LITURGY is derived from a Greek word denoting the public service which citizens were bound to render to the state on certain prescribed occasions, but which is used in the Septuagint to express the public service of God. Liturgies may be of three kinds. Either they may form an imposed ritual, responsive in its character, and prescribed absolutely to minister and people for their invariable use, as is the practice in the Anglican and Lutheran amongst the Reformed churches; or they may take the form of a discretionary ritual, not responsive, and therefore supplied, as in France and Switzerland, to the minister alone, for his guidance in the matter and manner of worship, leaving variation as to the manner according to his judgment. This was the practice in the Church of Scotland during nearly a century of its existence, and it is retained in the Reformed churches of the Continent. The third method is that of rubrical provision, consisting of directions without examples, and omitting any precise forms of prayer. Of this character is the Directory for Public Worship, composed by the Westminster Assembly, which now forms the rule of worship in Presbyterian churches of Scotland and America. A fourth method of public worship—if there be such where no method exists—is that of entire freedom, such as has been claimed by some denominations since the days of the older Independents, who denounced all forms, as hampering the liberty of the individual. The expediency of any of these methods has been the subject of much and angry discussion at all the most decisive epochs of ecclesiastical history, and in this article we propose to limit ourselves to a short historical view of the various liturgies in the different sections of the Christian Church.
Amongst the Israelites, certain forms of prayer and praise seem to have been used from the earliest times. So far as we know directly from the Old Testament, the earliest prescribed forms were those according to which the priests were commissioned to bless the people, and the forms of prayer in presenting the first fruits and tithes. The Psalms of David also constituted a public liturgy; and some have argued from the metrical forms of various public prayers inserted in the record of Jewish history, that these also belonged to a prescribed service. The modern prayers of the Jews, however, many of which are attributed to the pen of Ezra, are certainly of far more recent date. They are only nineteen in number, and most, if not all, are later than the establishment of Christianity. That men were "taught to pray" in the days of our Saviour, seems evident from the
Liturgy. circumstances which gave rise to the promulgation of the Lord's Prayer, and, whatever may have been the design of that formula, it is certain that it soon came to be used as a prescribed form in the Christian Church. (See Wheatley's Illustration of the Book of Common Prayer, and also compare Hind's Rise and Progress of Christianity.) From the incident in Acts iv. 24, it may be gathered that large masses of converts were able to join vocally in public supplication. In the earliest times of the Church, frequent reference is made to certain constituted prayers in general use (see Comber's Scholastic History of Liturgies), but in general these extended no further than to individual churches, and were arranged for local use by the ruling presbyter or bishop. Gradually, however, these spread from the metropolitan churches to the rural districts, and ultimately they became divided into great classes of national liturgies. Mr Palmer, in his Origines Liturgicæ (Oxford 1832), considers that all the liturgies of the primitive churches may be reduced to four: 1st, The great Oriental liturgy, which prevailed from the Euphrates to the Hellespont, and from the Hellespont to the southern extremity of Greece; 2d, The Alexandrian, which from remote antiquity has been the liturgy of Egypt, Abyssinia, and the country extending from the Mediterranean Sea towards the W. 3d, The Roman, which prevailed throughout the whole of Italy, Sicily, and the civil diocese of Africa; and 4th, The Gallican, which was used throughout Gaul and Spain, and probably in the exarchate of Ephesus until the fourth century. These, in the course of ages, were endlessly varied and diversified. From the whole history of these, it seems evident that there never was one catholic liturgy; that none of the liturgies now existing can be traced back to the apostles; but that formal prayers of some sort were used from the very beginning of the Christian Church. The Greek Church, at least so far as it is under the dominion of the Patriarch of Constantinople, possesses three liturgies, which are used at different seasons of the ecclesiastical year. That of Basil of Caesarea is the longest, and holds pre-eminence in solemnity, as it is said also to do in point of antiquity. It is reserved for the most solemn festivals of the church,—Christmas, Lent, and Good Friday,—as well as for a few other occasions. The second bears very undeservedly the name of Chrysostom, being considerably later than his days. It is read on all the other days of the year except during a few days in Lent, when the Liturgy of the Presanctified, a composition of the seventh or eighth century, takes its place.
Amongst the Eastern sects a characteristic variety of liturgies prevails. The ancient Coptic Christians had as many as twelve different forms, and these still linger among the Ethiopians. They were,—1. The Liturgy of St John the Evangelist; 2. Of the Fathers of the Council of Nice; 3. Of Epiphanius; 4. Of St James of Sarug; 5. Of St John Chrysostom; 6. Of Jesus Christ; 7. Of the Apostles; 8. Of St Cyricus; 9. Of St Gregory; 10. Of the Patriarch Dioscorus; 11. Of St Basil; and, 12. Of St Cyril. Amongst the Copts, however, all the minor liturgies fell into abeyance, being discountenanced by the patriarchs; and the usage of the church came to be limited to the liturgies of Basil, Gregory, and Cyril. Amongst the Syrian Catholics, the Liturgy of St James is preferred, but numerous others are also found in use.
The Breviary contains the daily service in the Church of Rome. Originally it contained only the Lord's Prayer, with extracts from the Psalms, to which, very soon after, were added lessons from the Scriptures. The obligation to read it daily rests upon the beneficiary clergy alone; but on them it is imposed under pain of mortal sin. Although read only in Latin in the churches immediately depending on the Holy See, fragments of it have found their way into the vernacular of eastern tribes who at one time were in
close connection with Rome. Besides the Breviary, there is also the Missal, or volume regulating the celebration of mass. A tradition of the Romish Church ascribes its composition to the apostle Peter, but it does not appear to have been reduced to writing till the middle of the fifth century, and it owes much of its present matter, as well as nearly all its present form, to the genius of Pope Gregory the Great. The Ceremoniale may be designated a liturgy for the pope, embracing all that pertains to the various functions of his office, just as the Pontificale describes the various functions of the Romish bishops, and the Rituale, or Pastorale as it is sometimes called, contains directions for all the pastoral duties of the inferior clergy. The ancient Gallican Missal dates from beyond the days of Pepin, and is more closely allied to the liturgies of the East than to that of the Latin Church. The old Spanish or Mozarabic Liturgy consisted of the liturgy of Rome, mingled with the oriental liturgies of the Arian Goths, who overran the kingdom. Its use was suspended by the Council of Braga; and it was only saved from oblivion by Cardinal Ximenes, who reprinted it in 1500, and endowed a chapel and canons to use it daily in Toledo. The Ambrosian Liturgy is one of great antiquity, having been only edited and supplemented by the bishop whose name it bears.
The liturgies of the Reformed Churches are all compiled in the vernacular, the use of the Latin tongue having been abolished in worship as soon as it came to be recognised that adoration demanded intelligence. Luther, in 1523, drew up a liturgy for the use of the German Church; but as he had no desire to impose this as a form on all who held the same doctrinal views with himself, all the Lutheran countries have Lutheran liturgies of their own; but these agree in almost every essential particular. In Prussia, the form generally adopted is that drawn up in 1822, for the use of the cathedral church in Berlin. Calvin also drew up a liturgy, for the use of the Reformed Church of Geneva and elsewhere. The Genevan formula was published in 1543, six years before the first book of Edward VI., and while it retained many parts of Christian service which Calvinists now dispense with, it was the first to originate the idea of making the singing of psalms take the place of the vocal response on the part of the people. In its nature it was intended to be compulsory, but a provision was made for extemporaneous prayer and for special prayers on particular occasions. Calvin's Daily Offices were also composed as directions for family prayer; and these are used as a form of morning and evening prayer in several branches of the Reformed Church. In France, the Genevan liturgy long retained its hold supreme in the affections of the people. It was used in the earliest meetings of the Reformed congregations after their organization in 1555; and the last synod or national assembly of the French churches in 1569 issued instructions for preserving its purity. Various modifications have been made on it since the restoration of the Protestant worship, and new prayers have been introduced from other sources, in effect destroying its venerable character. In Scotland, although the liturgy had a short existence in the national church, yet during its continuance in use, it seemed in no way to offend the feelings of the people. John Knox died repeating the words of Calvin's Daily Offices. In 1562 was introduced the Book of Common Order, commonly termed Knox's Liturgy; and two years later its use was enjoined upon the Church by the General Assembly. It was drawn up after the model of the Genevan formulary, and was mainly intended for the readers and exhorters; although even they were invited to avail themselves of the latitude recommended to all the clergy. It is difficult to fix the precise period when the liturgy ceased to be used, but it perished when Knox's overshadowing greatness ceased to influence the practice of the Church. At present the
Liverpool. worship of the Presbyterian churches in Scotland is guided by the Directory for Public Worship, issued by the Westminster Assembly, which contains directions, but no forms of prayer; but it is scarcely too much to say that in general throughout Scotland, the provisions of the Directory are almost entirely forgotten.
In England the Book of Common Prayer forms the liturgy of the Established Church. It is founded on the King's Primer, published by Henry VIII. in 1546; which, however, contained little more than the Creed, Lord's Prayer, Commandments, and Litany. This, during the reign of Edward VI., underwent two separate revisions, and the Second Prayer Book of Edward VI. approaches very nearly to the liturgy of the present day. After having been discontinued during the reign of Mary, it was again revived with the reign of Elizabeth, and received further improvements, especially in the selection of the lessons. Some alterations were introduced during the reign of James I., and consisted chiefly in the appointment of a
collect in the daily morning and evening service; the insertion of a prayer for the Royal Family in the Litany; and addition of questions and answers in regard to the Sacraments in the Catechism. In 1662 it was revised by both Houses of Convocation, and was sanctioned by act of parliament in its present form. The liturgy of the Scottish Episcopal Church has been, since 1712, the same with the Book of Common Prayer; with as little variation as circumstances will admit, except in regard to the Communion Office.
Of Dissenting liturgies, it is perhaps only necessary to mention Dr Samuel Clarke's Reformed Liturgy; the Sunday Service of the Wesleyan Methodists, prepared originally by John Wesley; and, on the Continent, the Liturgy of the Unitas Fratrum or Moravian Brethren.
See Knecht's Bibliotheca Liturgica; Bingham's Ecclesiastical Antiquities; Adams' Religious World Displayed; Palmer's Origines Liturgice; and Baird's Chapter on Liturgies.