SINDH. The province of Sindh, in the Bombay Presidency of British India, extends from N. Lat. 23. 37. to boundaries 28. 32., and from E. Long. 66. 43. to 71. 3. It is bounded on the N. by Biluchistan and Bhawalpur; on the E. by the Rájput States of Jaykalmir and Jodhpur; on the S. by Kachh and the Indian Ocean; and on the W. by Makrán and the other territories of the Khán of Kalát. It contains an area of 60,240 square miles,1 being 360 miles long, and 270 miles broad in its greatest breadth.
The province derives its name from the Sindh, or Indus, without whose fertilizing waters the whole country would become a desert.
In its general appearance Sindh much resembles the General valley of the Nile.2 It is one vast flat, bounded on the west by the Hála Hills, and on the east by the Great Desert, which girdles Rájputána on the north and west. In the centre of this level valley flows the Indus, from which myriads of canals and water-courses are drawn, so as to intersect in all directions the adjacent country. Near Sakkár, in Upper or Northern Sindh, groves of palm-trees fringe the river, and lower down these are succeeded by dense forests of small trees, principally the Babúr, or Acacia Arabica, which were formerly used as Shikargáhs, or "hunting grounds" by the Amírs, and are now carefully protected as supplying wood fuel for steamers, and preserving cultivated tracts from the encroaching sands of the desert. At about 60 miles in a direct line from the sea the Indus separates near Tháthá into two great branches, the Satá, or Eastern, and the Baghár, or Western, thus forming a delta, which is more arid and barren than the tract to the north of it as far as Sakkár.
The source of the Indus, the river of Sindh, whose total course is reckoned in round numbers at 1800 miles, is at the north of the Kailás Mountain, one of the loftiest peaks of the Himálayas, in N. Lat. 32., E. Long. 81. 30. The stream near its rise is called the Sinh Ká Báb, or "lion's mouth." After a course of about 858 miles, through regions for the most part wholly unexplored by Europeans, the river reaches, in Lat. 33. 54., Long. 88. 48., the fort and small town of Atak, a word which signifies "stop," the Hindús believing that the sovereignty of their princes ought to extend thus far, and no farther. The name of Atak is applied to the river from the town so-called to Kálábágh, in Lat. 32. 57., Long. 71. 35. Thence to Sakkár the stream is called the Upper Indus, and from Sakkár to the sea the Lower Indus; but by the natives the Daryá, "Great river," or "Sea." The breadth3 of the Indus from Atak to the sea, in the dry season, varies from 480 to 1600 yards, the usual width being 680. At this season the depth averages from 9 to 15 feet in the main channel, but in the freshes it is 24 feet. In some parts, however, the depth is very great. Thus, between Kálábágh and Atak 186 feet have been sounded; and near Sehván, also, the river is very deep. Its rapidity during the freshes is 7 miles an hour, and about 3 in the dry season, and the maximum discharge per second is in August, when the river is at its height, 446,080 cubic feet, and in December 40,857. The fall per mile is from Atak to Kálábágh, 20 inches, thence to Mithán 8 inches, and thence to the sea 6. The temperature of the water during July and August is no less than 88°, or only 7° less than that of the air in those months. The Indus is easily navigable as far as Dera Ismá'il Khán, in N. Lat. 31. 50., above which there are
1 Bombay Selected Records, No. xvii., 1855, p. 43.
2 The name "Young Egypt" has been applied to it, and is even used in the titles of books of travels in Sindh.
3 Bombay Selected Records, No. xviii., 1855, p. 545.
| Sindh. | great difficulties, though boats may ascend even to Makkad in 33. 10., at all seasons. Hence to Atak the upward navigation is altogether restricted to the months when the river is low, and the current without force. | the stalks being sometimes 20 feet in length.5 Cotton of a very superior kind is grown in Chánduká,6 as also sugar, indigo, and tobacco; but, according to Thornton, experiments made in the cultivation of American cotton and Mauritius cane, have been unsuccessful. Wool forms one of the chief exports from Sindh, but is brought chiefly from the country beyond the Hála Hills, subject to the Khán of Kalát. The pearl oyster has been found of late years in Karáchi harbour, and at the Pilit mouth of the Indus; but the pearls are extremely small, and, from their bad shape and colour, of little value even for seed-pearl. | Sindh. |
| Climate. | The climate of Sindh is remarkable for excessive heat and dryness. Lord1 gives 98° 5' as the mean maximum of temperature in the shade at Haidarábád during the six hottest months. At Sakkár it is much hotter, and between Shikárpur and Bágí hotter still, the thermometer sometimes rising to 120° in a good tent. The monsoon reaches no farther than the north-western frontier of Kachh, and Sindh is never visited by the refreshing periodical rains that cool other parts of India. At Karáchi the annual fall of rain does not exceed 8 inches; at Haidarábád it averages about 3 inches; while in Upper Sindh a shower is of very rare occurrence. Thus Hamilton records that, at the period of his visit in 1699, the Larkhánáh districts had been three years without rain. On the other hand, there was a remarkable fall of rain at Haidarábád in 1839, and on the 15th of July in that year, the day the Amírs signed the new treaty with the British,2 many houses and part of the city-wall fell in consequence of the heavy rain, which continued at intervals for four days. The prevailing winds from April to September are from the south, and from the north during the rest of the year. An east wind seldom lasts twelve hours. A kind of samún, or hot wind of the desert, is occasionally felt, and brings with it clouds of sand, that obscure the light of day. Notwithstanding the great heat, Upper Sindh is tolerably healthy, and though the climate is not well suited for Europeans, the natives, especially the Bilúchis, attain to great ages. Thus Mir Sohráb, the father of Mir Rustam, was a vigorous man when, at the age of a hundred years, he was killed by a fall from a high terrace; and Mir Rustam himself was approaching ninety when he died. In Lower Sindh there is much malaria, and fever is rife in September and October. Cholera, too, sometimes commits great ravages, especially at the otherwise healthy station of Karáchi. | The embroideries of Sindh are renowned, and the fabrics of silk tissues at Haidarábád gained medals both at the Great Exhibition of 1851 and at that of Paris. Enameling, seal-engraving, lacquered work, and the making of coloured tiles, are all carried to great perfection in Sindh, especially at Thathá and Haidarábád. The manufacture of arms was very flourishing under the Amírs, but is now fast declining. | Manufactures. |
| Soil and cultivation. | The soil of the delta is a light, loose clay, mixed with sand,3 and except in cultivated spots, this is covered with a low tamarisk jungle. Near the river there are patches of a richer soil deposited by the waters, and this is the case along the whole course of the Indus. Eastward of Khairpúr, and west of Shikárpur, there are sandy deserts wholly devoid of water, and differing only in that there are ranges of sand-hills in the former direction, and a perfectly dead-level to the west. With regard to cultivation, it has been justly remarked,4 that "whatever is cultivated in Egypt, in Arabia, and in the countries bordering the Persian Gulf, may be grown with success in Sindh." There are two crops in the year—the vernal, sown from August to November, and the autumnal, sown from May to the end of July. The former is brought forward by the heavy dew and cool nights of the winter, and is reaped in March and April; while the latter, reaped in December, is wholly dependent on the inundation, which prevails from June to September. Rice, wheat, barley, jauwári, or Indian millet, bejri or zea mays, Bengal grain, vetches, safflowers are the principal crops. Rice is grown very abundantly in Sindh, and is of good quality, and Panicum spicatum, arzam, or Panicum pilosum, barley, sesamum, and various kinds of vetches, pulse, and millet, all yield good crops. Oats, too, have been found to thrive admirably; but it is for its Jauwári, or Holcus sorghum, that Sindh is especially famous. In the districts near Shikárpur, tracts of miles in extent may be seen covered with a waving forest of this grain, in which even camels and their riders would be utterly lost to sight, | The wild animals of Sindh are far less numerous than those of India. Tigers are not uncommon in the jungles to the north of Sakkár, and in the opposite district of Burdiká, but seldom wander southwards. Lieutenant James, however, speaks of having seen two in Chánduká, in 1846, and the one at the shrine of Lál Sháh Bázi, at Schwan, was probably captured in that neighbourhood. In the forests near the Indus, which were formerly the hunting preserves of the Amírs, wild-hog and hog-deer abound. The antelope is found farther from the river, and the ibex in the hills to the west. Wolves, foxes, jackals, and hares are common. The wild-ass, said in former years to have been met with in the desert beyond Roján, is probably now extinct. In the sand-hills east of Rohri and Khairpúr, porcupines are plentiful. Amongst domestic animals the buffalo and camel take the first place. The latter animal is reared in great numbers in the delta of the Indus, and is thought to be of an uncommonly hardy kind. The dromedary, however, is brought from the Brahui country, or from Rájputúná. The horses, asses,7 and cows are all much smaller than those of India. Of birds, the most remarkable species are the pelican, various kinds of falcons, and the Ubráh, or bustard. The black and the grey partridge, quail, snipe, and wild-duck, are most numerous. The Indus abounds with fish, the most valuable kind being the palla, which resembles the salmon in appearance and flavour, and forms the chief food of a large part of the population of Sindh. The bolan, or river porpoise, is occasionally seen; it weighs upwards of two cwt., and has a projecting snout, armed with formidable teeth. The alligator is less common in the Indus than in the Ganges, but grows, perhaps, to a larger size. It is scarcely ever found to be dangerous to man. Among the reptiles may be mentioned the iguana, the river tortoise, and several kinds of snakes. Scorpions and centipedes are not common, but the plague of insects has called forth the anathemas of all travellers in Sindh. In the districts near the Manchar Lake the people sleep on platforms raised upon tall pieces of timber,8 to escape the tormenting attacks of the mosquitoes and sandflies. These insects are literally innumerable, and most venomous. In no country is the white ant more destructive; and instances have occurred of the roofs of buildings falling in, the beams being completely hollowed out by these pests. Thus, in 1840, the roof of the post-office at Shikárpur fell suddenly without any warning, but fortunately when the rooms were empty of people, the only person injured being the sentry who was standing at the door. | Zoology. |
| Natural produce. | Under the Amírs, Sindh was divided into three principalities, Khairpúr or Upper Sindh, Haidarábád, and Mir- |
Sindh. púr, which two latter were comprised in Lower Sindh. Under the British Government, the country has been apportioned into three chief collectorates, Shikarpúr, or Upper Sindh, Haidarábád, and Karáchi. These again are subdivided. Karáchi into 12 táluks, and Haidarábád into 13, of which 5 are in the deputy-collectorate of Mirpúr, and 3 in that of Hálá. Under the collectorate of Shikarpúr are the frontier districts of Kachhí, rendered famous by the inroads of the robber Bilúchis, and the entire subjugation of those tribes by General Jacob, who built and garrisoned the town of Jacobábád, in the centre of the country once held by the plundering Dumkis and Jakranis. These districts are bounded by a wavy line drawn from Khairí Garhí, in Lat. 28. 8., Long. 67. 58., to Roján, in Lat. 28. 20., Long. 68. 20., and thence eastward, to the north of Khairí, in Lat. 28. 35., Long. 69. 40. The area of the Shikarpúr collectorate, including 5412 square miles of territory resumed from Mir Ali Murád, comprises 11,532 square miles; that of the Haidarábád and Karáchi collectorates, 30,000 and 16,000 square miles respectively. Mir Ali Murád's territory is not included in the above estimates, and has an area of 5000 square miles, with a population of 105,000.
Revenue and population. The revenue of Sindh, for the year 1855-56, is thus given:—Shikarpúr C., 1,127,641 rupees; Ali Murád's territory, 295,500 rs.; Haidarábád, 996,036 rs.; Karáchi, 534,375 rs. The first-named collectorate has a population of 698,259. Haidarábád has 703,296 inhabitants, and Karáchi 372,182.
Principal towns. The principal towns are Shikarpúr, Larkhanah, Sakkár, Rohri, and Khairpúr, in Upper Sindh; and Haidarábád, Thatthá, and Karáchi, in Lower Sindh.
Shikarpúr. Shikarpúr, in Lat. 28., Long. 68. 39., was founded by the Dádúputras in 1617, and now contains about 30,000 inhabitants. It is a mart of some importance, and much of the trade between India and Khurásán passes through it. The bázár extends about 800 yards through the centre. There are no edifices worth notice, and masses of ruins encumber the suburbs, and even the best streets in the town itself. Larkhanah, in Lat. 27. 30., Long. 68. 10., has a population of 12,000, and is one of the principal grain-marts in Sindh. It is rudely fortified, and has a citadel at the western end. The surrounding country is thought to be one of the richest tracts in Sindh. Sakkár, in Lat. 27. 40., Long. 68. 54., is a town, once flourishing and populous, on the western bank of the Indus, opposite Rohri. It was taken and destroyed about the year 1800, by Mir Rustam. In 1839 it became the site of a British cantonment, when many of the ruined edifices were cleared away, and a few rebuilt or repaired. The most remarkable edifices remaining are—the tomb of a Mughal princess, on a hill directly above the Presidency, and a tower 100 feet high, erected to the memory of Muhammad Masúm, a celebrated nobleman of the Delhi court, who flourished during the early part of the seventeenth century, A.D. Rohri, or Rori, in Lat. 27. 38., Long. 68. 55., is situated on the eastern bank of the Indus, exactly opposite Sakkár; the island of Bakkar, on which is an ancient fort, being between them, and in mid-stream. Rori has a population of 8000 inhabitants. In it are some curious buildings, worthy of inspection. The chief mosque was built during the time of Akbar, who conquered Sindh in 1572. An inscription of some length sets forth that the founder was Fath Khán. There is also a shrine where a hair from the prophet's head is preserved in a jewelled case. This building is about 300 years old, and seems to have been built by one 'Abú'l Bákí, who came to Sindh from Constantinople.2 Khairpúr is 13 miles S. of Rori, and 15 E. of the Indus. It has a population of 15,000 souls, and under the Amírs was the seat of the government of Upper Sindh. There is nothing remarkable
about it. Haidarábád is entitled to be considered the capital of Sindh, as it was of the Amírs, the principal branch of the Tálpúr family ruling there. It is situated in Lat. 25. 22., Long. 68. 28., and 4 miles E. of the eastern bank of the Indus, on a rocky ridge called the Ganjah Hills. The fort is about three-fourths of a mile in circumference, and was built or repaired by Fath Khan Tálpúr. Beyond the market-place are the tombs of the Tálpúrs, and of the family that preceded them, that of Ghulám Sháh Kalhora being the most beautiful of all. Haidarábád contains about 30,000 inhabitants. It is famous for its embroideries, enameling, lacquered work, and seal-engraving. Thatthá, vulgarly called Tatta, in Lat. 24. 44., Long. 68., is an ancient city, now greatly fallen to decay. It is probably not less than a thousand years since it was founded. In 1555 it was pillaged and partly burned by the Portuguese; but in 1699 Alexander Hamilton describes it as a great and populous city. The ruins of noble edifices are to be traced for miles around. Of those that remain the most remarkable are—the Grand Mosque of Sháh Jahán, begun in 1647 and finished by Aurangzeb in 1661; the 'Tdgáh of Yúsuf Khán, Governor of Sindh, built in 1633; the mosque of Tughral, and some others. Thatthá now contains about 10,000 inhabitants. Karáchi, the sea-port of Sindh, has grown up to importance under British rule. It is situated in Lat. 24. 51., Long. 67. 2., and being the only place of safety for vessels on the coast, the whole commerce of the Indus passes through it. The population has risen from 13,000 persons in 1813,3 to nearly 25,000. The harbour is being improved at a vast outlay, and though the bar is a great obstacle to the trade of the place, there being but 16 feet water upon it at high tide, it is hoped that even this difficulty will be overcome, partly by dredging and partly by directing the full sweep of the ebb-tide upon it. The town is 3 miles from the landing-place at low-water, but a good communication has been made, by a mole and road, which cost upwards of £30,000. The total trade of the place is now valued at about two millions sterling. The chief exports are wool, vegetable oils, and sugar, indigo and cotton, from the Panjáb. The place was annexed by the Governor-General, on receiving the report of Admiral Maitland, who, on the 5th of February 1839, with the fire of the Wellesley, 74, battered down Manora Fort, from which no resistance was made—the garrison, indeed, consisting only of four or five men.
The population of Sindh is given at 1,873,737. The majority of these are Játis, or Sindhis, properly so called, numbers of whom are Muhammadans of the Haníáf sect, being the descendants of those who were converted from Hindúism after the conquest of Sindh by Muhammad bin Kásim, and in subsequent centuries. The general proportion of Hindús to the Muslims is about 1 to 4. Thus, the Hindú census exhibits a total of 363,295, and that of Muslims 1,354,891, but this latter is no doubt understated as regards females. There are, besides, 50,551 persons of other sects. The Sindhis are a tall, muscular race, but, according to Burton, "idle, apathetic, notoriously cowardly and dishonourable, addicted to intoxication, unclean and immoral in the extreme." Their language is a peculiar dialect, compounded of Sanskrit and Arabic words, with a grammatical structure—Sanskrit, as regards the nouns; and as to the verb, formed upon the Persian model. The character is a most corrupt Devanágari, quite unreadable to the natives of India, and possessing the peculiarity of exhibiting no medial vowels. The same authority divides the Muslim population into, besides Sindhis, Saiyids, Afgháns, Bilúchis, Africans, Memons, and Khwájahs. The Saiyids are often Shí'ahs, and belong chiefly to four great
1 According to another authority, 13,679 square miles.
2 Pottlinger's Travels, p. 344.
3 Dry Leaves from Young Egypt, p. 46.
Singapore. families, the Bakhári, Mathári, Shírázi, and Lekhiráyi. The Afghans are found chiefly about Haidarábád and Shikárpur. They are a finer and fairer race than the Sindhis. The same must be said of the Bilúchis, who are men of great size and strength. They are of such vigorous constitutions as to live to great ages, even under the unparalleled heat of Upper Sindh. Thus, Turk 'Ali Jakráni, who headed an insurrection against the British in 1844, was then ninety years old, and in 1854 was still living and in robust health. The Bilúchi language is little known, but appears to be an Ugrian dialect, with abundance of Persian words incorporated. The chief Bilúch tribes are—the Bugti, Cháng, Jakráni, Jatoi, Khosa, Laghári, Marí, Magsi, Mazári, Nizámáni, Notháni, Rind, and Tálpúr. The Memons were originally Hindús, who entered Sindh during the Kalhora rule from Kach. They became converts to Islám. The Khwájahs are Persians by descent, of the Ismá'iliyah sect. The present Hindú race in Sindh is chiefly of Pánjábí origin. There are two orders of Bráhmins, and no out-castes. The rest are Vaisyas, of whom those who served the native government adopted Muslim costume. Some of the women are remarkably beautiful.
History. The Rig-Veda mentions the Indus, and in such a manner as to leave no doubt that the Aryan nation was then settled on its banks. Sindh, therefore, 1400 years before the Christian era, was occupied by the people who had, in the time of Alexander the Great, extended their conquests to the mouth of the Ganges. Earthquakes, however, as attested by the buried city of Brahmanábád, and the natural dyke thrown across the Indus, called the Alláh band, and the inundations of the river, have so altered Sindh that the course of Alexander can no longer be traced. From his time, 326 B.C., to 711 A.D., nothing is known of the history of Sindh. In that year the Khalifah and son of Abdu'l Malik, according to the Másúm Námah, sent an army to invade Sindh. It was commanded by Muhammad bin Kásim, who soon captured Nirankot and Alor, and subdued the whole country. From that time till 1026, A.D., the governors of the Khalifs governed with greater or less success in Sindh; but in the latter year, 'Abdu'r Razá, general of the Sultan Mahmúd of Ghazni, conquered the province. The dynasties of Ghazni and Ghúri continued to hold Sindh until the end of the eleventh century. The Sumná tribe then rose to power, and seem to have ruled in Sindh till 1340, when they were succeeded by the Samná, another native tribe. These were overthrown in 1541 by Sháh Beg Arghun, who had been driven from Kandahár by Bábár. In 1590 Akbar conquered Sindh, which continued under the Mughul emperors of Delhi till 1736, when the Kalhoras made themselves independent of Delhi, though they acknowledged fealty to the Afghan kings of Kábul. The detestable cruelty of one of this race, named Ghulám Nabí, caused the Tálpúrs, under Fath Ali Khán, to revolt, and the sceptre now passed into their hands. In 1813 they entirely threw off all dependence on Kábul, whence the Sadozye family had been expelled by that which now rules there. Their sway continued until the conquest of Sindh by the British, on the 24th of March 1843. Of that conquest different accounts are given; some writers arguing, with Sir W. and Sir C. Napier, that the Amirs were rightly dethroned; and others, with Sir J. Outram, that the attack upon them was unjust and indefensible. The weight of evidence, however, is in favour of the latter view; and it seems now decided, that the treachery of one of the Amirs, aided by the ignorance of the language and customs of the country, which led the British general to decide against the Amirs on insufficient grounds, was the real cause of their downfall. (E. B. E.)