in its native signification, is appropriated to objects of sight. Objects of the other senses may be agreeable, such as the sounds of musical instruments, the smoothness and softness of some surfaces; but the agreeableness called beauty belongs to objects of sight.
Objects of sight are more complex than those of any other sense: In the simplest, we perceive colour, figure, length, breadth, thickness. A tree is composed of a trunk, branches, and leaves; it has colour, figure, size, and sometimes motion: By means of each of these particulars, separately considered, it appears beauti- ful; but a complex perception of the whole greatly augments the beauty of the object. The human body is a composition of numberless beauties arising from the parts and qualities of the object, various colours, various motions, figures, size, &c., all united in one complex object, and striking the eye with combined force. Hence it is, that beauty, a quality so remarkable in visible objects, lends its name to every thing that is eminently agreeable. Thus, by a figure of speech, we say, a beautiful found, a beautiful thought, a beautiful discovery, &c.
Considering attentively the beauty of visible objects, two kinds are discovered. The first may be termed intrinsic beauty, because it is discovered in a single object, without relation to any other; the other may be termed relative, being founded on the relation of objects. Intrinsic beauty is a perception of sense merely; for to perceive the beauty of a spreading oak, or of a flowing river, no more is required but singly an act of vision. Relative beauty is accompanied with an act of understanding and reflection; for we perceive not the relative beauty of a fine instrument or engine, until we learn its use and destination. In a word, intrinsic beauty is ultimate; and relative beauty is that of means relating to some good end or purpose. These different beauties agree in one capital circumstance, that both are equally perceived as belonging to the object; which will be readily admitted with respect to intrinsic beauty, but is not so obvious with respect to the other. The utility of the plough, for example, may make an object of admiration or of desire; but why should utility make it beautiful? A natural propensity of the human mind will explain this difficulty: By an easy transition of ideas, the beauty of the effect is transferred to the cause, and is perceived as one of the qualities of the cause: Thus a subject void of intrinsic beauty, appears beautiful by its utility; a dwelling-house void of all regularity, is however beautiful in the view of convenience; and the want of symmetry in a tree, will not prevent its appearing beautiful, if it be known to produce good fruit.
When these two beauties concur in any object, it appears delightful. Every member of the human body possesses both in a high degree.
The beauty of utility, being accurately proportioned to the degree of utility, requires no illustration: But intrinsic beauty being more complex, cannot be handled distinctly without being analysed. If a tree be beautiful by means of its colour, figure, motion, size, &c., it is in reality possessed of so many different beauties. The beauty of colour is too familiar to need explanation. The beauty of figure is more; for example, viewing any body as a whole, the beauty of its figure arises from regularity and simplicity; viewing the parts with relation to each other, uniformity, proportion, and order, contribute to its beauty. The beauties of grandeur and motion must be considered separately. See Grandeur, and Motion.
We shall here make a few observations on simplicity, which may be of use in examining the beauty of single objects. A multitude of objects crowding into the mind at once, disturb the attention, and pass without making any lasting impression: In the same manner, even a single object, consisting of a multiplicity of parts, equals not, in strength of impression, a more simple object comprehended in one view. This justifies simplicity in works of art, as opposed to complicated circumstances and crowded ornaments.
It would be endless to enumerate the effects that are produced by the various combinations of the principles of beauty. A few examples will be sufficient to give the reader some idea of this subject. A circle and a square are each perfectly regular; a square, however, is less beautiful than a circle; and the reason is, that the attention is divided among the sides and angles of a square; whereas the circumference of a circle, being a single object, makes one entire impression: And thus simplicity contributes to beauty. For the same reason, a square is more beautiful than a hexagon or octagon. A square is likewise more beautiful than a parallelogram, because it is more regular and uniform. But this holds with respect to intrinsic beauty only; for in many instances, as in the doors and windows of a dwelling-house, utility turns the scales on the side of the parallelogram.
Again, a parallelogram depends, for its beauty, on the proportion of its sides: A great inequality of its sides annihilates its beauty: Approximation toward equality hath the same effect; for proportion there degenerates into imperfect uniformity, and the figure appears an unsuccessful attempt toward a square. And hence proportion contributes to beauty.
An equilateral triangle yields not to a square in regularity nor in uniformity of parts, and it is more simple. But an equilateral triangle is less beautiful than a square; which must be owing to inferiority in order in the position of its parts; the order arising from the equal inclination of the sides of such an angle, is more obscure than the parallelism of the sides of a square. And hence order contributes to beauty not less than simplicity, regularity, or proportion.
Uniformity is singular in one circumstance, that it is apt to disgust by excess. A number of things defined for the same use, as windows, chairs, &c., cannot be too uniform. But a scrupulous uniformity of parts in a large garden or field, is far from being agreeable.
In all the works of nature, simplicity makes a capital figure. It also makes a figure in works of art: Profuse ornament in painting, gardening, or architecture, as well as in dress or in language, shows a mean or corrupted taste. Simplicity in behaviour and manners has an enchanting effect, and never fails to gain our affection. Very different are the artificial manners of modern times. A gradual progress from simplicity to complex forms and profuse ornament, seems to be the fate of all the fine arts; resembling behaviour, which from original candor and simplicity, has degenerated into duplicity of heart and artificial refinements. At present literary productions are crowded with words, epithets, figures: In music, sentiment is neglected for the luxury of harmony, and for difficult movement.
With regard to the final cause of beauty, one thing is evident, that our relish of regularity, uniformity, proportion, portion, order, and simplicity contributes greatly to enhance the beauty of the objects that surround us, and of course tends to our happiness. We may be confirmed in this thought, upon reflecting, that our taste for these particulars is not accidental, but uniform and universal, making a branch of our nature. At the same time, regularity, uniformity, order, and simplicity, contribute, each of them, to readiness of apprehension, and enable us to form more distinct ideas of objects than can be done where these particulars are wanting. In some instances, as in animals, proportion is evidently connected with utility, and is the more agreeable on that account.
Beauty, in many instances, promotes industry, and as it is frequently connected with utility, it proves an additional incitement to enrich our fields and improve our manufactures. These, however, are but slight effects, compared with the connections that are formed among individuals in society by means of beauty. The qualifications of the head and heart are undoubtedly the most solid and most permanent foundations of such connections: But, as external beauty lies more in view, and is more obvious to the bulk of mankind than the qualities now mentioned, the sense of beauty has a more extensive influence in forming these connections. At any rate, it concurs in an eminent degree with mental qualifications, in producing social intercourse, mutual good-will, and consequently mutual aid and support, which are the life of society. It must not however be overlooked, that the sense of beauty does not tend to advance the interests of society, but when in a due mean with respect to strength. Love, in particular, arising from a sense of beauty, loses, when excessive, its social character; the appetite for gratification, prevailing over affection for the beloved object, is ungovernable, and tends violently to its end, regardless of the misery that must follow. Love, in this state, is no longer a sweet agreeable passion; it becomes painful, like hunger or thirst, and produceth no happiness, but in the instant of fruition. This suggests an important lesson, that moderation in our desires and appetites, which fits us for doing our duty, contributes at the same time the most to happiness; even social passions, when moderate, are more pleasant than when they swell beyond proper bounds.
in architecture, painting, and other arts, is the harmony and justness of the whole composition taken together.