HANOVER

HANOVER. Ernest of Zell, who first introduced the Lutheran religion into his states, and died in the year 1546. The succession since has been,—William, who died in 1592; Ernest, in 1611; Christian, in 1633; August, in 1636; Friedrich, in 1648; Ernest Augustus, bishop of Osnaburg, who was made an elector of the German empire in 1692, and died in 1698; George Louis, who, after the death of his uncle George William, inherited the dukedom of Zell in 1705, and succeeded to the crown of Great Britain by the title of George I. in 1714. He died in 1727, since which period the succession continued the same as in that kingdom, until the death of William IV. in the year 1837, when, by the salique law, the crown descended to the Duke of Cumberland.

The accession of the electors of Hanover to the throne of Great Britain, though it led ultimately to a great extension of territory, did, on the other hand, subject the electorate to sufferings and oppression during the wars between Great Britain and France. At the commencement of the Seven Years' War, a French army invaded it; and the forces under the Duke of Cumberland, being unequal to its defence, were compelled, by the convention of Kloster-Severn, to abandon the country to the invaders. By the peace of 1763 it was again restored to its ancient sovereign. At the renewal of hostilities after the treaty of Amiens, Hanover was once more seized upon by the French, and by them delivered over to the king of Prussia, who ruled it till after his defeat at Jena. It was then incorporated as part of the kingdom of Westphalia, erected in favour of Jerome Bonaparte. This rule was terminated by the battle of Leipsic, by which Hanover, with the rest of Germany, was delivered from French domination, and returned to its ancient sovereigns, with the addition of the provinces of Hildesheim, Osnaburg, East Friesland, Goslar, and some other territories. On the other hand, Hanover gave up the ancient duchy of Lauenburg, which was transferred to Denmark, and some portions or bailiwicks,—a part to Prussia, and a part to the Duke of Oldenburg.

The kingdom of Hanover lies between N. Lat. 51. 18. and 53. 52., and E. Long. 6. 48. and 11. 45.; and is bounded on the N. by the German Ocean, N.E. by the Elbe, which separates it from Denmark, Hamburg, and Mecklenburg, E. and S.E. by Prussia and Brunswick, S.W. by Hesse-Cassel and Prussia, and W. by Holland. The boundaries include the duchy of Oldenburg, which almost completely separates Hanover into two large portions, the connection being maintained by a narrow stripe of land, not more than 6 miles in width, S. of the duchy. A small portion in the S. is separated from Hanover proper by the interjection of part of Brunswick. The entire area amounts to about 9,464,446 acres, or 14,788 square miles, as follows:—

The chief cities are Hanover, Hildesheim, Lüneburg, Emden, Osnabruck, Göttingen, Zell, Clausthal, and Goslar.

The province of Hildesheim is somewhat mountainous, and that of Clausthal, containing the Harz, is wholly so, as well as some parts near Göttingen. The other provinces form a part of that extensive plain which commences on the shores of the German Ocean, and terminates on the frontiers of Russia. The whole plain is a sandy soil, resting on

a bed of granite, and is generally sterile, except on the banks of the various rivers that water it, or near the cities, where cultivation has been improved by artificial means. The most fruitful part of the kingdom is on the banks of the Elbe and near the German Ocean, where, as in Holland, rich meadows are preserved from being immersed in water, by broad dykes and deep ditches, constructed and kept in repair at great expense.

The most remarkable mountains are those of the Harz Forest, three-fifths of which are in this kingdom, and two-fifths in the duchy of Brunswick. These mountains are not a part of any chain, but rise from a plain in an isolated group, the highest points of which are nearly in the centre. (See HARZ MOUNTAINS.) They are covered with extensive forests. On their lower sides the trees are of the deciduous kinds, but the summits are exclusively covered with pines. These mountains abound with minerals of almost every kind, and the principal employment of the inhabitants consists either in mining, or in manufacturing the iron and copper into domestic utensils. Some of the mining and manufacturing towns, as Clausthal, Andreasberg, Cellerfeld, and several others, are from 1700 to 1900 feet above the level of the sea; and their population would suffer most severely from the cold of the severe winters, but for the abundance both of wood and fossil coal with which they are supplied.

The whole of the kingdom of Hanover dips towards the north, and the courses of all the rivers are in that direction. These are, first, the Elbe, which borders a large part of the dominion, and receives into it the Ohre, which rises in the province of Lüneburg; the Aland and the Jette, which come out of Prussia, and are navigable before they terminate in the Elbe; the Ilmenau, which becomes navigable at Lüneburg; the Este, which is navigable to Buxtehude; the Lühe, navigable to Hornburg; the Schwinge, by which vessels reach Stade; the Oste, which passes Harburg, and is navigable to Kirchosters; and the Medem, which runs through the Hadeln-land, and admits large vessels as high as Otterndorf. Second, the Weser, which enters the dominions of Hanover at Münden, being there formed by the junction of the Fulda and the Werra. It is navigable for barges from the spot at which its name commences; and it receives, in its course, the Hamel, the Aller, the Oertze, the Leine, the Böhme, the Eyther, the Wümme, which in the lower part of its course takes the name of Lesum, the Geeste, and the Hunte; all of which are Hanoverian rivers, and continue their united courses till they are lost in the German Ocean near Bremen. Third, the Ems, a river rising in the Prussian province of Westphalia. After entering Hanover, it receives the waters of the Aa, the Hase, the Else, and the Leda. Before reaching the sea, it falls into the Dollart near Emden, which is the principal seaport in the kingdom. It is navigable for flat-bottomed vessels from Rheina downwards, and for sea-going ships from Halte and Weener. About 1,200,000 thalers (L.180,000 sterling) have been expended in improving the navigation, and it has become in consequence a very important channel for the inland trade of the country. Fourth, the Vecht, a river of short course, rising in the Prussian province of Westphalia, and terminating in the Zuyder Zee. Its principal importance is derived from a navigable canal, which commences at the city of Münster, and is the channel of some trade through the Vecht to Amsterdam.

Though Hanover is generally a sandy soil, it has some small fresh-water lakes. The Dummersee, in Diepholtz, is about 12 miles in circuit. The Steinhudermeer, in the province of Kalenburg, is about 4 miles long and 2 broad; and the Dollart, at the mouth of the Ems, which is rather an estuary than a lake, is 12 miles across. The canals are all of short course. The Aurich Canal, between Aurich and Emden, is 15 miles long; the Bremen

Hanover. Canal, between the Oste and the Schwinge, serves both for draining and for transport; the Papenburg Canal, between Papenburg and the Ems, is unimportant.

The climate varies considerably with the nature of the country. In the low-lying districts near the coast it is moist and foggy, but the winters are not so severe as in the interior. Hurricanes are not unfrequent on the sea-coast during winter. In spring the prevailing winds are the N.E. and E., in summer the S.W. The mean annual temperature of the kingdom is about 46° Fahr.; at Lüneburg it is 48°; at Göttingen, 46°; but in the Harz district, only 43°. The average annual fall of rain is about 23.5 inches, but it varies greatly in different parts of the kingdom.

Though agriculture constitutes the most important branch of industry in the kingdom, it is still in a very backward state. The greater part of the soil is indeed of very inferior quality; but much that is susceptible of cultivation is still lying waste. The farms are generally very small, nearly one-half of them being under seven acres; while about three-fifths of the land is in the hands of small proprietors, comparatively few of whom possess the capital necessary for adequate cultivation. The best cultivated lands are those belonging to the crown, or nobility; and here considerable advances have recently been made. The best agriculture is to be found in the districts of Hildesheim, Kalenberg, Göttingen, Grabenhagen, on the banks of the Weser and Elbe, and in East Friesland and Bremen. In the hill country the three-field system prevails; but the low marsh lands have a system peculiar to themselves. The usual rotation is, first a fallow, on which the land is cultivated for potatoes, peas, or flax; then follows winter corn, either rye or wheat, but generally the former; and to these succeeds summer corn, either barley or oats. Of the entire area of the country about 28.98 per cent. is arable, 1.76 in gardens and orchards, 16.92 in meadow or pasture land, 13.88 in forests, 34.75 in heath, moor, &c., and 3.71 in roads, rivers, buildings, &c. Barley and oats are largely cultivated and exported in considerable quantities to England. Wheat is grown on the richer soils, but the quantity raised is not equal to the demand. Potatoes are universally cultivated, and constitute the chief food of the poorer classes. Rye is generally grown for bread. Flax, for which much of the soil is admirably adapted, is extensively cultivated, and forms an important article of export, chiefly, however, in the form of yarn. Hemp, tobacco, turnips, and hops are also among its products.

The rearing of cattle is extensively carried on. The number of horned cattle in Hanover is estimated at about 950,000, of horses at 300,000, and of sheep at 1,650,000. East Friesland is especially noted for its breeds of cattle and horses. Bees are reared very extensively in the heaths of Lüneburg. Large flocks of geese are kept in the moist situations; their flesh is salted for winter domestic consumption, and their feathers are preserved for sale.

Manufacturing industry prevails less in Hanover than in the other states of Germany. Linen yarn and cloth are the principal branches. Woollen cloths are made to a considerable extent in the southern part of the kingdom, and this branch of trade has lately been increasing. In the west, stockings and gloves are made. Cotton-spinning has also increased, but is still insignificant; and the same may be said of silk. Potteries, tile works, and tobacco-pipe works are numerous. There are nine glass-houses, and fifty-two paper-mills which produce yearly about 20,000 balls of paper. Wax is bleached to a considerable amount, and there are numerous tobacco factories, tanneries, breweries, vinegar works, and brandy distilleries, the produce of which last has of late very much increased. East Friesland produces gin. The most thriving branch of industry, however, is that of metal

wares. The whole population of the Harz lives by the mining and forging of metals, excavating coal, and manufacturing wooden articles. Foundries and forges, and works of iron, copper, brass, wire, silver and lead, vitriol and sulphur, are in the utmost activity. These mines and associated works support about 35,000 persons. About 20,000 workmen were very recently employed in the Harz, and the yearly value of the produce was 5,000,000 thalers (L.750,000 sterling).

The latest returns give the following quantities for one year, for Hanover and Brunswick together:—Gold, 82 oz.; silver, 375,833 oz.; iron, 377,812 cwt.; copper, 540; vitriol, 5400; quicksilver, 540; coal, 2,160,000; salt, 842,000.

As may be supposed from the small quantity of surplus production, the trade of Hanover is not extensive. The principal port, Emden, has some export and import trade; but from the state of the roads between that place and the more populous parts of the kingdom, more of its trade passes through Hamburg and Bremen than through that city. Besides the more considerable articles made from flax, its honey, wax, feathers, and large quantities of timber, are sent to Hamburg and Bremen. Wool, horses, and cattle, wheat and other grain, butter and cheese, tobacco, and mineral productions, are among the chief exports. Hops, rape-seed, oil-cake, fruit, hams, and sausages, form also articles of export of small amount. The imports consist principally of English manufactures, colonial produce, fruits, wines, jewellery, and silks. As the roads to the great fairs of Leipzig and Frankfurt pass through Hanover, the transit of goods for these used to create a pretty large commission trade, and give employment to many waggons, horses, and men, as well as to the barge owners. These, however, are now in some degree superseded by railways, the city of Hanover having become a central station, from which these diverge in different directions to Hamburg, Brunswick, Hildesheim, Bremen, and Minden. Hanover has joined the Zollverein or General Customs Union from 1st January 1854.

Hanover is a hereditary monarchy in the house of Guelph, with a salique law, which prevents the throne being filled by a female. In case the present branch becomes extinct, the heir of the duchy of Brunswick will succeed. In the several provinces that formerly composed the electorate, the provincial states were vested with functions much the same as those of the old States-General of France, and the central government communicated with these states separately. In 1814, when the territory was augmented, the same arrangement was extended to the newly acquired province. Various efforts were subsequently made to form a general constitutional government for the whole territory of the kingdom, resulting in what has been called the Constitution of 1819. Under this constitution the provincial states continued to subsist in their original forms, superintending the affairs of their several provinces; but there was superadded a States-General, divided into chambers—the first consisting of three princes, three counts, two Catholic bishops, three Protestant abbots, thirty-five deputies of the Ritterschaft, or higher landed gentry, the presidents of the board of taxes, and others; the second, of the deputies of the towns, universities, smaller landed proprietors, &c. This continued, with some alterations, till 1833, when it was superseded by a reformed constitution granted by King William I. At his decease, however, in 1837, this constitution was repudiated by his successor, King Ernest, who called an assembly of the States, as under the constitution of 1819. Under the pressure of the great movement of 1848, the Ritterschaft resigned their most important privileges, and were replaced in the upper chamber by the great funded proprietors; but under the subsequent re-action, the concessions then made by the crown have been partly re-

Hanover. called, and the constitutional question remains still undetermined. In 1851, the Federal Diet invited all the German governments to modify such of their fundamental laws as might seem calculated to foster revolutionary notions; and the government of Hanover has shown itself quite ready to follow out the spirit of the invitation. The Ritterschaft have been constantly endeavouring to recover their privileges, and have made applications for this purpose to the Federal Diet, which, in March 1855, resolved that, as the constitutional arrangements in the kingdom of Hanover were in many respects contrary to the fundamental federal laws, the Hanoverian government should be invited to bring its institutions into harmony with the federal system; and in case of obstacles arising to the required modifications, the Diet reserved to itself the power of interfering according to law. On 16th May 1855, the king issued an ordinance in conformity with this resolution, making several modifications of the constitution, but reserving the power of carrying the order of the Diet more fully into effect. In December 1855 he abolished the right of trial by jury for political offences.

The sovereigns of Hanover were, like most others in Germany, the largest landed proprietors in their dominions. Their lands, however, royalties, and other branches of crown revenue, have been given up by the crown, and now form a branch of the general revenue of the kingdom. The budget for the year 1855-6 stood thus:—

Interest on debt... L.148,817, 13s. 2d.

The military establishment, consisting of the usual proportions of infantry, cavalry, artillery, and engineers, amounted altogether to 24,107 men.

The prevailing faith is Lutheran; the Lutherans in 1852 numbering 1,494,033 adherents. The Calvinists amounted to 95,220, chiefly in the provinces of Aurich and Osnabrück. The Roman Catholics are chiefly confined to the provinces of Osnabrück and Hildesheim, and amounted to 217,367. The Jews numbered 11,562, and other sects 1071. Education receives a considerable amount of attention, and is placed under a special board of direction. First among its educational institutions is the university of Göttingen, which is usually attended by about 700 students. (See GÖTTINGEN.) The other institutions are similar to those in the continental countries where education is best conducted, including primary and secondary schools, gymnasias, industrial, normal, and grammar schools. The scholars attending the various schools amount to about 220,000. There are also several medical, midwifery, and veterinary

schools, and a school of mines and forestry at Clausthal. Hanseatic The charitable institutions are numerous. League.