ROPE-MAKING

ROPE-MAKING is the art of combining fibrous materials, by twisting in such a manner as to form a continuous flexible cord.

We have before stated that the fibres used for this purpose are those of flax and hemp; the former for small lines and cords only, and the latter for all kinds of cords, from the smallest to the largest. The preparation and manufacture of hemp and flax into such articles as either are adapted for being the same in both, we mean, in the following sketch of these operations, to speak of hemp as the material made use of. This article we obtain from Riga and St Petersburg, whence it is shipped for our ports in great bundles, weighing, according to quality, from forty-five to sixty-five pounds each, the pound being equal to thirty-six pounds avoirdupois. On the arrival of the vessels, these great bundles are cut up, and the hemp is thrown from the hold in small bundles, bound at one end, and weighing each about twelve pounds. These small bundles are termed heads; and in this condition the rope-manufacturer gets his raw material.

The fibres of hemp, of a good quality, should be long, fine, and thin; smooth and glossy on the surface; of a yellowish-green colour; and free from spalls or small pieces of the boon or woody fibre of the hemp plant, which remains after the operation of breaking; and they should, above all, possess the essential qualities of strength and toughness.

Hemp loses many of its good qualities by lying long in warehouses; and when shipped in a damp state it loses its glossy appearance, becomes what is termed rusted, and is then much weaker, and hard and disagreeable to work.

The operations of the rope-maker are carried on in the following order:—

1st, Hacking the hemp; 2d, Spinning or twisting the fibres into threads or yarns; 3d, Tarring the yarns; 4th, Making the yarn into strands; 5th, Laying or forming the strands into ropes, called hawser-laid ropes; 6th, Laying or forming hawser-laid ropes into cable-laid ropes.

1st, Hacking.—To prepare the fibres for the use of the spinner, they are drawn over pronged instruments called hacks, which clear from them the refuse, and split them into different degrees of fineness, to suit the size of thread into which they are to be spun.

Fig. 1 is a representation of a hackle of the largest kind, called a cag. Here aa is a strong board; and bb steel prongs, polished and tapered, and made very sharp at the point.

The prongs of the next size of hackle are smaller and closer set, and so on, diminishing to the finest size, which reduces the fibres to the last degree of tenacity.

The operation of hacking is performed in the following manner. The operator stands at a convenient distance in front of the hacks, which are fixed on a steady bench at a proper height. He then takes a bundle of hemp, and divides it into such portions as he can conveniently grasp. One of these he holds firmly by one end, and draws it over the hackle, beginning with the end of the bunch farthest from

his hand, and by repeated operations disentangles and splits the fibres nearly to where he grasps the bunch. He then takes hold of the finished end, and operates on the part which he before had grasped. To facilitate these operations, he from time to time oils the hemp with a little whale-oil. When the hemp is combed out and split as perfectly as the first size of hackle enables the workman to do, he carries it, if it be necessary for the purpose intended, to the next in degree, and so on to the last. The short fibres which are pulled out of the bunch by the hackle, and remain sticking to it, are collected from time to time by the workman, as they impede his progress, and are laid aside. They are afterwards drawn over the hackle to lay the fibres straight, and are, under the name of tow, used in making inferior ropes.

As the workman finishes his handfuls of hemp, he lays them aside in bundles for the spinner.

The operation of hacking would seem to require little skill on the part of the workman; but this is by no means the case, as bad workmanship would convert the greater part of the hemp into tow. Hacking is performed in a house, which ought, for convenience, to be near to where the threads are spun, that the spinners be not put to unnecessary expense of time in getting their stuff.

2dly, Spinning.—The place where the operation of spinning is carried on, is one division of a walk or alley termed the rope-walk, and is generally enclosed by walls, and roofed over; and in some places where ropes and twine are made, the building is in two stories, the rope-yarns being spun below, and the twine in the loft above.

The walk for rope-yarns is, according to circumstances, from 600 to 1200 feet long, and the width is regulated by the extent of the business to be carried on. One end of the walk is termed the head or fore-end, and the other the foot or back-end; at both ends the machines for communicating twist to the yarns are erected; and along both sides of the walk, at equal distances, and opposite to each other, are erected posts. Between every pair of posts a rail stretches across the walk, at the height of eight feet above the ground; and along the under side of the rail, hooks are fixed, on which the yarns are hung as they are spun; and to one of the upright posts of each pair a large hook is fastened, on which the yarns are hung when collected together. Fig. 2 shows this arrangement; aaaa being the upright posts,

bb the rails stretching across the spinning walk, cc the hooks for the yarns, and ee the large hooks on which the collected mass of yarns is hung. At the head of the walk a stout post is fixed in the ground, and to it the yarns are fastened as they are finished. At the foot of the walk a similar post is fixed for the same purpose. These posts must be at that side of the walk on which the large hooks are fixed.

The walks on which small threads for twines and small cords are spun, have, in place of these rails and hooks, rails about three feet long, let loosely into mortises sunk in the top of upright posts, about three and a half feet above the ground; and along the top of the rail upright pins are fixed, to keep the threads separate.

The spinning machines for rope-yarns consist of two up-

right posts, aaa, fig. 3, between which the wheel bb is hung on its axis c. A belt from this wheel passes over and gives motion to a number of small pulleys, called whirls, ddd, inserted in a circular arc ee, called the head, fixed to the top of the posts. The axis of each of these pulleys is prolonged in front of the head, and bent into a hook, as shown more distinctly at f; and on this hook the fibres of hemp are hung to be twisted.

The spinning-wheel for the smaller sorts of threads differs from this chiefly in being smaller, and having the parts slightly modified to suit the diminution of size.

The operation of spinning is conducted as follows. The spinner takes a bundle of hemp of sufficient size to make one or more threads the whole length of the walk; he puts this bundle round his waist, the bight or double being in front, and the ends passing each other at his back; and he secures it in this position by buckling a strap round it, or by fastening it with his apron. He then draws out from the face of his bundle as many fibres as he thinks will make the size of yarn required; the bight of these fibres he hangs on one of the whirl-hooks, and the wheel being now turned by an assistant, it throws twist or turn into the fibres. The spinner having laid a piece of thick woollen cloth in the hollow of his right hand, with the end hanging over his forefinger, grasps with it the fibres he had drawn out, pressing them firmly with his thumb and forefinger, the interposed cloth preserving his fingers from being cut by the fibres as they pass. He now walks backward down the walk, that is, from the head to the foot, the wheel-man all the while turning the wheel just so fast as to keep the turn or twist up to the spinner, of which he is admonished by signs made by the left hand of the latter, or, in complete establishments, by a bell, the cord of which traverses the walk. The aim of the spinner is to regulate the supply of fibres from his bundle in such a manner as to render the thread equal in size throughout. This he does with his left hand, drawing back the fibres as they enter his right hand in too great number, and pulling forward more when the supply is deficient in quantity. He takes care, too, that many ends of fibres do not come together in the same place, and that they so arrange themselves as that the strength of the thread shall be equal throughout. If the spinner slacken his grasp of the fibres with his forefinger and thumb, the turn will pass his hand, and the thread will be spoiled; and it is necessary not only that the thread be firmly grasped by the thumb and forefinger, but also by the whole hand, that it may be compressed and moulded into a cylindrical form.

We have hitherto described the operation as performed by one spinner; but as many spinners may work together as there are whirls in the head. Suppose, then, that all the spinners have set on, as the fastening of their threads to the whirls is termed. They proceed together down the walk, and when they are a few paces below the first rail, b, fig. 2, every man throws his thread on one of the hooks, and so at each rail, until they arrive at the foot. They then join the ends of every pair of yarns, and hang them over the post already mentioned; and for the convenience of afterwards separating them, the pairs are kept apart in the following manner. A piece of twine is tied by its middle to the first pair, a little in advance of the post; the second pair is then put over the post, and the string is tied

over them; and in like manner every pair is tied in. This is called netting. The spinners now set on at the foot or back-end wheel, and spin up the walk. The fore-end wheel-man having unhooked the yarns from the whirls of his wheel, and hung them over the post, and tied them in pairs as at the back-end, proceeds down the walk, collecting the yarns from the hooks of the rails, and laying them in a heap in the large hooks e, e, fig. 2. When the spinners again spin down the walk, these same operations are performed by the back-end wheel-man. When the collected yarns number about 400, they are coiled up in a haul, and are ready either for tarring, or laying into white ropes. Previous to the haul being taken up for tarring, there is a slight turn put into it to keep it from getting entangled in the tar-kettle. In the government rope-works, by the regulations of 1802, the spinners had to produce, from a bundle of hemp weighing 64 lbs., 18 threads of 170 fathoms each; 400 of such threads constituted a haul, and weighed 12 cwt. 2 qrs, and when tarred 15 cwt.

Sally, Tarring.—The next operation is that of tarring. This is variously performed. Here we shall describe the simplest method of doing it.

The apparatus used in tarring consists of a copper bedded in brickwork with a proper furnace below, and flues around it. The copper is termed the tar-kettle, and at one side of it is erected a strong frame, in which a capstan works.

Fig. 4 shows this arrangement. Here a is the kettle; bb the frame; cc the capstan, which may be turned either by manual labour, or horse or other power; dd a truck, on which the haul is being coiled away as it comes from the capstan; and ee small rollers by which the haul is supported. In the upright nearest the boiler is fixed the nipper for squeezing the superfluous tar out of the haul. The nipper is drawn to a

larger size in fig. 5. Here aa is a copper-plate with a hole in it about two and a half inches diameter; above it another plate bb slides, and out of its lower edge a semicircular piece is cut, corresponding to the hole in the lower plate, so that by sliding this plate down, the aperture is diminished.

A lever dd of the second order is fixed at one end to the chain c, and presses on a stud fixed on the upper plate, so that by moving the weight on the lever the yarn may be pressed to the degree necessary as it passes through the aperture; and as the tar oozes out of the yarn, it is received and carried back to the kettle by the spout f, fig. 4.

The tar having been put into the kettle and heated to the proper degree, which is about the temperature of boiling water, and is known to the workman, in the absence of more correct means, by a scum closing over its surface, the

superintendent begins to pass through the haul. A rope attached to the capstan is passed through the nippers, and attached to the end of the haul. The haul is then coiled gradually into the kettle, and the capstan is moved round. The haul is thus drawn slowly through the tar, and the superfluous tar squeezed out of it as it passes through the nippers, the superintendent regulating the weight on the lever, so as to produce the required pressure; and the end of the haul, as it comes from the capstan, is coiled away, or reeled upon large reels. In this operation the heat of the tar is the most important point to be attended to. If it be too hot, the yarn will be charred; and if too cold, it will be black, whereas yarn intended to be made into ropes should be of a bright-brown colour. The proper heat is indicated, as was before stated, by a scum closing over the surface of the tar, which takes place at about 212° Fahrenheit. If this scum do not rise, the tar is too cold; and if there be an appearance of ebullition, the tar is too hot.

Athly, Forming Strands.—The yarn is now ready for the next operation, which is the making of the strands. This comes under the head of laying. The place where this and the subsequent operations are carried on is termed the laying-walk; it is generally part of the alley of which the spinning-walk forms a portion, and it may be of such a width as to allow of many ropes being made at one time. The fixtures of this walk consist of tackle-boards and wheels for twisting strands, and stakes and stake-heads for supporting them. The tackle-board for twisting large strands is fixed at the head, and is represented in fig. 6; aa strong upright posts, bb a plank pierced with holes corresponding to the number of strands in a rope, which is generally three. Through these holes winches, called forelock hooks, work. Fig. 7 is an enlarged section of the board, with a forelock hook in its place; a is the handle, b a collar working against the board, and c the forelock let into an eye in that end of the board which points down the walk. Fig. 8 is a representation of one of the wheels for twisting smaller strands; bb being pinions with their axes prolonged, and bent into hooks at b; aa is the driving-wheel, moved round by the winch c, and dd is a strong post fixed at the head of the walk, and to which the wheel is attached in such a manner that it can be easily disengaged, and a larger or smaller wheel applied, as the rope may require. Corresponding to every twisting apparatus, at the head there is a row of bearers or stake-heads for sup-

porting the strands when twisting, and extending from the top to the bottom of the walk. These are represented in fig. 9, where aa is an upright post, called the stake, firmly fixed, and standing four feet above the ground; and b the stake-head, let through a mortise in the upright at a foot below the head of the post. In the stake-head there are upright pins, between which the strands are laid, as seen by the drawing. There are also posts at the head and foot for fastening the yarns to when run out for laying. As twisting the strands shortens them, it is necessary to provide at the foot moveable machines for communicating twist. These are called sledges; the largest are formed as in fig. 10, and the smaller sizes as in fig. 11.

In fig. 10, aa corresponds to the tackle-board, and is called a breast-board; it is bolted to the uprights bb, which again are firmly fixed and stayed to the frame cccc. The part of the frame behind the uprights is called the tail of the sledge, and on it are laid weights to afford pressure enough to keep the strands stretched. These weights consist of old tar-barrels filled with clay, and are called press-barrels. In laying large ropes, sufficient pressure cannot be obtained by the barrels; and in that case a double block and tackle is used, one end being fastened to a strong bolt behind the sledge, and the other to the tail of the sledge, and with the tackle-fall a turn or two is taken round a post. The smaller sledges (fig. 11) have only one upright post, to which some one of the wheels, similar to fig. 8, is fixed; and they have likewise two trucks to run on.

Of the smaller implements used, the first are the tops (fig. 12) for laying the strands into a rope. These consist of conical blocks of wood, of different sizes, having three equidistant grooves along their surface, and pins through them laterally, serving for handles. A piece of soft rope is attached to each handle of the top by its bight, and the ends are used to wrap round the rope in the process of laying. These ropes are called tails. When the top is very large, it requires to be supported on a sledge, as shown in fig. 13; and in that

case the tails are attached to the sledge. Woolders are stout pins with a rope fastened to one end, and are used to assist the action of the machine in twisting the rope. In addition to the above, there is used in making white ropes a rubber, formed of steel rings interwoven like linked mail; and it is probably from the resemblance that it is termed a mail.

In the operation of laying, the yarn is first warped for the strands. The haul is run out along the bearers of the laying walk, and the number of yarns for the size of rope about to be made is separated from it by means of the netting. The separated yarns are then divided into three equal portions. Each portion is laid in a separate division of the bearers, and hung upon its hooks at the tackle-board and sledge. The sledge is then pulled backwards by the tackle-purchase before described, until the yarns are all stretched tight, and press-barrels are now laid on. When things are in this position the threads are examined, and if any be longer than the others, they are drawn up until every yarn is equally tight. The hooks at each end are now heaved round in time, and in a direction contrary to the spinning twist; and each collection of yarns is twisted round its axis, and becomes a strand. The twisting of the strands shortens them, and draws the sledge up the walk.

When the torsion in all the strands is sufficient, or when, in technical language, the strands are full hard, the twisting is stopped. The sledge is then drawn up the walk a small piece to slacken the strands and allow the outer ones to be taken off their hooks and hung on the middle hook. It is again drawn back by the purchase, and the top (fig. 12) is inserted among the strands which will occupy its grooves.

The top is now forced back as near the hook of the sledge as possible, and the workmen at the head again turn their hooks in the same direction as before. As soon as the workmen at the sledge perceive it moving forward, they remove some of the pressure, and begin to turn their hook in a direction contrary to its former motion. The top is by this forced forward, and the three strands closing behind it form the rope. When the top gets far enough from the sledge to admit of their application, the tails are wrapped round the rope, and by their friction they enable the workmen to keep the top from moving forward by jerks, and they also make the rope close better. The care of the topman is to regulate the speed of his top in relation to the twist at both ends, the mean of doing which is simple. He makes a mark across the strands at every bearer previous to putting in the top. If, when the top reaches a bearer, he find the mark above the bearer, then the turning at the fore-end is too fast for the motion of the top; and if below the bearer, then the turning is too slow.

In the case of a very thick rope, the power of the men applied to the hook of the sledge is insufficient of itself to pass the turn up the rope. To aid them, other workmen apply the woolders at necessary intervals between the sledge and the top. The strap of the woolder is wrapped round the rope, and the pin used as a lever to heave round the twist; the workmen at the woolders keeping time in their heaving with those at the hook of the sledge. And in the case of a heavy rope, the top sledge (fig. 13) is made use of to support the top.

The mail is used for white ropes only. When the strands are hardened, and before the top is put in, workmen rub the strands with the mail to smooth down any rough fibres, and give a good surface to the rope.

We have now seen that in the processes described, every step is dependent on the skill of the workmen. In supplying fibres of hemp in due quantity to form the thread, in giving the proper degree of twist to the thread, in giving

the strand the degree of hardness required, and in the proper speed of the laying top, the workman has no certain guide; and it is surprising that, although machinery for the improvement of almost every other manufacture had been introduced, no attempt appears to have been made to apply it to the art under consideration, until about 1783, when a machine to supersede the necessity of a rope-ground was invented by a Mr Sylvester; and this invention was followed up by many others. Such of these as have come under our notice are briefly described in the following account of them, arranged according to their dates.

1783. About this time Mr Sylvester's machinery was invented. In it the threads were spun by bobbins and spindles; the three several quantities required for the strands were wound on three separate reels, which turned individually round their axes, and also round a common centre, by which motions the rope was formed; and by the machinery it was further wound up as it was made. This invention was not patented, and was never carried into effect.

1784. In this year a patent was taken out by a Mr Seymour for improvements in rope-making; but the invention consisted in the substitution of animal for human power to drive the ordinary machinery of the rope-work.

1792. In this year the Rev. Edward Cartwright took out a patent for a rope-machine, which he called a cordelier. A part of this machine was adopted by Mr Huddart in a patent taken out by him in 1805.

In the machines of Sylvester and Cartwright the only advantage proposed was the saving of labour. There was no attempt made to improve upon the old defective principles of rope-making; the merit of the first attempt to do this is due to the next inventor.

1793, March 16. John Daniel Belfour, of Elsinour, obtained a patent for machinery "to improve the manufacture of ropes and cordage, by making every yarn employed in the composition thereof bear its proper and equal proportion of the stress." This the patentee proposed to effect by keeping every yarn tight at the time of its being twisted into the strand, so as to prevent its being puckered up in the inside of it. For this purpose the yarns were by machinery wound regularly on separate reels. The reels were suspended in tiers in a square frame on iron spindles on which they could turn freely; and by a contrivance the reels could be made to turn round along with the spindles when required, and motion in a similar direction could be given to all the spindles at the same time. The yarns were spread regularly on the reels by a simple apparatus. When the yarns were so wound upon the reels in the frame, the ends of those on the first or lowest tier of reels were carried down the rope-walk, and dropped into the separators, one of which was placed at every fifteen fathoms or so. These separators consisted of a series of vertical bars, fixed to a frame at their lower end, the upper ends being left free; into the intervals between these bars the yarns were dropped, and the different tiers kept separate by horizontal iron rods passed through holes in the side bars, so as to divide the whole frame into a series of reticulations; and these rods were so contrived as to be withdrawn separately or together. By being passed through these reticulations, the threads would be suspended at equal distances from each other from the top to the bottom of the walk, and, if meant to form one strand, would be hung on the hook which was to give them motion; and on the reels in the frame would be left just so much yarn as the strand should take up in hardening. The strand would then be ready for twisting; and to do this in such a manner as to make every yarn occupy its proper place, Mr Belfour employed an instrument called a top-minor. This was a block of wood formed somewhat like a sugar-loaf, and having inserted round its larger circumference a number of projecting pins. Into the recesses formed by these pins the yarns were inserted, and motion being

given to the wheel, the top was moved slowly up the walk by the workman, the reels at the same time giving out the yarns as they were taken up by the twisting. When the workman arrived at the first separator, the iron rods were, by the contrivance already alluded to, at once withdrawn, and the yarns left free, and so the workman proceeded until he arrived at the reel-frame, when the turning or heaving at the hook was stopped, and the strand prevented from untwisting, by being seized in a kind of nipper formed of iron. The ends of the yarns were then unfastened from the reels, and the strand was completed. By increasing the size of the reel-frames and separators, and by using three top-minors fixed to a sledge or otherwise, three strands could at the same time have been formed. The strands formed by this machinery were then laid together into ropes in the ordinary manner.

1793. In April 12th of this year, Mr Richard Fothergill obtained a patent for rope-machinery, embracing the following objects: First, freeing the hemp from its native husk, and fitting it for the subsequent processes; secondly, dressing the hemp, and drawing it out into slivers fit for spinning; thirdly, spinning the hemp; and, fourthly, twisting or making it into ropes or cordage. All these operations required no rope-walk to carry them on. Engravings of the machinery will be found in the fourteenth volume of the second series of the Repertory of Arts.

1793. In April 25th, Mr Joseph Huddart took out a patent for certain improvements in the formation of ropes. His method of registering the strands, in order to acquire an additional degree of strength, by giving the length of the yarns which compose the strand a certain ratio, according to the angle and hardness or compression the rope is intended to be laid with, and thereby acquiring a more equal distribution of the strain upon the yarns than ropes made in the common way, consisted of the following principles: First, by keeping the yarns separate from each other, and drawing them from bobbins which revolve, to keep up the twist whilst the strand is forming; secondly, by passing through a register which divides them by circular shells of holes, the number in each shell being agreeable to the distance from the centre of the strand, and the angle the yarns make with a line parallel to it, and gives them a proper position to enter; thirdly, by a cylindrical tube, which compresses the strand, and maintains a cylindrical figure to its surface; fourthly, by a gauge to determine the angle which the yarns in the outside shell make with a line parallel to the centre of the strand when registering, and according to the angle made by the yarns in this shell, the length of all the yarns in the strand will be determined; lastly, by hardening up the strand, and thereby increasing the angle in the outside shell, which compensates for the stretching of the yarns and compression of the strand.

In this, as in Belfour's invention, the registering apparatus was moved up the rope-walk by the twisting of the strand; but the machine differs from Belfour's in the following particulars. First, in place of the bobbins or reels being fixed in an upright frame, they are placed in horizontal ranges, each range rising higher from the front towards the back part of the machine. Secondly, in place of the separator of Belfour, sets of horizontal rails, notched to receive the yarns, and hung in cleats fixed to upright posts, are placed at regular intervals down the walk, so as to keep the yarns separate the whole length of the strand. Thirdly, in place of Mr Belfour's top-minor, a plate pierced with concentric circles of holes is made use of, the circles being about two inches asunder; and behind this plate a smaller plate, pierced with a similar number of holes, is fixed, the holes in the latter plate being so close together as merely to keep the yarns clear of each other. Immediately behind this last plate is fixed a tube made of thin steel, of a spring temper, and in two parts longitudinally;

the thin edges of the one part overlapping those of the other, and the two parts being compressed by a thong or wire wound round them several times, and fastened to the jaws of an instrument called a heaver. By means of this, the yarns, in passing through the tube, can be compressed by a constant force; and if the yarns be thicker or smaller in different parts of the strand, the tube will expand or contract, to suit the difference of size.

In addition to these, an instrument called a register-gauge is used to measure the angle of twist of the yarns in the strands, with the view to employ the same twist when the strands are formed into a rope. Some of the parts of the machinery above noticed, it will be seen, have been adopted by other inventors, and some of them are still in use.

1797, September 13. At this time Mr William Chapman of Newcastle obtained a first patent for laying, twisting, or making ropes or cordage, of any number of yarns or strands, or any number of threads tarred or untarred, from the size of a cable down to the smallest line formed of more than one thread. The machinery for this purpose was less complicated than those formerly mentioned, but was only capable of forming ropes on the common principle. In the month of January 1798 he obtained a patent for Scotland for further improvements in rope-machinery, and containing the substance of his former one and of another taken out for England on the 6th of March 1798. The inventions embrace the making of ropes either by stationary machines, or by moving machinery on a rope-walk. In the former, the operations of forming the yarns into strands, twisting the strands into a rope, and coiling away the rope, on reels or otherwise, go on at the same time. One of the arrangements of the machinery by which these different operations are carried into effect, is as follows. Three or more discs, according to the number of strands, are placed round a common centre, with their planes inclined to each other in such a manner that their produced axes would meet in a given point. These discs are by the inventor termed strand-tables, and each of them is fixed to a hollow shaft, capable of revolving round its axis; which shaft is called the strand-shaft or upper shaft. These shafts are on the sides of the discs which are inclined to each other. On the opposite sides of the discs yarn-reels are suspended on spindles, on which they can turn freely. The yarns from the reels are passed through the shafts, and by the turning of the discs or strand-tables they are twisted into strands. In a part of the shaft there is a transverse opening to admit of two blocks of hard wood or other matter being applied on each side to press the yarns, and retard their passage through the shafts, so that they may be twisted to the degree required. These blocks are called press-blocks or compressors, and are held together by springs or weights. Instead of blocks the patentee sometimes substitutes rollers moving round their axes, and holding the yarns by their friction. Besides these, the yarns pass through a perforated plate called a yarn-guide.

The strand-tables all move round in one direction, and the strands as they proceed from the shafts are concentrated into a point, over a fixed grooved block, corresponding to the top in the ordinary process. Behind this block the strands are received into a hollow axis, which turns round in a direction contrary to the twist of the strand-tables, and in which the strands are formed into a shroud-laid rope, by being twisted by the apparatus attached to the shaft. This consists of a pair of wheels or sheaves, moving easily on their axes, to admit the rope a free passage, and at the same time compel it to twist equally round with the shaft. These sheaves are grooved in such a manner as to prevent the rope from turning sideways, and are called twisting-sheaves. Instead of the sheaves moving freely on their axes, such a motion may be given to them as, in every revolution of the rope-shaft, which makes one turn

of the rope, the groove of the sheaves shall move such a space as is equivalent to the length of rope that is designed to be made by every turn. When the rope has passed through these sheaves, it is coiled upon a reel in such a manner as merely to require tying up; but if too unwieldy for reeling, it is coiled on a revolving platform. Such is an outline of the process of making shroud-laid ropes by Mr Chapman's machinery. For cable-laid ropes the same or similar machinery is used, the chief difference being, that in cable-laid ropes the twists are contrary, and the disparity of turns in the strands and rope not so great as in shroud-laid ropes; for which reasons, if the same machine be used, the means must be provided for making the shaft to assume contrary motions, and making them to move in different proportions.

"By the method previously described," says Mr Chapman, "for making a complete rope at one operation, I, during the act of making the strands, unite them into a rope by means of what I then call a rope-shaft, in which they are all concentrated, and receive the twist which forms them into a rope; but I also occasionally omit the concentrating of them, and the subsequent part of the operation, during the making of the strand or strands, and in place of twisting them into a rope, I only draw the strand forward as made, and coil it or them in any manner whatsoever, they in this instance having no rotative motion. The apparatus for drawing them forward is not fixed to the revolving shaft, containing the reel or reels and other necessary appendages, but may be permanent, and receive its motion in any proportion whatever to the revolutions or twists given to the strand by that shaft."

"The principles of making the strand in these two different ways are obviously portions of the process that would, as has been described, make the whole rope at one operation. And these two methods of making the strand, independently of making the complete rope, are reducible to the following principle: That in making a strand simply, one end need only be twisted, and the other held from turning, but that both be permitted to pass forward, and progressively change place; and that the yarns be, if deemed necessary, so regulated as to come off these reels in such a manner as the part of the strand they come into may require."

"There is a third method of making a strand, compounded of the two preceding, which may be followed, viz. that of using two revolving shafts in place of one; the reels being placed on one of them, and the strand coiling upon the other. These two shafts ought to turn in contrary directions to each other."

The part of the invention in which a common rope-walk is made use of is thus described by the inventor: "At the head of the ropey, or in any other part, I fix upon pins so many reels as will contain all the yarns requisite for a strand, or the given number of strands determined to be made at one time, each reel containing one or more yarns; then in the instance of making three strands, I fix to three different hooks on the foreboard of a sledge, so many yarns, separately concentrating to each other, as are requisite; the yarns being previously passed through the openings of these separate fixed tops or yarn-guides, one opposite to or correspondent with each hook. Before, or on the face, or on the face of each top, toward the sledge, there may or may not be fixed a cylinder, such as I have described, below the laying block at the head of the rope-shaft. The yarns are then to be prevented from passing too easily off their reel, either by a pressure on the reels themselves, or on the yarns in their passage to or upon their separate tops, or in any manner that will permit them to come off as wanted."

"The men are then to heave upon, or turn round, the hooks of the sledge in the usual way; and the only remaining difference consists in the sledge being drawn progressively backwards, as the strand is making, until the

whole, or any determinate part, of the strand be made. The process of drawing back the sledge may be done in various ways; amongst others, by a rope to a capstan, moved either by a horse or men, according to the strength requisite." When the strands are thus twisted, the rope may be completed in the usual way. Such, then, is a brief outline of the general features of these important inventions of Mr Chapman; but his own specification, with illustrative drawings, will be found in the ninth volume of the first series of the Repertory of Arts.

1798. In this year also Mr Belfour obtained a patent for an improvement on his former machinery; and in 1799 Mr Belfour's machinery was adopted in the government-yards, and the sum of £4000 was paid to the inventor for his superintendence of the erection of his machine, and the use of his patent.

1798. November 8th, Mr Chapman at this time patented an invention, which was so to regulate the motion of the sledge that for every revolution of the strand it should move backward through the exact length of axis assigned to it, and thus render the twist uniform. The sledge, in this case, travelled backwards on a railroad; and along the whole length of the walk, a rope, called a ground-rope, was laid. This rope was passed in the form of an S round two or more grooved wheels, which were pressed together so as to bind the rope, and having upon their axles toothed wheels connecting them with each other, and with the hooks for twisting the strands, which in this case were driven by one great crank. Thus, when the hooks were driven by the crank to twist the strands, the sledge was also moved backwards by the grooved wheels acting upon the rope; and by changing the connecting toothed wheels the backward motion could be given in any ratio to the twist of the hooks. Besides this, Mr Chapman connected the sledge by a rope to a horse capstan at the foot of the walk; and as the horse's power applied to the capstan could not draw the sledge faster backwards than the ground-rope permitted, the spare power was of course given in aid of the twisting of the strands by means of the wheels which connect that operation with the backward motion.

1798. November 17th, Mr John Curr of Sheffield took a patent for forming flat ropes for the use of mines, &c. "The said flat rope may be formed," says Mr Curr, "by connecting two or more small ropes sideways together, by sewing or stitching, lapping, or interlacing them with thread, or small rope made of hemp, flax, or other fit material, or with brass or iron wire, in such a manner as to prevent their separating from each other, and so as to cause them to exhibit, as nearly as possible, a flat form, or flat pliable rope."

1799. April 30th, Mr Belfour obtained another patent for a further improvement on his invention. This consisted, among other things, in winding a number of yarns, not exceeding four, upon each reel, and forming them, as before, into strands. He farther proposed to spin the hemp after having been tarred; and also to place a spinning-wheel at each end of the rope-walk, to enable the spinners to spin both up and down in the manner now practised. If we mistake not, this method of spinning up and down is mentioned by Duhamel as being in use in his time. However this be, it was, on Mr Belfour's recommendation, adopted in the government rope-works, and, according to the report of Mr Fenwick, the master rope-maker at Chatham, a saving was effected by it to the amount of a sixth part of a day's work to each man.

1799. July 26th, Mr William Chapman, in conjunction with Mr Edward Chapman, took a patent for many improvements in the art; the first of which was for machinery to spin the yarns in such a manner that the fibres of hemp, on entering the thread, were shortened in proportion to their proximity to the axis; and further, that by this machinery, women, children, and invalids could be employed as spinners.

Rope-making. Although the yarn thus produced was of superior strength to hand-spun yarn, yet, as it was attended with additional cost in the manufacture, the invention was laid aside.

The next part of the invention was in the application of locomotive power to the machinery of the rope-work. Part of this consisted in the application of an endless rope, reaching from end to end of the rope-walk, and moved with considerable speed, to any of the machines, whether stationary like the fore-end wheels, or changing position like the sledges. The application of the endless rope to the sledge was effected by passing a turn round suitable grooved wheels fixed to the sledge, and capable of giving motion to its machinery. By this machinery great advantages were gained, as each revolution of the strands and the rope, and the proper motion of the sledge, were predetermined and fixed by changes of wheels. For this purpose tables were made out to show what wheels were to be used for each kind of rope. Instead of two hundred men, the number usually employed in closing a twenty-one inch cable, fourteen only were required; and they, with the help of the steam-engine, which was only of eight horse power, were able to coil away the rope when made.

1799. In the same month Mr Mitchell obtained a patent for a "method of manufacturing cables, hawsers, or shroud-laid ropes, and other cordage, on scientific principles."

These principles consisted in combining by twisting the integral yarns of a strand, in numbers of two, three, or more, previous to their being formed into the strand, and thereby lessening the strain on the external yarns when ultimately formed into a rope. The strain on the external yarns would doubtless be by this method lessened, but the number of yarns exposed to external injury would, at the same time, be increased. The ropes formed on this principle were by the patentee termed selvagee cordage.

1799. August 20th, Mr Huddart took out a patent for an improvement on his apparatus of 1793. In this the registering apparatus, instead of being moved up the walk, was, like Mr Chapman's press-blocks, fixed to the tackle-board, and the machinery for twisting the strands was stationary, and also contained apparatus for winding the strands upon reels as they were formed.

1799. In the same month Mr Grimshaw obtained a patent for improvements in rope-machinery, which consisted, first, in dressing the hemp preparatory to spinning; secondly, in winding up the yarn; thirdly, in preparing the yarns for tarring; and, fourthly, in laying the ropes or cordage. The first step appears to be best entitled to notice. The hemp in this was conducted to rotatory hackles through conical fluted rollers, by which means the hemp was equally mixed.

1800. July 1st, Mr Huddart took another patent for further improvements in the manufacture of cordage. "A considerable expense," says the patentee, "is attached to having the tarred yarns wound upon bobbins; and also the tar, especially when the ropes are laid in cold weather, is not sufficiently incorporated amongst the yarns to render it compact for durability, whether registered or laid in the common way. In order to obviate these inconveniences, I have invented a method of registering the strands of ropes during the operation of tarring the yarns, which may be effected in the following manner. The white yarns must be wound separately on reels or bobbins, and placed upon a frame or otherwise, so that the yarns may be delivered from them with as small and equal a tension as possible, and to pass under rollers, or through holes, or between separating rods of wood or metal, to be guided into the tar, when sufficiently heated in the kettle, and thence to the register, separate from each other, to prevent entanglement, until they enter the tube, which must be placed at the end of the tar-kettle opposite to that where the bobbins of white yarns are placed. The registering tube now acts in a double capacity, viz. in forming the strand fair, as in ordinary

cases, and in acting as a nipper to squeeze out the superfluous tar. The strands are now twisted as before, and the twisting forces out some more tar, which must be cleared off by making the strand pass through the common adjustable nipper plate."

1801. July 16th, Mr William Hoard obtained a patent for "a portable machine for manufacturing ropes and cordage of any length in a short space, particularly adapted for shipping." This machine consists of separate reels, one containing the full length and number of yarns for a strand, from which reel they are drawn out to such distance as the two reels can conveniently be placed asunder, and are attached to the other, which is then empty, one of the reels being in a sledge or moveable frame. The process then begins by twisting the intermediate length of strand, until the reels have approached to each other the usual proportional space, namely, one fifth. The length of strand thus made is then wound up on the second described reel, and so much is let off from the first reel as to admit of their being at their greatest distance asunder, which process is necessarily continued until the whole strand be made, and wound up on the second reel. Lastly, three strands thus made have their ends united to a fourth reel placed opposite to them at its greatest convenient distance. By these four reels, the process of making the rope is carried on similarly to that of making a strand, except in the use of a top to regulate the progress of the twist of the rope in its approach to the three strand reels.

In 1801, Mr Archibald Thompson of Plough Court, Lombard Street, took out a patent for "certain new or improved machinery, for the purpose of spinning rope yarn and sailcloth yarn, and for laying and making ropes and cordage." Mr Thompson's invention includes the whole process of spinning, tarring, and laying the cordage. Preparatory to spinning, he draws out the hemp into a long sliver, by different sets of chain hackles, moving with progressively greater speed; and in the end the sliver is spun by a spindle with its pleyer and bobbin into a thread. The threads remain wound up on their bobbins until wanted to be made into a rope, tarred or untarred. The bobbins are then, according to the number of yarns wanted in a strand, placed so as to form two circles of the same diameter, round an open cylinder consisting of three hoops or rings, distant from each other the length of a bobbin, and placed near to one end of a long horizontal axis; and, if the rope be to be tarred, the yarns are led through a ring of a few inches diameter, near that end of the described open cylinder which has the spare length of axis projecting from it. The yarns are then diverged in different degrees, so as to form, when passed longitudinally through an open cylindrical frame of several feet in length, so many different concentric circles round the axis mentioned, as there are different shells or concentric coats of yarns in the strand; and from the further extremity of this last-mentioned cylindrical frame, the yarns are concentrated to one focus at the extremity of the axis, which is there concave, and has an opening through which the yarns pass to the machine which is to twist them into a strand, and draw them forward to be coiled up within itself. At the focal point described, there are nippers to express the tar from the yarns, which is put into them in the following manner, viz. the last-mentioned open cylinder, between the ring from which the yarns enter to it, and the perforation of the axis where they concentrate and quit it, lies over a tar-kettle, and has a portion of its lower half immersed in the tar, just so far as to imbue either the whole or any portion of the yarns with tar, as may be deemed expedient. This cylinder must, of course, turn round with such a convenient degree of speed as not to let the yarns be drawn off the cylinder before it comes in their rotation to pass through the tar. When the full length of strand is made, the twist of which is principally given by the revo-

lution of the frame, in which it is progressively wound up during the process of making, the yarns are cut off; and three of these strands, from so many stationary strand frames, each of which has performed the operation last described, revolving only round its own separate axis, are concentrated together, and pass through the axis of one end of a rotatory frame, which twists them into a rope, and coils it up, progressively as made, upon a barrel within the frame.

1801. Mr Cutting of the United States invented a method of making lines and ropes. His machinery was of much the same kind as Sylvester's, Fothergill's, and others already described.

1802. January, a patent was granted to Mr Chapman for his invention of the application of certain substances to the preservation of cordage. This has already been noticed under the head Rope.

1802. March 9th, a patent was obtained by Messrs Mitchell and Son for further improvements in rope-making, in addition to their patent of 1799. The specification of this patent will be found in the second series of the Repository of Arts (vol. viii. p. 241).

1804. Mr Huddart took out a patent for a machine for manufacturing hemp and flax into yarn. We have seen that in hand-spinning the fibres of hemp are spun into the yarn by their bight or double, but by this invention they were to be spun into the yarn by their end. The spinner, in this case, instead of walking backwards, remained stationary, with the machine containing the apparatus for twisting at a little distance from him. In front of the spinner a table or other support, containing a number of upright pins like those of the hackle, was fixed. This table was made broad enough to hold on it half the length of the article to be spun, while the other end was held by the spinner. The spinner commenced his work by drawing some fibres of the hemp, and making them fast to the hook of a whirl; the machine was then set in motion, and the spinner with his spinning cloth took hold of and compressed the yarn as it was formed. By this means, says Mr Huddart, in his description, the longest hemp or flax may be spun without having its fibres reduced in length; for the pins before mentioned occasion all the fibres to be drawn out to their full respective length, or nearly so, and also prevent irregular drawing of the fibres.

It may not be amiss to mention in this place, that in France a method of spinning fibres by the end instead of the bight had long existed. Instead of the spinner fastening his bundle of hemp round his waist, it was fastened to a distaff by being laid along it and tied at the upper end, and the distaff was fastened by its lower end to the waist, and lay on the left shoulder of the spinner; the lower end of the bundle of hemp thus hung loose, and the fibres were spun into the thread endlong.

M. Duhamel made certain experiments to ascertain what advantage this method had over the usual way of spinning by the bight, and the result did not warrant him in recommending its adoption where the men had been accustomed to the other mode.

1805. October 30th, Mr Huddart took another patent for improvements in the manufacture of large cables and cordage in general. This invention consisted of a machine for twisting into ropes the strands formed by the machinery formerly invented by him, and resembled in some parts the machine of Mr Cartwright, called the cordelier.

In Mr Huddart's machine the three strands were wound on their separate reels, which were hung in frames having a motion round their own axes, so as to give hardening to the strands; and also a motion round a common centre in an opposite direction, in order to combine the strands into a rope. On the end of the axis round which the reels were carried for the last-mentioned purpose, the top was fixed, having in it three holes for the strands, and behind

the top the rope was passed round three whirls, in such a manner as to regulate its tension while twisting.

1805. November 16th, Mr Curr secured by patent an invention of a method of laying or putting together the strands which form a rope.

The invention consisted, first, in so proportioning the teeth of the wheel at the upper end of the walk which twists the strands, to the teeth of that of the lower end which closes the rope, that the workmen, by keeping time with each other in their heaving round the winches of their respective wheels, would give the proper amount of hardening twist to the strands and closing twist to the rope; and, second, in regulating the motion of the laying-top, by having attached to it the end of a line or wire which is wound on a reel fixed to one of the wheels of the sledge, and made to move with a certain velocity according to the size and intended hardness of the rope.

1806. August 9th, Mr Ralph Walker of Blackwall took out a patent for a new mode of making ropes and cordage, applicable to the making of ropes and cordage of any size.

The machinery for effecting these purposes is on the same principles as many of those already described; but the arrangement of the parts is different, and very ingenious. In place of the reels with their yarns being hung on the face of three revolving discs, as in Mr Chapman's machine, they are arranged on the surface of three cylindrical flyers, and the yarns are carried over rollers in the inside of the cylinders, and conveyed to their axes at one extremity, where they are compressed by passing through a hole. These cylinders, like the discs, revolve round their axes, and twist the yarns at that point of the axis where they pass through; and they also revolve round a common axis, which is the main shaft of the machine. When the strands leave the cylinders they are guided by pulleys to a point in the main shaft, where they are formed into a rope. The patentee also describes a manner of tarring the yarns previously to their being wound upon the reels. In this case the tar in the kettle is heated by steam, and the yarns are passed through the kettle under a large roller which keeps them immersed. Engravings of all the machinery may be found in the Repository of Arts, 2d series, vol. xxvi.

1806. In this year Mr Curr took out a patent for proportioning the number of twists in the yarns to the length, moved by the spinners, so that they might elongate equally on being untwisted in forming the strand. To effect this purpose he had a cord wound upon a barrel attached to the spinning-wheel, and receiving a determinate motion from it; the end of this cord, when the spinners were going to set off, was attached to any one of them, whose speed could thus be regulated by the unwinding of the cord, and the other spinners had to keep pace with him.

1807. October 30th, Messrs Chapman obtained a patent for a method or methods of making a belt or flat band of rope for mining and other purposes. This invention consisted in the combination of two or any greater number of the strands of shroud laid-ropes placed side by side so as to form any determinate breadth of belt or band; and in a locomotive machine for stitching or riveting them together when stretched at full length.

1808. June 25th, Mr S. Gadd took a patent for a method of forming ropes, which consisted in twisting the threads together in pairs, and forming the strands of these doubled threads.

1808. June 28th, Mr John Hall took a patent for regulating the twist of the thread in spinning, by means of an endless band traversing the walk, and moved with a given speed by pulleys fixed on the head of the spinning-wheel. To certain parts of this band marks are attached. When one of these marks is at the wheel, a spinner sets on, and in spinning keeps pace with the motion of the band, as indicated to him by the mark.

1828. September 4th, Mr Robertson took a patent for im-

Rope-making. improvements in the manufacture of hemp rope or cordage. The improvements consist in impregnating the yarns with tannin, by steeping them in an infusion of oak-bark, catechu, sumach, or valonia, previous to their being twisted into cordage.

1832. February 1st, Mr James Lang, flax-dresser, Greenock, obtained a patent for such improvements in the construction of the gill spreading or drawing heads, and roving or spinning frames, as adapted them for the spinning of rope-yarns. Fig. 14 shows a side view, and fig. 15 a top view, of the first drawing or spreading machine; and fig. 16

on. By them the hemp is drawn into a sliver of a certain state of fineness, and this sliver, after passing through the delivering rollers, falls into the can g. When a certain quantity of sliver is delivered into the can, a bell is rung by the machinery; the filled can is then removed by the attendant, and an empty one substituted. The filled cans are then conveyed to the second drawing machine, which differs from the first chiefly in being smaller, in having no spreading-board, and in having a double set of rollers and gills in the width, as will be seen by the top view, fig. 17. The cans

is a diagram illustrative of its mode of action. The same letters refer to the same parts in all the figures. Here a is a portion of a board called the spreading-board. Over the surface of this board an endless band of leather travels, in the direction indicated by the arrow; and on this band the hemp to be operated upon is spread. By the motion of the band the hemp is carried forward until it is taken hold of by the feeding rollers b, by the motion of which it is carried onwards to be acted on by the gills or travelling hackles c; and the gills are fixed to slips of brass screwed to bars which extend across the machine, as seen in fig. 15. These bars pass through grooves formed in the links of an endless chain, by the motion of which they are carried round; and their ends move in peculiarly formed slits in the framing of the machine, by which they are confined to their proper course. By the gills being made to move faster than the surfaces of the feeding rollers, they pass through the hemp many times in the course of its passage across the space in which it is acted on by them, and they are thus enabled to split and straighten the fibres. The hemp now passes between the drawing rollers d, the surfaces of which can be made to move from forty to sixty times faster than those of the feeding rollers, according to the material to be acted

containing the slivers from the first drawing machine are placed at the end of this, in such number as may be required, and many slivers are then passed together through each set of feeding rollers. After having been acted on by the gills and the drawing rollers, the slivers may be delivered separately, or they may be combined, as shown in the drawing, by passing through a tray previous to entering the last pair of delivering rollers. The slivers, after having been subjected to a third drawing, in a machine the parts of which are still finer than those of the second machine, are carried to the roving or spinning machine. This machine has feeding rollers, gills, and drawing rollers similar to the drawing machines; but the parts are still finer than those of the last machine. In fig. 18 the spinning apparatus is

shown. The slivers, on leaving the drawing rollers, pass into the trumpet-mouthed tubes aa. The upper part of these tubes is in two halves, one of which is fixed to the cross rail of the machine, while the other is pressed against it by means of a spring, in such a manner as gently to compress the sliver on entering the tube. The bottom of the tube is set into another tube serving as a socket, and into this last tube discs of felt or cloth are put, through which a slit is made for the reception of the thread, which is thus com-

pressed and smoothed in the same manner as by the cloth in hand-spinning. From these tubes the threads are led to the flyers bb and bobbins cc, as in the ordinary spinning apparatus. Any degree of twist and of tension during twisting can be given to the yarn, by making the bobbins take up more or less of it for each revolution of the flyer; and this is simply effected by means of a drag formed of two steel springs fixed to the bobbin-rail. The ends of the springs partly embrace a peculiarly-formed pulley attached to the bottom of the bobbin, and by means of a pinching screw they can be made to bear with a greater or less degree of pressure on this pulley, and, according to the amount of pressure, the motion of the bobbin is in a greater or less degree retarded.

These machines differ from those in common use chiefly in the following particulars: 1st, In the distance between the feeding rollers and drawing rollers being capable of alteration, to suit longer or shorter hemp, by means of the grooves in the framing of the machines, seen in the side view, fig. 14; 2dly, in making the yarn to pass through the compressible tubes and the felt discs, which act in a manner analogous to the cloth in the grasp of the workman in hand-spinning; 3dly, in the power which the manufacturer has in regulating the tension and twist of the yarns while forming, by means of the drag applied to the bobbins.

The yarn produced by this machine is of excellent quality, and is much stronger than hand-spun yarn, as appears from certain experiments made for the purpose of testing them; the result showing, "that the patent-spun yarns are stronger than those of equal grist when spun by hand, and from the best staple or long hemp, by fifty-five per cent."

Mr Lang's machinery has in consequence been adopted by some of the most extensive rope-manufacturers in Great Britain.

1832. August 8th, Mr Crawhall obtained a patent for an improvement in the manufacture of flat rope, such as is used in mines. It will be remembered that in Mr Curr's patent, the method described of forming these bands was by sewing several ropes together side by side; and the improvement of Mr Crawhall consists in adding such wheels to the ordinary rope-work machinery as to enable it to make four ropes of the same size, of the same material, twisted in the same manner, and at the same time. By this equality of the ropes greater strength is insured; and they are put together by sewing or plaiting, as in the other patents.

1832. September 22d, Mr J. H. Kyan obtained a patent for the application to cordage of his now well-known process of steeping materials in a solution of deuto-chloride of mercury for the purpose of preserving them.

1833. May. Mr Norvel of Newcastle at this time took out a patent for machinery for rope-making. In this machinery the bobbins are, like Mr Walker's, arranged on the surface of cylindrical flyers, and in some of its other parts there is a resemblance to that of Mr Chapman; but there is much that is new, and the general arrangement appears to be excellent.

1838. August 8, a patent was obtained by Mr John Stewart, rope-manufacturer in Glasgow, for machinery for spinning yarn, and forming lines, cords, and ropes.

In figs. 19 and 20 a side and end view of the machine for spinning are exhibited. Here aaa is the framing; bb, a fast and loose pulley on the principal shaft; ccc, bevel-wheels on the same shaft, gearing into pinions fixed on the frames ddd, which run in two bearings, one at the foot, and the other at eee, fixed to the rail of the frame; fff are sliver-cans, with projecting pins for hanging them in the hooks of the frames ddd, so that any can may be shifted without disturbing the machinery; gg is a roller moved by a belt on the principal shaft, round which roller a turn of the thread is taken as it comes from the cans, and the motion of the roller, which may be increased or diminished at plea-

sure, draws the thread away from the can more or less rapidly. The action of the machine will now be easily understood. The cans having been filled with sliver at the common drawing-frame, are hung in the hooks of the frames; on motion being communicated to the machine, the frames are turned round, and twist the sliver into a thread; and as it is twisted, it is drawn away by the roller.

An essential part of the machine remains yet to be described. This is the nipper, or apparatus for holding tightly and regulating the twist of the sliver; one of these is fixed to each frame above its upper bearing. Fig. 21 is a section, and fig. 22 a plan, of one of the nippers to a large scale.

By turning the nut gg the part ee is thrust into the mortise, so as to allow the sliver to pass through ee with more or less freedom, as may be required. Any irregularity in the thickness of the yarns is provided for by the spring hh, which allows e to yield a little when a part of the yarn happens to be thicker, or forces it inwards when any part happens to be smaller, than the general size, while the steady pressure is maintained by means of the nut gg. Through this part of the apparatus, then, the end of the sliver is put previous to being carried to the roller, and it is between this and the roller that the sliver receives its twist to convert it into a thread or yarn. When the yarns leave the roller they are wound on bobbins, or made use of in some other manner. The patentee describes a method of putting a slight twist into the slivers before the cans are hung in the frames of this machine. He also describes a modification of the frame, in which, in place of the cans, bobbins may be used; and he describes an apparatus for filling the bobbins. His machinery for forming lines, cords, strands, and ropes is represented in

Rope-making. fig. 23, a vertical, and fig. 24, an horizontal, section. Here aaa is the framing; bbb, sliver cans, mounted each in its frame ccc, which is furnished with a nipper at its upper bearing.

These can-frames run in brackets dd, d'd', fixed upon an upright spindle ee; the bottom bracket dd is shown in the ground plan as a round plate, and the parts for the pivots of the can-frames to run in are raised upon it partly on each side. The spindle ee is made to revolve by means of a bevel-pinion f fixed upon it, which pinion gears into a wheel gg fixed upon the shaft hh. A belt from the pulley communicates motion to the main shaft hh, which carries a spur-pinion k, gearing into a wheel l fixed on the shaft mm. Upon this shaft the cone nn is fixed, which by a belt drives the cone o, running loose upon the main shaft h. Upon the large end of this cone the bevel-wheel p is either cast or fixed; and this gears into the pinion q fixed to the wheel r, the teeth of which are in its inner edge. This wheel with its pinion turns on the spindle ee, and its teeth gear into spur-pinions ss, fixed on the bottom of the can-frames. From the nippers at the top of the can-frame, each sliver is conducted to a separate hole near the top of the spindle ee; these holes run upwards in an angular di-

rection from under the bracket i, and meet in one which is carried to the top of the spindle, where is fixed a nipper similar to those of the can-frames. The roller v is for the purpose of pulling away the strand, cord, or rope, as it is formed; and in this case is made slightly conical, so that by shifting it along its shaft, the speed with which it draws may be varied. The action of the machine will be easily comprehended. By the revolution of the spindle ee the can-frames are carried round a common centre; and as they turn they receive a motion, each round its own axis, by means of the wheel r and the pinions ss. If sliver be put into the cans and carried through their nippers, they will be twisted into yarns between the nippers and the holes in the upright spindle, and by the revolution of the spindle they will be combined so as to form a strand or cord. If in place of slivers strands be used, the result will be a rope. The patentee further describes machinery for the formation of flat ropes, or bands for mines and the like purposes.

Having thus, as far as in our power, given an account of the progressive improvement of the art by the application of machinery, we shall conclude with a description of the most improved forms of machines and apparatus used in laying ropes in the present day.

When the yarns have been spun upon Mr Lang's or other spinning machines, or by hand, they are wound from the bobbins in a haul, upon a large octagonal reel about eight or nine feet diameter: the number of yarns in the haul are, of course, regulated by the conveniences of the manufactory. The haul is then passed from this reel through the tar-kettle, and, after undergoing the action of the nippers, is again wound upon a similar reel. From this reel the yarns are wound singly upon the reels or bobbins to be used in the laying. The bobbins, with their yarns, are then hung in frames, and the further machinery used is an improved form of Mr Chapman's locomotive apparatus. The whole arrangement of these parts will be better understood from the drawings. In the drawings the connection of the different parts with the moving power is not shown. This may be steam, water, or any other power, and may be placed in any convenient situation, so as best to serve all the purposes of the establishment.

Figs. 25 and 26 show the general arrangement of the

winding apparatus; fig. 25 an end view, and fig. 26 a back view, of a portion of the winding-table. aa, reel about eight feet diameter, on which the haul is wound; bb, frame containing eight bobbins or reels ccc, fastened on vertical spindles dd, on the lower end of which the pulleys ee are fixed; on the horizontal shaft a corresponding number of pulleys are fixed, to drive those of the vertical shaft by belts. One end of the horizontal shaft carries a fast and loose pulley g,

to which motion is given by a belt from the driving power. The apparatus for spreading the yarns on the reels consists of a rail k, with loops or eyes opposite to each reel: through these eyes the yarns are passed. The rail is supported by two upright rods h, h, which slide through holes in the brackets i, i. To these rods the alternating motion is given by a chain connecting them with the lever k, which is wrought by the heart-wheel m. Figs. 27, 28, 29, show the ar-

rangement of the apparatus for twisting the strands, and laying them into a rope. aa the reel-frame; bb the register-plate, through the concentric circles of holes of which the yarns are put. These holes are seen in the detached front-view of the plate at B. Immediately behind the plate the yarns are passed through the press-blocks, one of which is figured detached at C. They are then hung on the hooks of the sledge cc. These hooks are on the prolonged axes of pinions driven by a spur-wheel d, which again is driven by the mitre wheel e. This wheel can be connected with either of the wheels f and g, by means of a clutch wrought by the lever h. On the end of the axes of these mitre-wheels the pinion k is fixed, and receives motion from the spur-wheel l, fixed on the axis of the gub-wheel m. Round the gubs of this wheel a turn of the endless band nn, which traverses the walk, is passed, and gives motion to the machinery. On the other end of the gub-wheel axis a pinion o is fixed, which drives the spur-wheel p. On the middle of the axis of this wheel another gub-wheel is fixed; round it a turn of the ground-rope q is passed, and by this the sledge is moved progressively backwards: the wheels of the sledge are flanged, and run upon a railroad r. When the endless band is set in motion after the yarns have been hung on the hooks of the sledge, the sledge travels backwards at a rate which may be proportioned to the twist required to be given, by the gubs of the ground-rope wheel being made to shift further from or nearer to its centre, so as to move the sledge through a greater or less space for each revolution of the hooks.

When the sledge has reached the foot of the walk, the strands are hung together on the centre-hook of the wheel, and by means of the lever h the motion is reversed; at the same time the yarns are cut over by the tackle-board, and hung on the hooks s, s, s, s, at the fore end. To these motion is given by the spur-wheels t, t, the latter of which may be driven either by the pinion u and spur-wheel w, or directly by the pinion x, as a quicker or slower motion is required. To the shaft on which the pinion x and spur-wheel w are fixed, motion is given by the mitre-wheels y, y, y, y, the two latter being fixed to a vertical shaft, which receives its motion from the driving power by the intervention of cones, by which that motion may be regulated.

The end of the ground-rope is wound upon the barrel z, by unwinding from which it is slackened so as to allow it to be removed from the gubs of the sledge.

Since the above article was written, some improvements have been introduced in the details of the machinery for rope-making. In the spinning apparatus the screw-gill has for the most part superseded the link-gill, represented in figs. 14 to 18. The gill-bars of the screw-gill are moved forward by their ends being forced into the threads of two parallel screws, one placed at each side of the machine. The pressure on the thread, too, in place of being produced by the apparatus shown in figs. 21 and 22, is now more commonly obtained by a dead weight. This consists of a piece of iron which lies over and presses on the thread, and being hinged at its upper extremity, it rises and falls with the slight variations in its thickness. In winding the bobbins, too, a simpler apparatus than the frame (fig. 26) is used. Each bobbin rests on a roller somewhat shorter than itself, which moves freely within its flanges. The roller revolves, and by friction communicates motion to the bobbin, the axis of which moves in vertical slits, so as to allow it to rise as the yarn accumulates on it. The press-up is said to improve the yarn.

In the laying apparatus (fig. 27) the pressure-block c is heated by being inserted into a steam chest substituted for the former solid bar. This is a great improvement, and is due to Mr Swallow, engineer, Liverpool.

In the sledge (figs. 27, 28, and 29) grooved pulleys have been substituted for the gub-wheels, and the change in velocity is produced by various-sized pinions. In place, too, of loading the sledge, any required amount of pressure is produced by a break-wheel fixed on the axis of the ground-rope pulley. This was introduced by Messrs Garnock and Bibby.

Wire-Rope.—The apparatus used in the making of wire-rope is exceedingly simple. The bobbins containing the wire are mounted in frames set in the periphery of a larger frame like a cage. The larger frame revolves round an axis, on the bottom of which is a fixed spur-wheel; and the lower end of the vertical axis of each bobbin-frame carries a spur-wheel gearing into this. There is thus obtained a sun-and-planet motion; the large frame carrying the bobbins round the central axis, and each bobbin-frame revolving also round its own axis. The wires from the bobbins pass through holes in the top of the central axis, and are there united to form the strand or rope as the case may be. The apparatus for small strands or ropes is sometimes arranged so that the bobbins revolve round a horizontal in place of a vertical axis. (3. N.)