FORTH

FORTH, one of the largest rivers in Scotland. It is first formed of several small streams rising on the north of Ben Lomond, or flowing from Loch Katrine and the other lakes in the adjacent country. It proceeds easterly in a direct course for above 100 miles, receiving in its progress the tributary waters of the Goodie, the Teith, and the Allan above Stirling, and below it the Devon, the Carron, the Avon, the Almond, the Leith, the Esk, the Leven, the Tyne, and others; and it discharges itself into the German Ocean in about 56. 10. of north latitude. The windings of the Forth, both above and below Stirling, are extremely

beautiful. From its junction with the Teith above Stirling to the carse ground below Gartmore the windings extend about 28 miles, although the distance in a direct line is only about 20. From Stirling harbour to Alloa the length of the river is 10½ miles, although in a straight line it is not more than 5, and here it is comparatively narrow, shallow, and winding. From Alloa to Grangemouth the distance is 5 miles; and here the Forth widens, with a variable depth of from 4 to 15 feet at low water. From Grangemouth to the Long Craig Beacon at North Queensferry, a distance of 10 nautical miles, proceeding downwards the depth increases in the first mile from 10 to 15 feet, and in the second mile to 25 feet at low water, and at the third mile to 53 feet, while the remaining part of the distance—7 miles, including the great anchorage of St Margaret's Hope—has a depth generally of about 60 feet at low water. At Queensferry the river is 2 miles wide; at Kinghorn nearly 6; between Dysart and Aberlady about 12; and between St Abb's Head and Fifeness, where the Forth joins the German Ocean, it is from 35 to 40 miles. Near Queensferry, between Inchgarvey and the north shore, it deepens to 37 fathoms. Between Elie and the south shore its depth is sometimes 30 fathoms; and it never exceeds this depth to the westward of its junction with the north sea, except as above stated.

The Forth, like other streams connected with the ocean, Tides. ebbs and flows twice in 24 hours, but the flood and ebb run about two hours longer in the middle than at the shore. The tide flows 4½ miles above Stirling shore. At this harbour spring tides rise 7 feet 9 inches, and at Alloa 19½ feet.

It was high water, according to Captain Thomas's observations in 1815, at

The tides at Leith and Kinghorn rise sometimes as high as 19 feet above low-water mark, the average being 17½ feet.

There are in the Forth, as elsewhere in similar rivers Currents. and arms of the sea, particular currents. Among the most remarkable are those known by the name of Leakies above the Queensferry, which are particularly observed from Culross to Alloa. "These consist in an intermission of the tide at certain places during the flood, and before high water the sea ebbs. On the contrary, while the sea ebbs, and before low water, the ebb intermits, and a flow commencing, continues some time; after which the ebbing is resumed until low water. This is seen during two hours, and the irregularity occupies more or less of the river according as it is spring or neap tide."

Certain winds, acting upon the great mass of the Atlantic Winds. Ocean, affect the times at which it is high or low water in the Forth, while their effect upon the extent of the rise or fall of its waters is frequently very considerable.

The prevailing winds of the Forth will be seen by the following table, constructed from observations taken every day, at ten o'clock forenoon, on the island of Inchkeith, for the ten successive years ending on 31st December 1826.

The prevailing winds and their relative force, as indicated at the Calton Hill Observatory, may also be seen from the following table constructed from the observations taken there every day under the superintendence of the astronomical observer for the same ten years, ending on 31st December 1826. The entry in the register for each day is applicable to the winds of its whole 24 hours.

From these tables it will be observed that the prevailing winds in the Forth, the gales and the storms at Inchkeith, and the "very high" and "extremely high" winds at the Calton Hill Observatory, chiefly proceed from westerly directions.

The waters of the Forth and its tributary streams are all fresh until they mingle with that of the ocean. Long before the river becomes two miles wide they acquire a saltiness which differs little, if at all, from that of the sea. The water in the neighbourhood of the coal-works on the Forth has been often evaporated for the sake of the salt, which was here at one time an extensive article of manufacture.

The constituent parts of 10,000 parts of the waters of the Forth were found by Mr Murray, in the course of three different analyses made in different ways, to contain

Mr Murray placed most confidence in the results obtained from the last of these analyses.

The minerals of which the banks of the Forth are composed will be found described under the counties of East Lothian, Mid-Lothian, West Lothian, Stirling, Clackmannan, Perth, and Fife, by all of which the Forth is bounded. Coal, besides being wrought in these counties, was once worked near Culross and Torryburn under the bed of the river, and partly by pits within high-water mark. At the mouths of these pits there were piers, at which vessels were loaded with coals. But the mines above referred to have for many years been filled with water. At West Wemyss, however, there are still extensive coal mines worked under the sea.

The bed of the Forth consists to a great extent of mud, and in many places the sandstone bottom is covered with it to the depth of 20 feet. Its banks above Alloa, and a great way below that place, are formed of this material, which is brought down by the waters from the higher levels; and the carges of Stirling and Falkirk, &c., which have been formed from its accumulation, are secured at their lowest levels by sea dykes against inundations occasioned by the rise of the tides. The recent alluvial cover to the westward of Alloa has been found by Mr Bald in some places to be no less than 90 feet deep, and to contain trunks and branches of large trees, and beds of sand and sea shells, particularly of the oyster, cockle, mussel, donax, &c.; and similar beds of shells not only abound at and below Alloa, but are found several miles to the westward of Stirling similarly situated. Many of the oyster-shells are of uncommon thickness, and

larger than any specimens that can now be found. What makes the westerly position in which these uncommonly large shells are found very remarkable is that there are no specimens of the oyster now found farther up the Forth than Queensferry.

There is also a bed of marine shells on the banks of the Forth near Borrowstownness about three miles in length and several feet in thickness, and which is situated many feet above the present level of the waters of the Forth. This circumstance would favour the opinion that the sea in this quarter had at one time occupied a higher elevation in relation to the land than at present; an opinion which is further supported by the fact of the skeleton of a large whale having been found some time ago in the lands of Airthrey, near Stirling. The surface of the ground where the remains of this huge marine animal were deposited was ascertained by Mr Stevenson to be 24 feet 9 inches above the present level of the high water of the Forth at spring tides. The skeleton of another whale, with a bone harpoon sticking in it, was also found seven miles farther inland, on what is now the Blair Drummond moss.

But if the land has been gaining on the waters in the upper part of the Forth, ground has been lost farther down the estuary. The sea has made considerable encroachments at North Berwick; at Newhaven an arsenal and dock, built in the reign of James IV. in the fifteenth century, has been swept away. On the coast of Fife, in 1803, the last remains of the Priory of Crail and the ground on which it stood met with a similar fate; and no traces can now be found of the lands which extended into the sea, and formed, in 1225, the estuary, the fisheries of which were then a subject of an important dispute between the monks of Dryburgh and those of the Isle of May; all that now remains of this estuary is a small streamlet called the Drill burn, which flows through a portion of the sands in West Anstruther harbour.

At Largo Bay the sea seems now to be covering ground which was formerly dry land. Here a submarine forest has been discovered, the roots of the trees penetrating into a brown clay, over which is irregularly distributed a covering of sand and fine gravel. The peat upon it is composed of land and fresh-water plants, amongst which are hazel nuts, and the remains of birch, hazel, and alder trees. The root of one tree, apparently an alder, was here traced by Dr Fleming to an extent of more than 6 feet from the trunk.

On almost all the shores of the Forth there is an abundant supply of sea-weed, which has often been burned at various places to form kelp, but this trade is now given up. The produce of the rocks and what is cast ashore in storms is now therefore only used as manure.

Numerous porpoises are often seen tumbling and disporting in the firth, and seals lying on the rocks or swimming along the coasts. Sharks of several species have occasionally made their appearance, and have been brought ashore by the fishermen in their nets about Anstruther and elsewhere. Numerous cetacea from 20 to 30 feet long have often been stranded in the Forth. From twenty-five to thirty of these animals were at one time on shore between Cambuskenneth and Alloa. A male Beluga or white whale, apparently of full growth, appeared in its waters in 1815. It was killed by the salmon fishers near the same place, and sent to Edinburgh, where it was dissected by the late Dr Barclay.

The salmon is abundant in the Forth, and salmon fisheries have been established for many years at Stirling, Abercorn, near Queensferry, and many other places on both sides of the firth, as far down as Largo Bay. The whole of these fisheries belong to thirty proprietors, and such of them as were let in 1854 produced a gross rental of L.1316. The rent of the town of Stirling's fishing then amounted to L.354, of another proprietor to L.240, of another to L.126, of two others to L.70 each, and others were let under that

Forth. sum, a few at a rent of L.5, and thirteen of them brought no rent at all, as they appear to have been considered of little value.

Herrings, &c. Herrings are also plentiful in the Forth, and at various fishing stations the fishery is prosecuted successfully. To give some idea of its extent, in the Anstruther district in Fife, which includes all the sea-ports from St Andrews to Buckhaven inclusive, the total number of barrels or crans of herrings taken (1854) amounted to 17,906$\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}$, whereof 11,468 were sold fresh, 3699$\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}$ were sold and exported to Continental markets, and 2739 cured and sent to Ireland.

The number of full-sized cod and ling caught and cured was 84,855, of which 1089 cwts. were dried, and 1865$\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}$ barrels were pickled. In addition to these, 9958 cwts. of full-sized cod and ling were caught and sold in a green state and sent to and consumed in Leeds, Preston, Birmingham, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Cupar, Stirling, Perth, Dundee, &c. The value of the annual average of haddocks sold fresh has lately been estimated at L.4000, of smoked L.12,000, of turbot, halibut, lobsters, crabs, &c., L.468, and of periwinkles, L.136.

There were engaged in this district, in 1854, 500 boats, 2099 fishermen, 97 coopers, 1444 gutters and packers, and 1063 labourers, all in the employment of 68 fish-curers. The value of the boats and their appurtenances was reported to the fishery commissioners to be L.61,991.

In the Leith district, which includes all the portion of the firth above North Berwick on the south, and East Wemyss on the north shore, the total number of crans or barrels of herrings taken (in 1854) were 16,045$\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}$, whereof 6695$\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}$ were cured, and 9350 were sold fresh; 13,714$\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}$ were sold to Continental markets, and 496$\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}$ sold and sent to Ireland. The number of ling and cod caught by the fishermen of this district were all sold fresh, and have been estimated to the commissioners at 5900. All the other fish caught here were also sold and consumed in a fresh state. There were employed in this trade, in 1854, 354 boats, 1166 fishermen, 100 coopers, 489 gutters and packers, and 224 labourers, all in the employment of 25 curers. The value of the boats and their appurtenances was reported to be L.21,771.

Besides the fisheries in the Forth above stated, there were 35 boats, 134 fishermen, 25 coopers, 205 gutters and packers, and 40 labourers employed in the same trade by 2 curers at Canty Bay, and 30 at Dunbar, and the fish taken by them are generally sold fresh.

In addition to the Scotch fishermen, it may be mentioned that all parts of the firth are occasionally fished by English vessels, and a dozen at a time of English fishing smacks, and as many as 20 French boats, have been occasionally seen by the Anstruther fishermen to be so employed; 40 sail of foreign vessels were at one time known to have been fishing cod near St Abbs' Head.

Shell-fish, &c. Lobsters and crabs are caught at all the fishing-stations in the Forth, as well as in the Anstruther district. Mussels, cockles, limpets, and whelks are also collected and sold in great quantities at the places where they abound, and oysters are extensively fished at the oyster beds, which are met with near Inchkeith and farther up the Forth.

Wild-fowl. There is nothing remarkable about the wild fowl resorting to the firth in winter. The solan geese of the Bass have been already described under the head Bass, to which the reader is referred.

Islands. Besides the Bass, in the entrance to the Forth, there is another island, the May; and the larger islands farther up the Forth are Inchkeith, Inchcolm, and Inchgarvey, which will be found described in separate articles. The smaller islands are Fidra, the Lamb, and Craigleith, near the Bass, and Mickry and Cramond islands, near Inchcolm.

Fords, and peat accumulations. The principal obstructions to the navigation of the Forth between Alloa and Stirling have hitherto arisen in a great measure from the two fords of the river, the one called the

Town ford and the other the Abbey ford, and from the channel being rendered shallow partly by large boulders and partly by accumulations of peat. The peat accumulations have arisen chiefly from the proprietors above Stirling clearing several thousand acres of their lands for cultivation, by removing the peat which covers them, and moving it into the river in order to be carried away by the current to the sea. This practice has been followed since 1732. The moss covering the soil varies in depth from 14 to 4 or 5 feet, but the greater proportion is 10 feet. Mr Drummond of Blair-Drummond, from 1783 to 1839, floated away upwards of 1600 acres of this substance.

The principal sandbanks which obstruct the navigation farther down the firth are the Drum-sands, near Cramond, and the Sand-end on the east of Burntisland harbour.

The principal rocks which require to be avoided by the Dangerous mariner are the South Carr Reef, lying N.N.W. from Dun- rocks. bar, the North Carr, about a mile and a quarter east of Fifeness, the Blae to the west of Kinghorn Ness, the Commons to the west of Burntisland, Craig Waugh S.E.$\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}$E. of Inchkeith, and the Gunnet Rock, Pallas Rock, Long Craig, Briggs, and Harwit in its neighbourhood; and several miles farther west and nearer Inchcolm, the Oxeares, Careraig, and Mickry Stone. Many of these rocks are seen at the lowest ebbs; their position, together with the different land-marks, which are necessary to point them out to the mariner, are delineated on the Admiralty Charts, and the sailing directions for the Firth of Forth, contained in the Coaster's Assistant, which is published in Leith. To show their position still better, floating buoys have been Beacons placed upon Craig Waugh, the Gunnet, the Harwit, and and buoys the Pallas Rocks; and beacons have been erected on the Oxeares, the North Carr, and on the Long Craig, and on most of the other dangerous rocks, and on several shoals and sand-banks.

Besides these provisions for aiding the navigation, there Light- are two lighthouses on the Isle of May, one on the Island houses. of Inchkeith, and various other lighthouses are now erected on all the harbours and landing places of importance in the firth.

The anchorage of the Firth of Forth is excellent. Mr Anchor- Osborne, in a report to the Lords of the Admiralty on 2d^ges. May 1853, says of it, "Between the Humber and the Frith of Cromarty there is no other harbour or anchorage into which large ships of war can safely run for shelter or rendezvous other than the Frith of Forth, and more particularly in the reach above the Queensferry, where the shelter is complete. But as the Frith of Cromarty is away from all important interests, the Frith of Forth must be considered the only war port north of the Humber, and therefore a most fitting place for a naval arsenal." But besides the great and important anchorage at St Margaret's Hope, in the reach above the Queensferry, which is more particularly referred to in this Admiralty Report, Leith Roads to the west of Inchkeith is another which is capable of holding a large fleet of ships of war of any size. The minor anchorages in the firth, which are also very good, are at Aberlady Bay, the western part of Largo Bay, Burntisland, St Davids, Limekilns, &c.

The landing-places in the Forth are, on the south side the Harbours. harbours of Dunbar, North Berwick, Port Seton, Morrison's Haven, Fisherow, Leith, Newhaven, Trinity, Granton, South Queensferry, Borrowstowness, Grangemouth, and Stirling shore, and on the north side Crail, Anstruther, Elie, Pittenweem, Leven, Methel, West Wemyss, Dysart, Kirkcaldy, Kinghorn, Pettycur, Burntisland, Starleyburn, Aberdeen, St Davids, Inverkeithing, North Queensferry, Charleston, Crombie Point, Culross, Kincardine, and Alloa. Great improvements and new erections have been lately made at most of these harbours which are of any note; and in particular, the Duke of Buccleuch's magnificent harbour in

progress of formation at Granton, and the extension of Leith Pier into deep water may be referred to. Of less magnitude is the deepening of the channel of the Forth between Alloa and Stirling by commissioners acting under the Act of Parliament 6th and 7th Victoria, cap. 47. Since the passing of this act in 1843, a channel of about 500 yards in length has been formed through the Abbey ford, giving about 3 feet 6 inches greater depth of water than formerly. A channel about 1000 yards in length has also been formed through the Town ford, which is not yet fully completed as regards its depth of water. In these operations many thousands of large boulder stones and the peat accumulations which formed obstructions to the navigation have been removed, and no doubt is entertained by the inspectors, who have reported to Government on the subject, but a depth of 16 or 17 feet at spring-tides will be obtained up to Stirling when the works in progress are completed. Upwards of £9000 (including the expense of the act and of erecting a quay at Stirling) have already been expended by the Harbour Commissioners on these operations, and £7000 more is about to be expended upon them. This sum is to be paid to the commissioners by the town-council of Glasgow for damage likely to arise to the improvements in progress on the Forth, from the liberty obtained by the City of Glasgow to draw a large quantity of water from Loch Katerine. In addition to these sums the revenue of the Forth Commissioners, which is considerable, will enable them still further to extend their works.

Further, the low-water ferry landing-place at Burntisland, belonging to the Edinburgh, Perth, and Dundee Railway Company, is a great improvement at that port; and at Kirkcaldy, Buckhaven, and other harbours, extensive works are in progress under Harbour Commissioners.

The coasting and foreign trade of the Forth is carried on in vessels varying in size from 18 to 500 tons. The principal port to which they belong is Leith; but there are several whalers and large vessels engaged in the Australian, American, Mediterranean, and Baltic trades, which belong to other ports in the Forth.

The traffic in goods and passengers between the ports in the Forth and London, Greenock, Glasgow, Liverpool, Hull, Newcastle, Dundee, Perth, Aberdeen, Inverness, Peterhead, and almost every considerable seaport in Scotland, is conducted chiefly by vessels of joint-stock companies, which vessels sail periodically. Joint-stock companies are also engaged in the Leith trade with Hamburg and Rot-

terdam. The Glasgow, Greenock, and Liverpool trade is chiefly conducted through the Forth and Clyde Canal, as to which see NAVIGATION, Inland, and GRANGEMOUTH.

The number and tonnage of the vessels belonging to the ports in the Forth in 1855 are as follow:—

To facilitate the communication between the northern Bridges and southern parts of Scotland by a passage across the and ferries. Forth, wooden bridges were erected at an early period, and the old stone bridge of Stirling was erected before 1571; the new stone bridge and the railway bridge near it were erected only a few years ago. There was once a project of erecting a suspension bridge at the Queensferry, and another project of making a tunnel there; but both the schemes were abandoned.

The passage of the river and firth by ferries has been an object of legislative enactment since 1467. Before the introduction of steam navigation, the traffic at these ferries was chiefly conducted by open boats, pinnaces, and yawls of various sizes, and from the want of low water piers they seldom departed from either side except at high water. Most of these ferries are still private property. The private rights of the Queensferry passage were purchased by Parliamentary Trustees in 1809, and large sums have been expended on its improvement. The ferries of Kinghorn and Burntisland were also under Parliamentary Trustees for many years; but they have now ceased to be so, and the Fife and Mid-Lothian ferries and their landing-places at Kinghorn, Pettycur, and Burntisland, are now the property of the Edinburgh, Perth, and Dundee Railway Company, who afford the ferry accommodation as a portion of the railway business. For the extent and particulars of this trade, reference is made to the article FIFE.