of specie payments by the New York and Boston banks, reported this morning by the American mail, is the most satisfactory announcement that could have been looked for. Had the step been taken a fortnight earlier, an immense amount of ruin might have been averted. The banks, after having, by their mismanagement, brought about the state of affairs which rendered the panic possible, sought to save themselves by the sacrifice of the whole mercantile community; but the public, at last, took the matter in their own hands, and forced them to a stoppage, which placed them in the same condition with their victims, and thus terminated the struggle." The Times regarded the matter in its true bearing, attributing the blame to the proper parties.

The returns for the week of suspension, ending 17th October, being ten weeks from 8th August, are thus compared with the returns of that date:—

showing several still greater changes in each item, and particularly in the decrease of specie and deposits, these having been withdrawn by bill-holders and depositors.

After suspension the banks rapidly augmented their specie to a sum several millions above any previous total, gaining from 17th October (when L.1,634,003) to 12th December (when L.5,428,928) the sum of L.3,794,925. But no ease in the money market was realized amongst business men for seven or eight weeks, and there was no important change in financial affairs until 11th December. On that day the specie in the banks had accumulated to L.5,415,000, and it was then resolved to resume specie payments on the next day. In the first week after resumption the specie increased nearly L.415,000, swelling the amount to L.5,824,855, in the face of a very active shipment to foreign ports. At the close of the year the banks of Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c., had not resumed.

Although it is reasonable to suppose that another revulsion may occur in an interval of twenty years, it is probable that this of 1857 will produce at least three beneficial results throughout most of the states, viz.—The abolition of small bank notes (under L.1 or L.2); the establishment of a specie basis of not less than 1 to 3 (or 4) of circulation; and the requirement of ample securities for bill-holders and depositors.

On 1st January 1857 there were sixteen savings-banks in the city, which had on deposit L.6,760,879. Number of depositors' accounts, L.151,559. During 1856 there were 193,317 deposits, amounting to L.3,053,992; and 139,422 withdrawals, amounting to L.2,412,978. Interest received on stocks and securities, L.1,855,110. Interest received on bonds and mortgages, L.181,854. Interest allowed to depositors, L.286,973.

The daily newspapers, with many of the weeklies and other periodicals, are remarkable for their intrinsic merits, size, cheapness, and immense circulation. Each of the leading newspaper establishments employs a very large amount of capital, and is furnished with the best presses and other equipments known among printers. The earliest newspaper in New York was commenced on 16th October 1725, and printed weekly. Before the Revolution about 90 others had been in existence. In 1775 there were 4 newspapers. In 1832, 64 newspapers and periodicals. According to the census of 1855, there were in that year 145 newspapers and 78 other periodicals, published as follows:—Daily, 19; tri-weekly, 1; semi-weekly, 8; weekly, 87; semi-monthly, 10; monthly, 87; quarterly, 13; semi-annually, 2; annually, 3. Four of the daily papers are reputed to have each a circulation above 30,000 (their proprietors not unfrequently claim much more); and several of the weeklies circulate to regular subscribers each from 40,000 to 50,000 copies. One weekly, devoted to news and politics, has 175,000 of a regular circulation, almost wholly to subscribers; while another, devoted to tales and "light reading," is believed to have above 300,000. One of the popular monthly magazines has 170,000, and a religious monthly newspaper above 200,000.

The public and private provisions for the general education of children, youth, and adults, are upon a liberal scale. It is believed that less attention is given to education by the illiterate and poor classes than in most large cities of the Union; but these are chiefly of foreign birth, and feel compelled to make use of their children to gain a livelihood. By the census returns it appears that the greater number of the adults unable to read and write are of foreign birth.

The number of public schools under the jurisdiction of Public Board of Education, in the year 1855, was 271, viz.—schools. Grammar, for boys, 47; grammar, for girls, 48; primary, 101; coloured, 14; corporate and asylum, 28; evening, 29; normal, 3; and the Free Academy. The whole num-

New York City. Number of teachers employed in the several schools was 1067, consisting of 187 males, and 880 females. The amount expended for purposes of education during the year was L.191,217; of which the sum of L.27,649 was received from the state funds, and L.163,568 raised by tax on property in the city. In the grammar and primary schools (238) the whole number taught in 1855 was 137,874; the annual average attendance was 47,858; and the cost (total L.112,507) per pupil was, on the whole number taught, 15s. 5d.; on average annual attendance, L.2. 4s. 5d. The evening schools, for adults, &c., were attended by 12,762 persons, and their support cost L.6796. The normal schools, with 782 pupils, cost L.1256 for support. The Free Academy, established in 1848, crowns the system of public school education. In 1855 it had 696 pupils, and its support cost L.7714. Its spacious edifice is built in the Gothic style, after the manner of the town-halls of the Netherlands, and cost, with site and fitting up, L.22,811. It has 23 teachers, a library of 5000 volumes, besides 10,000 text-books, &c., excellent apparatus, laboratory, and cabinets.

Academies. Select schools and academies, conducted by individual and associated enterprise, are proportionately numerous. Some of the seminaries for young women are of very high reputation, and have each several hundred pupils.

Colleges. Columbia College was founded in 1754 by royal charter as King's College, and received its present name in 1784. Its trustees and officers are of the Protestant Episcopal Church. It is richly endowed, possesses a valuable library, and has usually about 120 students in its collegiate department. It occupied its ancient position near the city-hall, in beautiful open grounds, shaded by venerable trees, until 1857, when it was removed to the upper part of the city, and its former site is now covered with warehouses. The university of the city of New York was founded in 1831, and is non-sectarian. Its edifice, fronting Washington Square, is one of the finest structures in the city, and the most costly collegiate building in the country. It is constructed of marble, in English Gothic architecture; and its central part, used as the principal chapel, is an imitation of the celebrated King's College chapel, Cambridge, England. There are three flourishing medical colleges, and several minor medical institutes. The College of Physicians and Surgeons was founded in 1807; medical department of the university in 1837; and New York medical college in 1851; each of which has an excellent edifice, and is well furnished with a library and cabinet. There are two theological seminaries,—the Episcopal, founded in 1817, and richly endowed; and the Union (Presbyterian), founded in 1836,—each possessing a large and very valuable library.

Institutions and libraries. The Cooper Institute, or the "Union," devoted to science and art, is an important establishment, founded by Mr Peter Cooper, at a cost of L.62,500, for the educational advancement of the youth and people of the city. Its handsome edifice, of freestone, six storeys high, and covering 20,000 square feet of ground, is unusually substantial, and fireproof. The American Institute, incorporated in 1829, for the encouragement of commerce, agriculture, and manufactures, has a building, containing a library of 8000 volumes and repository for models, in which weekly meetings are held for scientific objects; but this organization is especially noted for its annual exhibitions of national industry. The Mechanics' Institute has 5000 volumes, a good collection of philosophical and chemical apparatus, and regular courses of lectures. The Historical Society, founded in 1804, possesses an extremely valuable library of 25,000 volumes, and interesting collections, safely deposited in its fireproof edifice. It has published numerous volumes on American history. The Geographical and Statistical Society, founded in 1851, holds frequent meetings, and has about 3000 volumes. The

total number of volumes in the public libraries and institutions in 1855 was 336,290; of which, in the Astor Library, 80,000; Mercantile, 47,000; Society, 40,000, &c. The Astor Library was founded by John Jacob Astor, by his bequest of L.83,000, which directed that L.15,600 should be expended for a building, L.25,000 in a first outlay for books, and the residue, or over L.42,000, invested as a fund for the maintenance and increase of the library. The Mercantile Library Association, formed in 1820 for merchants' clerks and others, is one of the most useful organizations in the city, has 5100 regular members, and an annual revenue of over L.2000. Since 1854 it has occupied the building formerly known as the Astor Place Opera House.

The National Academy of Design, the chief art institution of America, was founded in 1826, since which time it has steadily advanced in influence and usefulness. It numbers among its academicians and associates nearly all the eminent artists of the city and vicinity. It supports free schools for the study of the antique and living models; possesses an extensive and valuable art library; makes annual exhibitions of original works by American and foreign painters and sculptors, &c. The New York Gallery of the Fine Arts is a permanent collection of American art, commenced a few years ago, containing many valuable works, but not yet accessible to the public, through want of a suitable and permanent gallery. The Dusseldorf Gallery is an admirable exhibition of the works of German painters, chiefly of the Dusseldorf school, in the building erected and formerly occupied by the late American Art Union. The Bryan Gallery of Christian Art is an extremely interesting and valuable collection of the works of the old masters. Several shops in Broadway, for the sale of oil-paintings, engravings, picture-frames, artists' materials, &c., keep up a rich display of works of art.

Theatres and other places of amusement are comparatively numerous and well patronized. Some of them are very large and elegant establishments. The building of the Academy of Music (or new opera house), completed in October 1854, has 4600 seats; it cost L.57,000, and its site L.12,500,—total, L.69,500. Among other permanent amusements are several companies of Ethiopian minstrels; and the changing attractions include an endless number of panoramic exhibitions, concerts, balls, &c.

The benevolent or charitable institutions of a public nature, founded and sustained by special associations, are highly creditable to the citizens. These are numerous, and some of them very extensive. The list embraces 9 hospitals, 3 infirmaries, 6 dispensaries, 7 homes for the relief of certain unfortunate classes, 4 homes for the aged and indigent, 2 houses of industry, besides the missionary establishments, and very many aid societies. In the upper part of the city are the institutions for the blind, deaf-and-dumb, and insane, each having spacious buildings, with beautiful grounds. There are extensive institutions for seamen on Staten Island, 6 miles from the Battery.

Most of the public institutions maintained by the city government are situated on the islands in the East River. The almshouse and its hospitals, lunatic asylum, workhouse, and city penitentiary, are on Blackwell's Island. The Nursery and various establishments for children, and the house of refuge, are on Randall's Island. Ward's Island is occupied with the hospitals, &c., under the charge of the Commissioners of Emigration.

New York contains many of the central offices and publication establishments of those great religious societies and denominations which embrace in their labours the whole country. Some of their printing-offices are among the largest in the city,—as those of the American Bible Society; American Tract Society; Methodist Book Concern; &c. In 1852 the Bible Society erected, at a cost of about L.62,600, a new building, six storeys high, and comprising

New York an entire block; part of it being occupied by offices of other societies.

Synopsis of the census returns on churches:—Number of churches in 1850, 214; in 1855, 252; aggregate accommodation in 1850, 219,098; in 1855, 234,730; value of church property in 1850, L1,895,559; in 1855, L2,519,319, consisting of L2,270,916 as value of churches and lots, and L248,403 as value of other real estate. Twenty-seven sects were mentioned in returns of 1855, from which are taken the following statistics of the chief denominations:—

The most costly and conspicuous ecclesiastical edifices are those of the Protestant Episcopal denomination. Of these Trinity Church, built entirely of freestone, including the tower and spire, 264 feet high, cost L83,000, and is the noblest building of Gothic architecture in America; and Grace Church, a very elaborate structure of white marble, cost L42,000.

The Croton Aqueduct is the greatest and most important public work, and is not only superior in grandeur and costliness to anything of the kind on the globe in modern times, but to any work ever executed by a comparatively small community. In April 1835 the plan for its construction was ratified by the electors by a vote of 17,330 for, to 5963 against it. In July ensuing the surveys were commenced; in the spring of 1837 the work was fairly begun; and on the 14th October 1842 its completion was celebrated. Its cost to 1843 was L2,386,158. The pond, now called Croton Lake, formed by the dam of Croton River, is 5 miles in length; the aqueduct from this dam to the distributing reservoir is 40½ miles; and the large mains from this reservoir, through the central part of the city to the Battery, add 4 miles, making the total length of the main conduit 50 miles. The aqueduct, built of stone, brick, and cement, has form and dimensions as follows:—The bottom is an inverted arch; the chord or span line is 6 feet 9 inches, and the versed sine 9 inches; the greatest interior width is 7 feet 5 inches; and the greatest depth 8 feet 5½ inches. For the first 5 miles the side walls have an extra height. It crosses Harlem River on a magnificent bridge, 1450 feet long, constructed of well-dressed granite, with 15 arches, the under side of which is 100 feet above high tide, completed in 1849, at a cost of L200,710. Its general declivity per mile is, in its upper part, 13¼ inches, and in its lower part, 9 inches. The dam covers about 400 acres, and is available as a reservoir for 500,000,000 gallons above the level that would allow the aqueduct to discharge 35,000,000 gallons daily. The receiving reservoir, 5 miles from City Hall, contains an area of 35 acres, is divided into two equal parts, and has a capacity for 150,000,000 gallons. The distributing reservoir, 3 miles from City Hall, includes 4 acres, is also divided into two equal parts, and has capacity for 25,000,000 gallons. Its walls consist of an exterior and an interior wall, connected at every 10 feet by cross walls. At their base the thickness of the interior wall is 6 feet, of the exterior 4 feet, and the intermediate space is 14 feet; or 24 feet in all. Both walls

are carried 5 feet beneath the ground, and the exterior 4½ feet above it. The new reservoir, in the Central Park, began in 1856 covers 97 acres; the cost of its construction is estimated at L250,000; amount awarded for the land, L147,500. The total length of street pipes laid to 31st December 1856 was 255 miles. The entire water receipts to that date amounted to L1,103,823.

The fire department of the city is a powerful organization, effective in the preservation of life and property. The city is divided into eight fire districts; and in case of fire the alarm bells are struck according to the number of the district in which the fire exists. The name of the locality is signalled to the bell-ringers by telegraph. There are 46 fire-engine companies, 57 hose companies, and 13 hook and ladder companies; nearly all of which are well supplied with the necessary apparatus for efficient service. There are also 4 hydrant companies, whose duty it is to take charge of the hydrants at fires. The fire marshal's reports afford the following statements:—

The permanent fund of the fire department, for the relief of widows and children of its deceased members, exceeds L20,000; and the annual accounts of its payments for relief, have of late years ranged from L3000 to L4100.

Gas-light is supplied by two companies, of which we have the following statistics:—The New York Gas-Light Company, chartered in 1823, with a capital of L208,000, supplies the district south of Grand Street; and in 1856 had about 130 miles of mains of various sizes, and lighted 3500 public lamps. The Manhattan Gas Company, chartered in 1833, with a capital of L416,000, supplies the rest of the city; and in 1856 had 190 miles of mains, lighted 7300 street lamps (in 1850, 3797), and furnished gas to over 17,000 shops and dwellings. The following is a statement of the assessed valuation of these companies in 1856:—New York,—personal estate, L70,286; real estate, L121,248; total, L191,534. Manhattan,—personal estate, L274,570; real estate, L180,666; total, L455,236.

The city charter, as it now stands, according to the Act of Amendment of 14th April 1857, provides, that the government name of the body politic shall, as formerly, be "the mayor, aldermen, and commonalty of the city of New York." The legislative power is vested in the common council. This body consists of the Board of Aldermen and the Board of Councilmen. The former comprises 17 members, each elected for two years, 8 or 9 retiring annually. The Board of Councilmen consists of 24 members, 6 from each senatorial district, elected on general ticket. Both aldermen and councilmen must, at time of election, be residents of the districts from which elected. Executive power is vested in the mayor, who is elected for two years. There are 6 executive departments, the heads of which are appointed by the mayor, with approval of the Board of Aldermen. The various departments of city business are duly arranged according to statute. The expenses of the government have for many years been constantly increasing. During 1856 the total amount received into the treasury from all sources, except the sinking fund, was L3,700,551; and the expenditure therefrom was L3,589,312; showing an excess in receipts of L111,239. The principal items in the accounts were of the sale of new city bonds, and the redemption of bonds due. The expenditures for the support of the city government proper were L956,231. The permanent city debt