PENNISTON

PENNISTON, a market-town of England, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, stands on the right bank of the Don, 17 miles S.S.W. of Wakefield, and 175 N.N.W. of London. It is well and regularly built; and contains a parish church, places of worship belonging to Independents, Methodists, and Quakers, a grammar school, and a free school for girls. There are here quarries of paving-stones, coal-pits, and woollen and cotton manufactories. A weekly market and five annual fairs are held at Penniston. Pop. of parish, 6302.

PENNSYLVANIA is central in its position with respect to the original Thirteen States and their territories; New England at the N.E., and the southern states at the S., being equally distant. Later accretions of territory have thrown it eastward and northward of the geographical centre, though it still remains nearly central to the business and

population generally. The limits of the state form a nearly perfect rectangular figure, lying between a line at 39. 43. N. Lat. at the S., and one at 42. 15. at the N. The eastern boundary is irregular, following the course of the Delaware River, and at the extreme points reaching to 74. 42. W. Long. The western boundary is a right line at 80. 46. W. Long. The adjacent states are,—New York on the N., New Jersey on the E., Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia on the S., with a part of Virginia and Ohio on the W. At the north-western corner some territory is added, giving a shore-line of 45 miles on Lake Erie; and at the S.E. the state of Delaware extends northward, along a crescent line of 25 miles, into the rectangle. The extreme length of the state is 310 miles, and its width 160 miles, to which last 15 miles are added at the point of contact with Lake Erie. The whole area is 44,400 square miles, or 28,416,000 acres.

The south-eastern part of the state is very little elevated above the sea; but proceeding northward and westward, it soon becomes rough, and finally mountainous, the central part of the state being particularly so. The elevated mass which this mountainous interior presents is cut through by several branches of the Susquehanna and Delaware rivers; yet the most accessible pass for the railroad to Erie is at 1900 feet above the sea, and that of the central railroad to Pittsburg is at 2360 feet. A tunnel here reduces the actual track of the railroad to 2161 feet. Westward of this mountainous centre the surface declines toward the Ohio River and Lake Erie, remaining generally at about 1150 feet elevation, though deeply cut by the Ohio and its tributaries. The bed of the Ohio is at 650 feet above the sea at the point where it leaves the state, and the plain bordering Lake Erie is at nearly the same altitude. Notwithstanding the number of mountain ridges, and the general altitude of the interior and western portions, the surface aspect is usually smooth and well wooded, without the proportion of rocky and precipitous declivities usually found in such uplifted tracks.

The mountains of the state are a section of the great Appalachian chain, and consist of a large number of parallel ridges, which come into the state at the S., on a line from S.W. to N.E., but curve more eastward toward the N., forming crescent lines, and passing into New Jersey and southern New York. This mountainous belt is nearly 200 miles in width, and the ridges on the eastern side are generally more narrow and precipitous than those on the W. These last are the Alleghanies proper, and they are more massive, often with broad summits, and with large areas of arable surface. The ridges at the E. have a share of igneous and altered rocks, but those of the interior and the W. are all made up of rocks of the coal measures, or of rocks just below them. None of the mountains are granitic or volcanic, except some small portion of the South Mountain, the first ridge met from the east. This ridge is about 1000 feet above the sea; and the next inland, called the Blue Mountain or Blue Ridge, is about 1500 feet high,—the first named being interrupted in the interior, and the last named passing entirely through the state from New Jersey into Maryland at the south. West of this, in the coal region, is Broad Mountain; and a constant succession of less distinguished or less continuous ridges occupies the space westward, until, at the most elevated portion, the Bald Eagle, Alleghany, Chesnut, and Laurel ridges of mountains are met. These last named are often near 3000 feet above the sea, and their average is about 2500 feet. There are no single peaks of any note in the state, and the remarkable continuity of the ridges is everywhere characteristic.

The valleys are the complement of the peculiar ridge formation belonging to this chain of mountains, though not so decisively marked as those of Virginia in this respect. The whole arable portion of the interior of the state lies in

Pennsylvania. the succession of valleys corresponding with the ridges, and in the river valleys cutting through these ridges. The Susquehanna and Delaware cut through the entire belt of ridges; but their tributaries usually drain the valleys in a line at right angles to the two greater rivers. The Cumberland or Appalachian Valley is the principal one in the state, extending entirely through it eastward and southward of the Blue Ridge. The Wyoming Valley is the most important on the north branch of the Susquehanna; and on the west branch the Juniata and Sinnemahoning valleys are examples. West of the mountains the beds of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers constitute deep and continuous valleys, into which tributaries from the lateral valleys of the Alleghany ridges fall; the most important of which are in Fayette, Somerset, and Indiana counties.

Delaware River forms the eastern boundary of the state, and it is much like the Hudson in its breadth and depth of water for a considerable distance inland. Tide water extends 132 miles from the sea to Trenton, New Jersey; and the river is remarkable for its depth at and below Philadelphia, admitting ships of the largest class. For much of the wharf-line of that city it measures 45 feet in depth. The Delaware rises in New York among the Shawangunk Mountains, and it is navigable for boats for the whole distance after touching Pennsylvania, though partial interruption exists at the Delaware Water Gap, where it breaks through the Blue Ridge, and again where it passes over a ledge of primary rocks at Trenton, New Jersey. Its length is 300 miles. The Susquehanna drains the central portion of the state southward into Chesapeake Bay. This is a rapid river with a rocky bed, and navigable only for floats and lumber within the state, which are sent down it in great quantities at the spring floods. The main stream is 150 miles long below Northumberland. The north branch rises in New York, and has a tortuous course of 250 miles to the point of junction. The west branch rises beyond the Alleghany Mountains, and cuts through them in a very irregular course of 200 miles to Northumberland, the point of junction. The Ohio River drains all the western part of the state, except a small slope to Lake Erie; yet 50 miles only of the river so named lie within it. The Alleghany is its chief branch, rising in the northern county of Potter, and making a curve within the limits of New York, to return southward 150 miles to Pittsburg. It is navigable for steamboats throughout this distance for a part of the year. The Monongahela is the other great branch, rising in Virginia, and running northward, and navigable for steamboats 60 miles. Below their junction the Ohio is usually navigable for large boats, though sometimes failing in summer. The Lehigh and Schuylkill are branches of the Delaware from the west, and of note in the business and history of the state. Both have canals and lockage navigation, and send vast quantities of coal and iron to market. The Lehigh is 90 miles in length, and the Schuylkill 120 miles, passing through Philadelphia just below its entrance into the Delaware. The Juniata is a large branch of the Susquehanna from the west, running through a rich coal and iron region for 150 miles.

Lake Erie is the only lake bordering on or within the state. At this point, which is one-third its length from Buffalo, the lake is clear from ice early, and here is the very superior harbour of Presque Isle, or Erie.

The geological features of the state may be described as being made up of an area of primary rocks of the stratified class, with small veins of granite and intrusions of trap at intervals, covering the south-eastern counties below a line from Easton to Harrisburg and Gettysburg. All these lie at an angle of 30° to 60°, dipping S.E. Next is a belt of gneiss, mica-slate, and the older sandstones, in the like positions. Other altered rocks, with their unaltered associates, in various positions of folding and even of overturned

plication and contortion, succeed, in proceeding inland; and following in the ascending series, are the white sandstone, the iron-bearing shales, the valley limestone, and then the slates, limestones, sandstones, and shales of the New York formations. Above these are the conglomerates, and upon these last the coal measures, which, like all below them, present the most extraordinary phenomena of folding, overlapping, and every form of wave-like disturbance. To this disturbance and its attendant alterations the production of the anthracite coal is due. Many faults and dislocations of shale exist here, and the entire body of the coal is deprived of its bitumen. Toward the interior a portion of the coal becomes semi-bituminous, and beyond the Alleghanies it is wholly bituminous. The coal measures cover the whole western portion of the state, sinking all the older geological formations far beneath the surface, the deepest point of the basin being near Pittsburg. The vast bituminous coal basin is little disturbed by geological uplifts, dipping inward and southward; the strata cropping out, however, at the northern line of the state. Toward Lake Erie the descent is rapid over the outcropping strata of the New York shales, the only rocks in this part of the state below the coal, 2000 feet of these being cut through in a descent of 1000 feet to the bed of the lake. The distortion and alteration of the eastern part of the great coal formation of Pennsylvania is the most remarkable geological feature of the state.

The minerals of the state are indicated by its geological character. Coal is first, and iron next, as its natural associate. There are no mines of the precious metals; but copper, zinc, and lead are found in small quantities in the east. Plumbago is also mined. Iron is more extensively made than in any other part of the Union, because of the proximity of rich fossil and hematite ores to the anthracite coal. The entire belt of hilly lands lying next the first high ridges is remarkably rich in all forms of the sedimentary oxides of iron, both the open surface and the lower strata of the primal shales yielding great quantities of these ores; and they are also abundant in the interior and western part of the state. Very valuable iron sandstones are also worked at Danville and in other parts of the interior. The production of iron for three years is here given, the anthracite iron being made in the anthracite coal region, and the charcoal and coke-iron mainly near Pittsburg:—

The production of coal is very great. The mines of the anthracite region are remarkable for the great size of the beds, their peculiar and often vertical position, and for the very great facilities they offer for cheap mining on the hill-sides, the constant succession of folded strata often bringing thick beds of coal to the very tops of the hills. A picturesque feature of the anthracite region is the machinery for running coal down the hills to the level of rivers and railroads. In the bituminous coal region equal facility of access to the coal beds exists, and much of it is mined from horizontal strata, easily exposed, and opening directly into the river valleys. The quantity of coal mined for recent years is as follows:—

In 1857, 34,000,000 bushels of bituminous coal were shipped to markets on the Ohio River below Pittsburg, or 1,360,000 tons. Valuable beds of cannel coal are worked near Pittsburg for the manufacture of oil, as well as for fuel. Large quantities of marble are produced in various parts of the state; and the recent limestone of the coal

measures, with the blue limestone of the Appalachian valleys, are generally abundant, and largely used as fertilizers after burning. The marble used so much at Philadelphia is from the limestone basin of Montgomery county.

Salt springs are worked on the Monongahela and Beaver rivers. In 1850, 919,100 bushels of salt were made there. Nitrate of potash (salt-petre) has been found in large deposits. Mineral and medicinal springs exist in many parts, generally chalybeate, or but slightly sulphurous, of which the Bedford springs are the most celebrated as a resort. Valuable white sulphur springs exist in a few localities.

The climate of Pennsylvania is marked by the extremes of heat and humidity peculiar to all parts of the United States in that latitude. The yearly mean temperature is 45° on the northern border, and 52° on the southern; the isothermal line of 50° traversing the state somewhat south of its centre. The summer mean is 70° for the central portion, varying from 66° at the highest part of the northern border to 73° at the south. In winter the western part is relatively coldest, the mean for the three months being 30° at Pittsburg, and 33° at Philadelphia. At Philadelphia the most extreme cold observed is 10° below zero, and the greatest heat in the shade 100°. The average of minimum observations for January is 8°, and of maximum temperature in July 93½°. At Pittsburg the coldest point observed is 18° below zero, and the greatest heat 100°. The elevated portions of the interior are colder than the cities named by about 1° for 400 feet of altitude. The quantity of rain falling has an average for the year of 42 to 45 inches for the eastern part of the state, and of 36 inches for the part west of the mountains. In the three months of summer 12 inches fall east of the mountains, and 10 inches west of them. In winter the eastern part has 10 inches, and the western 7, more than half of which falls as snow. In the central and northern parts the snow remains on the ground throughout the winter; but at Philadelphia it rarely lies long. In extreme winters the Delaware is covered with ice. Navigation was closed for weeks in 1856 and 1857; but such instances occur only at remote intervals. The Ohio River is more frequently frozen, and navigation is usually suspended on it for the three winter months. Periods of severe drought are incident to the climate; and periods of excessive humidity also occur, the quantity of rain falling in one summer month sometimes reaching to 12 inches. The winds are generally from the west; but south-east and north-east winds produce great storms, particularly in the eastern part of the state. The climate is, on the whole, a favourable one to energy and health, being less severe than that of the northern states, and free from the unhealthy heats of the states at the south and along the Gulf of Mexico.

The soil is very uniformly fertile, except on the declivities of the mountain ridges. No considerable portion is sandy to excess, as is the case with soils nearer the Atlantic; and most of the arable surface overlies limestone, or is within easy reach of it. Lime is largely used as a fertilizer; and with it clover and wheat have been established and maintained as staple crops. The red clay of the Atlantic border occurs in small quantities in the south-eastern counties; but the soil is generally better, and made up of more diversified elements, than that of the states southward. In the north there are elevated tracts of a somewhat tenacious soil of clay and loam, best fitted for grazing purposes; a belt made up of the northern line of counties being generally of this character. The richest lands are on the many river alluvions, and on the bituminous coal measures in the western part of the state; the last being remarkably productive both in grain and forage crops, and consisting of a deep loam, into the composition of which lime largely enters, by abrasion of rocks at or near the surface. Guano is

largely used as a fertilizer near Philadelphia, but not in the western part of the state. Narrow belts of barren magnesian soil exist on the serpentine rocks of the south-eastern counties.

The agriculture of the state is mainly devoted to grain-growing and grazing. Corn and tobacco are largely cultivated,—the second, however, is not cultivated as a leading field crop; while cotton is unknown, and hemp very little cultivated. By the census of 1850 there were 127,577 farms, embracing 8,628,619 acres of land, which quantities would be in 1858 probably 140,000 farms and 9,000,000 acres under cultivation, in consequence of the opening up of new lands. In 1850 the crop of wheat was 15,367,691 bushels; of rye, 4,805,160; of Indian corn, 19,835,214; of oats, 21,538,156; of peas and beans, 55,231; of Irish potatoes, 5,980,732; of buckwheat, 2,192,693; of barley, 165,584; of clover and grass seeds, 178,983; of flax-seed, 41,728 bushels, &c. The grazing products were 39,878,418 lb. of butter; 2,505,034 lb. of cheese; 4,481,570 lb. of wool; 1,872,970 tons of hay. Value of live stock, L.8,645,844; and of slaughtered animals, L.1,712,468. The production of tobacco was 912,651 lb.; of maple-sugar, 2,326,425 lb. The value of orchard fruits was given as L.150,706, and of market products L.143,842. For the year 1858 the increase upon these last sums is very great, raising the last named at least to twice the sum here given.

The manufactures of the state are extensive, particularly in iron and the textile fabrics of wool and cotton. The most recent official statistics are those of the census of 1850, and these are probably nearly correct for the interior of the state, though known to have been imperfectly taken in the great cities, and to be very much below the actual extent of all the manufactures of the state at that time. This census gives the following division of items:—

The total for the state of all classes embraced under the head of manufactures, mining, and the mechanic arts, is 21,605 establishments, L.19,682,000 of capital, 127,768 persons employed, and an annual product of L.32,301,000. By researches carefully made at Philadelphia at the close of 1857, it was ascertained that the manufacture of iron in all its forms for that city and its vicinity reached an aggregate value of L.3,000,000 for the year ending July 1, 1857; employing 12,000 workmen. The same investigation showed a production of L.5,000,000 in cotton, woollen, and silk textile fabrics for the same district, employing 20,000 male and female work-people. At Pittsburg alone there was produced in 1857 glass to the value of L.548,330. The leading manufactures other than these are paper, drugs and chemicals, gold-leaf and watches, silver ware and plate, boots and shoes, clothing and hats, plain and morocco leather, glass-ware, brass and braziers and bolt copper, cabinet and house furnishing wares, soap and candles, carriages, and a large number of classes of useful and fancy goods. These manufactured goods are mainly sold at the south and west, including the West Indies, though many are sent to the northern states and Canada.

The commerce of the state is large and increasing, though several causes have recently concurred to cause foreign importations to come through the port of New York. It is estimated that about L.2,500,000 worth of package dry goods are so imported at New York and Boston for merchants in Philadelphia, and for distribution to the interior from this point. The tonnage for the port

Pennsylvania. of Philadelphia for the year ending June 30, 1857, was,—tons registered, 59,404; tons enrolled and licensed, 151,976; total, 211,380 tons. The tonnage of the river-port of Pittsburg was 51,061 tons; and of the lake-port of Erie, 10,378 tons. The coasting and coal trades employ much of the tonnage now entered at Philadelphia. A line of Liverpool packets of the first class exists; and an ocean steam line to Liverpool was in operation from 1852 to 1856. The total value of imports at Philadelphia, where all the foreign commerce of the state is carried on, for the year ending July 1, 1857, was,—of free goods, L.428,000; of goods paying duty, L.3,290,850; total, L.3,718,850. The principal articles were,—

The total value of exports to foreign countries for the year ending July 1, 1857, was, for goods the produce of the United States, L.1,451,050; and for goods of foreign origin, L.35,400. The chief articles of export were—

The principal trade of the state is not represented in its imports or exports, being with other states of the Union west and south. Dry goods (foreign and domestic), manufactures of iron and other metals, glass, manufactures of leather, chemicals and drugs, and the full supply of all goods, indeed, is taken to the south-western states, mainly from Philadelphia and Pittsburg. Large quantities are also sent northward and coastwise to all parts of the United States. Great quantities of lumber, coal, glass, and iron are carried down the Ohio River from Pittsburg. The lumber trade of the Alleghany River alone for 1857 reached the amount of L.300,166 for lumber sold at Pittsburg, and L.373,080 for that sent by way of the Ohio River to other states. The amount of lumber sent down the Susquehanna River for 1856 and 1857 was about 70,000,000 superficial feet, and its value L.163,000 for each year.

Railroads were constructed as early as 1828 in the coal-mining districts; and they have maintained their prominence among transportation agencies, this state now having a greater aggregate number of miles than any other. At the close of 1857 there were 59 railroads in the state not less than 10 miles in length, and making up an aggregate length of 2500 miles. Their total cost was L.27,000,000. The principal were,—Pennsylvania Central, Philadelphia to Pittsburg, 329 miles; Philadelphia and Reading, 98; Delaware, Sackawanna, and Western, 113; North Pennsylvania, Philadelphia to Bethlehem, 67½; Williamsport and Elmina, 78; Sunbury and Erie, 270 miles—now finished, 40; Lehigh Valley, 46; Catawissa, Williamsport, and Erie, 63½; Alleghany Valley, 176 miles—finished, 44; Northern Central, 138 miles—within the state, 96; Lebanon Valley, 53½. Of the great southern road to Baltimore 19 miles are within the state. The Philadelphia and Newton road, 28 miles, is a part of the great northern line. From Pittsburg there are several great roads leading westward, each about 40 miles in length within the state, as the Pittsburg, Fort

Wayne, and Chicago; Pittsburg and Steubenville; and Pittsburg and Connellsville. Within the year ending with June 1858 the sale and transfer of all the state property in lines of internal transportation by canal and railroad has been effected. The Pennsylvania Central Railroad Company purchased the main line of public works, consisting, 1st, of two canals, one 181 miles in length, from Columbia to Hollidaysburg, and the other, 101 miles in length, from Johnstown to Pittsburg; 2d, of a double-track railroad, 81 miles in length, from Philadelphia to Harrisburg, and 37 miles of railway between Johnstown and Hollidaysburg. For these roads and canals the Central Railroad Company pays L.1,500,000, which sum is added to the cost of that road as given above. The second sale by the state was to the Sunbury and Erie Railroad Company, conveying to them the canals of the north and west branches of the Susquehanna River, four in number, and forming a connected line from the Juniata River to the New York State line along the north branch, and to Farrandsville on the west branch,—a total distance of 167 miles; and also the Delaware division of the state canals, from Bristol to Easton, 60 miles. These canals were sold for L.700,000, both sales by act of the legislature. The remaining canals within the state are the property of private companies. The total length of canals in the state is 1293 miles, of which 921 miles are east of the mountains, and 372 miles west of the mountains. The canals belonging to private companies are as follows:—Schuylkill Navigation, Philadelphia to Port Carbon, 108 miles; Lehigh Navigation, Easton to Stoddartsville, 84; Union Canal, Reading to Middletown and Pinegrove, 99; Susquehanna and Tidewater, Columbia to Havre de Grace, 45; Delaware and Hudson Canal, Howards to Hudson River, 25 in the state; Erie Canal, Beaver to Erie, 136; Pennsylvania and Ohio,—portion within the state, 10; Monongahela Navigation, along Monongahela River, 84; Bald Eagle Navigation, at Bellefonte, 25; and Conestoga and Youghiogheny Navigation, 36. The business of these railroads and canals in the coal region is immense. For 1856 the Schuylkill Canal transported 1,275,988 tons of coal, and the Reading Railroad 1,709,692 tons. The Lehigh Canal transported, in 1856, 1,186,230 tons of coal.

The government of Pennsylvania has the simple republican form common to all the States. The legislature consists of a House of Representatives of 100 members, elected annually, and a Senate of 33 members, elected for a term of three years. Both classes are now elected by districts having sometimes two or three representatives each, but after 1864 the constitution requires their election by single districts. The powers of the legislature are liberally construed; it may enact any laws not prohibited by the constitution. In 1776 the colony made many changes in its charter, giving it much of the form of a state constitution; but the first complete state constitution was prepared and adopted by a general convention called for that purpose in 1790. In 1838 the constitution was amended by general convention, and the amendments were adopted by popular vote. In 1850 it was again amended to make the judiciary elective; and in 1857 it was still further amended by restricting the power of the legislature to contract debts beyond the sum of L.150,000, to confer power to repeal corporate enactments, and to require elections to the legislature by single districts. The governor is elected for three years, and has the usual powers and restrictions. He has now no power to appoint judges or magistrates of any grade, except to fill vacancies until the time of the stated election. The judiciary consists of five judges of the Supreme Court, elected for fifteen years; of one president and two associate judges for each Court of Common Pleas, elected for terms of five years each; and of local and municipal magistrates. The Supreme Court and Court of Common Pleas possess many

of the powers of courts of Chancery, and the judges of Common Pleas also hold quarter sessions of the peace, and an orphans' and probate court.

The revenues of the state are derived from various forms of taxation. The townships levy taxes for the support of schools, and for the construction of roads. The counties levy, collect, and disburse the taxes necessary to support the administration of justice in matters confined to themselves. The state levies a direct tax of three mills on a dollar upon all property at the value fixed by assessments; but a still larger sum of its revenues is obtained from special taxes. The following sums were raised in 1857:—

The expenditures of the state in 1857 were L.1,126,516. The public debt at the close of 1857 was L.8,308,695; from which sum the sale of the public works in effect takes L.2,200,000, leaving the actual debt L.6,108,695. By the triennial assessments the valuation of all property in the state, real and personal, was as follows:—

The religion of the population is chiefly Protestant, though many Catholic churches exist. With the exception of a preponderance of Friends, or Quakers, in Philadelphia and the eastern part of the state, there is nothing to distinguish the religious character of the population as a whole. The principal sects are Methodists, Presbyterians, Lutherans, and Baptists.

The educational system of the state was re-organized and greatly invigorated by the legislature in 1838, which gave the counties power to establish free schools; and again in 1854, when all were required to support free schools. An energetic and well-directed system of teaching and supervision for these free schools is now fully established, with an efficient county and state superintendence. A sum of L.40,000 annually is distributed by the state for the support of these schools, and a larger sum is raised by local tax. The tax levied for school purposes in the year ending June 1, 1857, was L.323,037; and for buildings, L.68,680. Of this there was—

The number of children taught for the same year was 541,247, and the number of teachers 12,475. In all this statement the county of Philadelphia is not included. A system of academies was established previous to the adoption of the free school system, one in each county receiving an appropriation of money from the state; but the appropriations are not continued, and that class of institutions is not well sustained. There are ten flourishing colleges, seven theological schools, four medical colleges, and one law school in the state—all incorporated, and generally flourishing, though sustained by their own revenues and endowments alone. The university of Pennsylvania at Philadelphia has 12 professors, 129 students, and 1269 alumni. Jefferson college has 10 professors, 222 students, and 1492 alumni. The ten colleges have together 10 colleges, 73 professors, 886 students, 5191 alumni;

7 theological schools, 19 professors, 184 students; 4 medical colleges, 31 professors, 1182 students.

The district bordering on the Delaware River and Bay, which subsequently became the province of Pennsylvania, and its appendage of the three Lower Counties, received its first colony from Sweden. An extensive scheme of colonization for the New World was set on foot in Sweden and Finland nearly at the date of the earliest colonization of New England; and in 1627 a body of Swedes and Finns settled on the Delaware, going as far northwards as the locality of Philadelphia. They made little progress, though a deserving people, and not particularly unfortunate, until visited in a hostile manner by the Dutch from New York in 1655; and submitting without a contest, they passed, with all other possessions of the Dutch, under British rule in 1664. In 1681 the whole district west of the Delaware was granted to William Penn; and in 1682 Penn founded Philadelphia, and planted his colony near it. Under this charter from Charles II. the three Lower Counties were retained under the same governor and proprietor until 1699, when the Lower Counties were granted a separate legislature, though retained under the same governor until the revolution in 1776. The colony planted by Penn was remarkably fortunate in its relations with the Indians. His justice and firmness, with the high character of the body of the colonists, who were all Friends, or Quakers, preserved a peace with them unbroken during the whole colonial period previous to the French war of 1755. Subsequently the original colonists, or Friends, were regarded with uniform kindness by the Indians; though Braddock's defeat and the Wyoming massacre attested the identity of the savage tribes of this colony with others of their race. In the contest of the colonies with the mother country, Pennsylvania bore an active but not an embittered part. The most prosperous of the colonies, and in a central position, it became the seat of the congresses held by the colonies both before and after the decision of the struggle. Franklin, Rush, and Robert Morris represent the moderate yet firm views of Pennsylvania at that time. Independence was proclaimed here; and the seat of the general government of the United States remained here until 1800. A large emigration from Germany settled in the counties near Philadelphia before and subsequent to the revolution, and these have retained their language and national characteristics much longer than like colonies of Germans elsewhere. The defeat of Braddock, and the revolutionary battles of Brandywine and Germantown, with the memorable hardships of Washington's winter encampment at Valley Forge, are prominent historical incidents.

The population is derived from several sources. Traces of the original Swedish colony remain, but the Friends constituted nine-tenths of the population for more than half a century. The large German and Irish emigrations peopled the middle and western parts next, and at the revolution began that indiscriminate interchange of populations which now characterizes all the States. The following statistics are from the enumerations at the several dates of the national census:—Population of Pennsylvania in 1790, 434,373; 1800, 602,545; 1810, 810,091; 1820, 1,049,313; 1830, 1,347,672; 1840, 1,724,033; 1850, 2,311,786.

The classification of the population in 1850 was, 1,142,734 white males, 1,115,426 white females; 25,369 coloured males, and 28,257 coloured females. Thirteen per cent. were of foreign birth: 151,723 in Ireland; 44,260 in England, Scotland, and Wales; 78,592 in Germany; and 4083 in France. Of paupers there were 11,551; 1145 deaf and dumb, 1914 insane, and 1467 idiotic. There were 408,497 families, inhabiting 386,216 dwellings. In 1857 there were returned 603,407 taxable, which number would, at the ratio of former years, place the total population of the state in 1857 at about 3,400,000. (L. B.)