STENOGRAPHY

STENOGRAPHY. The invention of the stenographic or swift mode of writing, by signs, employed by the Roman notarii in the time of the Cæsars, has been assigned by various authors to different persons. Diogenes Laertius has been made to say that Xenophon first took down the sayings of Socrates in notes; but the original text may mean, that he merely noted down the sayings of Socrates. The Latins, however, claimed for themselves the invention of the Roman Notes. Ennius, about 150 B.C., is said to have invented 1100 common notes, or abbreviations; called common, because intended for general use. Plutarch rejects Ennius, and is in favour of Cicero. Eusebius gives the merit of the invention to Tyro, a freedman of Cicero's; and Seneca ingeniously attributes the invention and the cultivation of this species of writing to freedmen and slaves (as Tyro, Persennius, Aquila), whose performances were, according to the usage of the times, attributed to their patrons.

These notes are constructed on the principle of extreme abbreviation of the letters of the Roman alphabet; for,

though every letter of the alphabet is employed, very few words, comparatively, are written in full. Indeed, the characters are so ill adapted for joining, that hundreds of examples are found wherein, apparently to preserve the writing horizontal, the shape, slope, and size of the letters are variously modified, and the letters themselves either disconnected or written across each other. The Roman shorthand alphabet, with a specimen of Tyro's "Notes," written in it, is given in Pitman's History of Shorthand, in the Phonotypic Journal for 1847.

In this first system of shorthand of which we have any account, all the principles of stenography, as at present practised, were acknowledged; namely, the adoption of simpler forms than the common letters of the alphabet; making each letter the representative of some common word; leaving out such letters as could be spared, particularly the vowels, in order to save time; and sometimes joining or intersecting the initial letters of several words, so as to express them by one series of forms, and, if possible, without removing the hand from the paper or tablet. All that the authors of modern systems have gained in brevity over the ancients has been effected by the adoption of a simpler alphabet. The letters of Tyro's (or perhaps Cicero's) system of shorthand, were made by abridging the Roman alphabet; some of them were, therefore, necessarily complex. Modern stenographers have preferred a new alphabet, made of the simplest geometrical forms; and by sometimes classing under one sign two sounds that are nearly related to each other (as f and v, s and x), a right line and a curve in various positions, with the occasional addition of a small circle or hook at the commencement, have supplied a sufficient variety of signs for the letters of the alphabet.

By Tyro's system, according to Plutarch, was preserved Cato's the oration of Cato relative to the Catilinian conspiracy, speech on the Catilinian conspiracy. In his life of Cato the younger, he remarks, "This, it is said, is the only oration of Cato's that is extant. Cicero had selected a number of the swiftest writers, whom he had taught the art of abbreviating words by characters, and had placed them in different parts of the senate-house. Before his consulate they had no shorthand writers." Soon after this, shorthand came into general repute among the Romans, and was patronised and practised by the emperors themselves. Augustus and Titus were proficient in it, and some of the authors of that age allude to the art in their works. Ovid, in speaking of Julius Cæsar, who wrote to his friends in shorthand, says, "By these marks, secrets are borne by land and by sea." Some passages in the Latin writers, that have been supposed to refer to shorthand, appear to refer to writing in cipher.

To England belongs the honour of having revived in Early English modern times the useful art of shorthand writing, no original system having been published on the continent that can be compared with the popular English stenographies of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

There are four principal periods in the improvement and dissemination of the art since the revival of learning in the fifteenth century. The first period extends from the publication of the first alphabetic system by John Willis, in 1602, to the publication of the matured system of Mason, in 1682. During this period the system most used was that invented by Rich, afterwards practised, amended, and republished by Dr Doddridge. (Before Willis's shorthand alphabet appeared, Timothy Bright, in the reign of Elizabeth, 1588, produced a system of arbitrary shorthand characters that represented words. This, as far as is known, was the first treatise on the art in modern times.) The second period extends from 1682 to the appearance of Taylor's system in 1786, and during this time Mason's system enjoyed the greatest share of the public favour. It was republished by Thomas Gurney, in 1751, and is practised

Stenography. by his descendants, as reporters to the government, to the present day. The third period reaches from 1786 to 1837, the date of the publication of Pitman's Phonography, or Phonetic shorthand. During this period Taylor's system was perhaps used more than any other; but many persons wrote the systems invented by Byrom (1767), Mavor (1789), and Lewis (1816). The fourth period reaches from 1837 to the present time. In these twenty-three years the practice of Phonetic shorthand has extended to almost every town and every large village in Great Britain and Ireland, and in the United States. This system we now proceed to explain, premising that it is as legible as ordinary writing, and may be written in from one-fourth to one-eighth of the time required for longhand, according to the skill of the writer, and his employment of the principles of abbreviation furnished in the system.

Phonetics (from phōnē, phōnē, voice), the things relating to the voice: the science which treats of the different sounds of the human voice, and their modifications. The style of spelling in accordance with this science is named Phonetic; the common style being called Romanic, because it is formed from an alphabet derived from that which was used by the Romans.

Phonography (from phōnē, voice, and γραφη, graphē, writing), the art of representing spoken sounds by written signs; also the style of writing in accordance with this art.

Phonotypy (from phōnē, voice, and τυπος, tūpos, type), the art of representing sounds by printed characters or types; also the style of printing in accordance with this art.

Phonogram (from γραφη, grapha, letter), a written letter, or mark, indicating a certain sound, or modification of sound; as, — k, ah.

Logogram (from λογος, logos, word), a word-letter; a phonogram, that, for the sake of brevity, represents a word; as | t, which represents it.

Grammologue, a letter-word; a word represented by a logogram; as it, represented by | t.

Phraseogram, a combination of shorthand letters representing a phrase or sentence.

Phonography is based upon an analysis of the English spoken language. Its consonants and vowels are arranged so as to show, as far as possible, their mutual relations. In the consonants, k stands first, next g; the rest follow in perfectly natural order, first the mute or explosive letters, proceeding from the throat to the lips; then the semi-vowels, or continuants, in the same order; and lastly the liquids and nasals. Scarcely more than half the consonants are essentially different; the articulations in the pairs k and g, t and d, f and v, &c., are precisely the same, but the sound is, so to speak, light in the first, and heavy in the second letter of each pair. The consonants in each pair are represented by strokes in the same position, and of the same shape, but that chosen for the second is written thick, instead of thin. (See the shorthand signs for k, g, t, d, f, v, &c., in Plate XXXIX.) Thus, not only is the memory not burdened with a multitude of signs, but the mind perceives that a thin stroke corresponds with a light articulation, and a thick stroke with a heavy articulation. K, t, p, sh, s, th(in), f, are called light, or sharp consonants, and sh, s, th(in), f, are further denominated whispered, or breathed consonants; while g, d, b, zh, z, th(en), v, are heavy, flat, spoken, or murmured consonants. The distinction is, that in the flat letters (g, d, b, &c.) a vocal murmur is added to the action of the organs by which the sharp letters (k, t, p, &c.) are produced. The light sounds are also called surds, while all the other letters (including ng, n, m, l, r, y, w, and the vowels), are called sonants. Ch and j are double consonants, formed by the union of t, sh, and d, zh, as may be heard in fetch, cheap, edge, jem. They are placed next to the first elements t, d, which enter into their composition. The vowels are arranged naturally in two

series, the first guttural and the second labial. Each series commences with the most open sound. The short vowels are represented by light dots and strokes, and their corresponding long sounds by heavy ones. After a few weeks' practice in writing phonography, the heavy strokes and dots are made without any perceptible effort; they are traced by the pen with as much facility as their corresponding heavy sounds are produced by the organs of speech.

With one exception (ch and the upward r, as below), every right-line and curve employed in phonography is written in the direction of one of the lines in the annexed diagram, all straight lines and curves in direction 2 and the curves in direction 4 being inclined midway between a perpendicular and horizontal line. (For illustrations of single shorthand letters, see Plate XXXIX.; and for illustrations of joined characters, and the application of the various rules for writing, see Plate XL.)

Perpendicular and sloping letters are written from top to bottom, and horizontal letters from left to right. L, when standing alone, is written upward, and sh downward; l and sh, joined to other consonants, may be written either upward or downward, as may be convenient.

All the consonants in a word should be written without lifting the pen, the second letter beginning where the first ends, and so on. When a straight consonant is repeated, no break should be made between the two strokes; thus, — kk. When a curved consonant is repeated, the curve should not be written larger, but doubled; thus, — nn. Single consonants, and combinations of consonants that contain not more than one descending stroke, rest upon the line. When two descending letters are joined, the first should be made down to the line, and the second below.

As the straight line in direction 4, in the above diagram, may be written either up or down, it is made to represent two letters, namely, ch when written downward, and r when written upward; this additional sign being given to r for convenience and speed in writing. To diminish the risk of ch and r being mistaken for each other, ch is made to slope 60 degrees from the horizontal, and r when standing alone, 30. This line naturally takes these slopes when struck by the hand downward and upward respectively.

On account of their frequent occurrence, s and z are furnished with an additional character, particularly convenient for joining; thus o s or z. When the s circle is joined to straight letters, it is written on the upper side of k, and on the corresponding side of the other letters. When joined to curved letters, it is written inside the curve. When it occurs between two straight consonants, it is written on the outside angle. When it is joined to l only, the l is written upward; and when it is joined to sh only, the sh is written downward.

There are six simple long vowels in the English language, namely,

There are also six short vowels, of the same or similar quality, or tone, heard in the words

The long and short sounds of Nos. 4 and 6 are identical in quality; Nos. 2 and 3 are nearly so; the long and short sounds of the pair No. 1 differ considerably in the south of Great Britain, but not much in Scotland: the greatest amount of difference exists in the pair No. 5.

The first three vowels are represented by a dot, and the last three by a short stroke or dash, written at a right angle with the consonant. The dot (for 1, 2, 3), and the dash

Stenography. (for 4, 5, 6), are made heavy for the long vowels, and light for the short ones. When a vowel is placed on the left-hand side of a perpendicular or sloping consonant, it is read before the consonant; and when placed on the right-hand side, it is read after the consonant. A vowel placed above a horizontal letter, is read before the consonant, and when written under, is read after the consonant. This, it may be observed, is the way in which we read all European languages; namely, from left to right, and from top to bottom. The vowels are written at the side of the consonant, in three places,—at the beginning, middle, and end; the beginning of the consonant, whether written upward or downward, being the place of the first vowel-sign ah. The letter l, for instance, when written downward, has its vowels' places reckoned downward; and when written upward, the vowels are reckoned from the bottom upward.

Vowels placed at the beginning of a consonant (ah and aw, for example), are called first-place vowels; vowels written in the middle are called second-place vowels; and those written at the end are called third-place vowels.

The vowel points and strokes must be written at a little distance from the consonants to which they are placed. If allowed to touch, except in a few cases, they would occasion mistakes. The short vowels should not be called—No. 1, "short eh;" No. 2, "short ee;" No. 3, "short i (eye)." &c.; but—No. 1, "short ah;" No. 2, "short eh;" No. 3, "short ee," &c. It will be found more convenient when speaking of these short vowels to affix the letter t to each, and call them severally at, et, it, ot, ut, ist.

The double vowels heard in the words ice, owl, ay, boy, are represented by small angular marks.

I and ow are close diphthongs, accented on the second element; and ai (yes), oi, are open diphthongs, accented on the first element. Each is pronounced as one syllable. The shorthand signs for i, ow, oi, may be written in ANY place: ai is written in the FIRST place.

The letters y and w are unlike any other consonants. They are, in fact, consonants made from vowels; y being a modification of ee, and w a modification of oo; as may be heard in pronouncing

yah, yea, yih (or yea); yaw, yoh, yuh (or yoo).
wah, wch, wih (or wee); waw, woh, wuh (or woo).

It has been found expedient to represent these letters in connection with the succeeding vowel, by a single sign, having a vowel character; thus, $\backslash text\{v\}$, $\backslash text\{w\}$, $\backslash text\{v\}$. These signs, like those for the simple vowels, are written by the side of consonants, in three places, heavy for long vowels, and light for short ones. When joined to consonants, they express y or w alone.

By prefixing w to the diphthong i, the treble sound wi is heard, as in twice. It is represented by a small right angle, which may be written in ANY position.

The shorthand signs for the diphthongs, and double and treble letters of the y and w series, are always written in the same direction; that is, they do not accommodate themselves to the consonant to which they may be written, as do the signs for the simple vowels au, o, oo.

Y and w are also furnished with full-sized consonantal forms, which are used like other consonants; thus,

$\backslash text\{y\}$, $\backslash text\{yea\}$, $\backslash text\{y\}$, $\backslash text\{yeo\}$, $\backslash text\{y\}$, $\backslash text\{use\}$; $\backslash text\{w\}$, $\backslash text\{way\}$, $\backslash text\{w\}$, $\backslash text\{away\}$.

They give greater distinctness than the small curved double letters, in the writing of words which contain no other consonant than y or w: they are also serviceable when either of these letters is followed by s.

The aspirate occurs in English only when preceding a vowel, or y, w, which are modifications of vowels. It is expressed by a small dot prefixed to the vowel sign. When it is more convenient to use a consonantal form for this letter, it is written either $\backslash text\{y\}$ downward, or $\backslash text\{y\}$ upward, whichever may be most convenient for joining with

the preceding or following letter. The names of the letters y, w, h, are yay, way, ateh.

In consequence of the deficiencies of the English alphabet, and the unphonetic character of our orthography, the spelling of a word can seldom be taken as a guide to its pronunciation. To write any given word, therefore, phonographically, its several sounds must first be ascertained: the student should then write the phonographic letters which represent them. The practice of phonography and the reading of phonotype will improve the student's pronunciation, and train his ear to discriminate differences in orthoepy.

The circle s is generally used in preference to the stroke s. In any word that contains the circle s, the vowel is placed and read to the stroke-consonant, and not to the circle s, to which no vowel can be placed or read. The circle s, at the beginning of a word, is always read FIRST; and at the end of a word it is always read LAST. It may be made double-sized for ss. When a word begins with a vowel followed by s or z, or ends with a vowel preceded by s or z, the stroke form of the letter is used. The stroke s is used whenever it is necessary to place a vowel to this consonant. The stroke z is used in all words that begin with the sound of z.

When a vowel comes between two consonants, it is possible to write it either after the first, or before the second. Care must be taken not to write the vowel sign in an angle between two letters; as $\backslash text\{v\}$ which might be read either kee-p or k-ahp. The three following rules are of general application.

FIRST-PLACE VOWELS are written after the first consonant. SECOND-PLACE VOWELS are written after the first consonant when LONG, and before the second when SHORT: it is thus known whether a second-place vowel sign is intended to express a long or a short vowel, independently of the heaviness or lightness of the vowel sign. THIRD-PLACE VOWELS are written before the second consonant. If the second consonant is the circle s, the vowel must necessarily be written after the first consonant.

When the diphthongs y i ow, are written by themselves for the words I, how, v I is placed ABOVE the line, and h how on the line. When either of these diphthongs commences a word, the first place is the most convenient: in other cases they are both more easily written in the third place.

From the kr series of double consonants, a series of treble consonants is formed by making the hook into a circle; thus, $\backslash text\{skr\}$, $\backslash text\{str\}$, $\backslash text\{spr\}$. They are used only initially. The same signs with a thick stem will represent sqr, sdr, sbr.

The w hook double letters (see Plate XXXIX., wn, wm, wl, wr), differ from those of the kl, kr series with respect to vocalization. The kl, kr double letters (or consonant diphthongs) are vocalized like the single consonants; that is, a (a dot in the first place), before kl is read ahl, and a after kl is read kla; but with the w hook double letters (which are not consonant diphthongs), vowels can be written either before or after the n, m, l, r, represented by the stem of the letter, because w is represented by the hook.

N following a straight letter, is expressed by a final hook on the UNDER side of a horizontal stroke, and on the corresponding side of any other straight letter (see Plate XXXIX.); thus, $\backslash text\{cane\}$. By making the hook into a circle, s or z is added; thus, $\backslash text\{canes\}$. The ns circle is made double-sized for nez; thus, $\backslash text\{expenses\}$. After curves, the n hook is written inside the curve.

F or v, when following a straight letter, is expressed by a final hook on the UPPER side of a horizontal stroke, and on the corresponding side of any other straight letter; thus,

$\backslash text\{hf\}$, $\backslash text\{tf\}$, $\backslash text\{chf\}$, $\backslash text\{pf\}$, $\backslash text\{tf\}$ (upward); as in $\backslash text\{tough\}$, $\backslash text\{cough\}$.

By halving any of the preceding letters, t or d is added, according as the letter is thin or thick; t being generally added when the letter is thin, and d when it is thick; thus, bake, baked; rub, rubbed. A vowel AFTER a half-sized consonant is read next to the primary single, double, or treble letter, and before the added t or d; thus, point, bread. N, m, l, and r are shortened for the addition of t, and these shortened strokes, when thickened, represent nd, md, ld, rd. Lt, when standing alone, is written upward; in other cases, either upward or downward: ld is always written downward. The practised phonographer may use a half-sized letter to represent either an added t or d. The only consonants that do not admit of being halved are y, w, ng, and the irregular mp. (All HOOKED letters are halved for the addition of t or d.)

A full-sized and a half-sized consonant, or two half-sized consonants, should not be joined unless they form an angle at the point of union; because it would sometimes be doubtful whether such combinations were meant for a single letter, or a full-sized and a half-sized letter, or two full-sized letters.

The termination -tion (shon), is expressed by a large final hook, twice as large as the f hook. After a curve it follows the direction of the curve. At the end of a straight letter beginning with a hook or circle, or springing from a curve, the tion hook, when final, is written on the opposite side, that the straightness of the letter may be preserved. In other cases, -tion when final, and following a straight letter, is written on the side opposite to that on which the preceding vowel is written, for convenience in vocalizing; thus, caution, action. After simple t or d, the -tion hook is always written on the right; thus, addition. The n, f, and -tion hooks may be used in the middle of a word, when it is convenient.

St is written by a small loop; as, stock, fast. This loop is used chiefly as initial or final, but it may be employed medially when the loop can be distinctly formed; as in justify. A loop half as long as a consonant, represents str; thus strike, muster. These loops may be combined with the initial kr and the final kn series of straight letters; thus, against, striker. S may be added to a final loop or to the large ss circle by continuing the stroke of the loop or circle; thus, crusts, exercises. A hook made by continuing the s circle to the other side of the consonant, adds -tion (shn) or -sion (zhn); thus, possession.

When a curved consonant is written twice its usual length, it expresses the addition of thr (in father), tr, or dr; thus, neither.

The prefixes in Plate XXXIX. are written near the following part of the word; but in reporting (except the dot con) they are joined, when it is convenient to do so, to save lifting the pen. When con or com is preceded by a consonant, either in the same word or the preceding word, con or com is understood by writing the syllable that follows, UNDER or CLOSE TO the consonant that precedes; thus, inconstant, discompose, you will comply. The preposition in may be expressed before the treble consonants, skr, str, spr, by a back hook; thus, inscription, instruct. Any consonant when disjoined from that which precedes it, expresses thereby the addition of ality or arity, or any other termination of similar sound; thus, penalty, vulgarity.

The learner should not attempt, at first, to bring into use all these abbreviating principles. He should be content to

practise, for two or three weeks, a rather lengthened style of phonography, making much use of the simple consonants, until he feels confidence in the use of the phonographic characters, and in the principle of phonetic spelling. He may then gradually adopt the double and treble letters, and the prefixes and affixes, &c., as he requires them; that is, as he feels that the style he is employing is not brief enough for the manual dexterity he has acquired. In selecting one out of two or more possible forms for any word, the student must recollect that great ease in writing, and, consequently, the saving of time, is not secured by using hooked and grouped, and especially half-sized, letters, on all possible occasions; but he must learn to make a judicious selection, and employ those which are most easily written in any given case.

The single and compound letters are used in phonography to represent the most frequent words in the language. To write the, and, that, &c., in full, would be unnecessarily tedious; nor would these words, thus written, be more legible than when expressed by one simple and distinct character. Words so abbreviated are called grammalogues, or sign-words, and the shorthand letters that represent them are called logograms, or word-signs. The table in Plate XXXIX. is the result of numerous experiments in writing, continued through many years, for the purpose of ascertaining the most useful words to be abbreviated, and the shorthand letters by which they may be best represented. The stroke-vowels aw, o, oo, are used as logograms in each of these directions ; thus,

all, too, two; oh, ove; ace, he; of, to; on, but; and, should.

And and should are written upward. And and he are represented by dashes instead of by their respective dot vowels, for the purpose of joining other words in reporting, and thus writing whole phrases without lifting the pen.

In the table of grammalogues (Plate XXXIX.), a word is occasionally printed with a hyphen; thus, give-n; or, with a double termination; thus, important^s; to intimate that the corresponding logograms represent both give and given, important, and importance. The context will show which is meant. S may be added to a logogram to mark the plural number or the possessive case of a noun, or the third person singular of a verb in the present tense.

In general, the positions of the grammalogues, ABOVE, ON, and THROUGH or UNDER the line, are determined by their vowels; and in the case of a word of more than one syllable, by its accented vowel. The positions of the vowels are:—1, ah, aw, i, oi, ei; 2, a, o, oo, ow, u; and the corresponding short vowels. The positions of the logograms are:—1, above the line; 2, on the line; 3, if down or up strokes, through the line; but if horizontal or half-length sloping, below it. Double-length curves take only the following positions:—PERPENDICULAR, through the line for ALL words; SLOPING, on the line for words containing first and second-place vowels; through the line for words containing third-place vowels; HORIZONTAL, 1, above the line, 2, on the line, 3, under the line.

The rules that determine the position of a grammalogue are, specifically, these four:—1. Common words are written, generally, on the line, because this position is most convenient: sometimes they are written in the first position, for the purpose of attaching other words in phraseography. 2. In the case of a word that contains several consonants, the letter chosen to represent it is written in the position which it occupies when the word is written in full. 3. In all other cases the logogram is written IN POSITION, in accordance with the vowel or accented vowel of the word which it represents. 4. But if that position is occupied by some other word, it is placed in the most convenient unoccupied position.

Stenography. In the following cases the name of the letter is the same as the sound of the word; the letter, therefore, represents the word; these may be called natural grammalogues;

be, I, a, O! oh! once, ye, you, we.

These natural grammalogues it is not considered necessary to repeat in the list. Theoretically, you, yōō, or ū, is u, but the light sign yōō may be used in all cases. The double vowels we, ice, when representing the words with, ice, are written above the line, although they are third-place vowels, because this position is the best for attaching other words and forming phraseograms.

Outlines of words. As three letters in the phonographic alphabet (y, s, r) have duplicate forms, w three forms, h four forms, and two others (sh, l) are written either upward or downward; and as many groups of consonants may be expressed either by their alphabetical forms, or by abbreviations, it is evident that many words may be written in more than one way. For any given word the writer should choose that form which is most easily and rapidly written, and is at the same time capable of being clearly vocalized. The briefest outline to the eye is not always the most expeditious to the hand. The student will insensibly acquire a knowledge of the best forms by practice and observation.

Contractions. When K occurs between ng and sh, or ng and t, p between m and t, or T between s and another consonant, the k, p, t may be omitted.

The downward h, when occurring before m, stroke s, sh, downward r, upward l, nr, &c., may be contracted to the simple tick ;; thus, hm (him).

The most frequent word in the English language, may be expressed by a short slanting stroke / joined to the preceding word, and generally written downward; thus, / in the, but when more convenient, it is written upward. The first stroke of / on the is made sloping to keep the sign distinct from / I. The tick the never BEGINS a phrase.

The connective phrase "of the," is intimated by writing the words between which it occurs near to each other, thus showing that the one is of the other.

A or AN.—A or an is joined to the preceding word by ; or -.

The pupil is recommended to be sparing in his use of contractions in the first style of phonography. In the second, or reporting style, every legible contraction may be brought into use.

Phonography. In longhand, swift writers join all the letters of a word together, and sometimes write several words without lifting the pen. So, in phonography several words may often be united. This practice, which is called phraseography, gives great assistance to the writer in following a rapid speaker. Some examples will be seen in Plate XL.

Stops should be written in the usual way, except the period, for which a small cross is used; thus, ;; ;; ; The hyphen is written thus, -; the dash thus, ---;

; Interrogation (placed before the sentence); ! Exclamation; ; a smile. Accent may be shown by writing a small cross close to the vowel of the accented syllable.

Emphasis is marked as in longhand, by drawing one, two, or more, lines underneath; a single line under a single word must be made wave-like, thus ~, to distinguish it from —.

In preparing manuscript for the press, a single line thus drawn underneath (wavy for a single word, and straight for more than one), signifies italic; two lines (which need not be wavy) SMALL CAPITALS, and three lines LARGE CAPITALS. An initial capital is marked by two short lines under the word; thus, — The Times newspaper, — Abel. Figures are written as usual, or the words may be expressed in phonography. One and two, being grammalogues, are represented by their respective logo-

grams. When the figures one and six are written by them-selves, they should be formed thus, 1, 6, that they may not be mistaken for shorthand characters. (I. P.)