in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to the order of pecora. The characters of this genus are taken from the horns and teeth. The horns are hollow within, and turned forward, in the form of crescents: There are eight fore-teeth in the under jaw, and none in the upper, their place being supplied by a hard membrane; and there are no dog-teeth in either jaw. Linnaeus enumerates six species, viz. 1. The taurus, including the bull and cow, has cylindrical horns, bent outwards, and loose dewlaps. The bull or male is naturally a fierce and terrible animal. When the cows are in season, he is perfectly ungovernable, and often altogether furious. When chaffed, he has an air of sullen majesty, and oft tears up the ground with his feet and horns. The principal use of the bull is to propagate the species; although he might be trained to labour, his obedience cannot be depended on. A bull, like a stallion, should be the most handsome of his species. He should be large, well made, and in good heart; he should have a black eye, a fierce aspect, but an open front; a short head; thick, short, and blackish horns, and long shaggy ears; a short and straight nose, large and full breast and shoulders, thick and fleshy neck, firm reins, a straight back, thick fleshy legs, and a long tail well covered with hair. Castration remarkably softens the nature of this animal; it destroys all his fire and impetuosity, and renders him mild and tractable, without diminishing his strength; on the contrary, after this operation, his weight is increased, and he becomes fitter for the purposes of plowing, &c.
The best time for castrating bulls is at the age of puberty, or when they are eighteen months or two years old; when performed sooner, they often die. However, it is not uncommon to castrate calves a few days after birth. But such as survive an operation so dangerous to their tender age, generally grow larger and fatter, and have more courage and activity than those who are castrated at the age of puberty. When the operation is delayed till the age of six, seven, or eight years, they lose but few of the qualities of bulls, are much more furious and untractable than other oxes, and when the cows are in season, they go in quest of them with their usual ardor. See Plate LII., fig. 2.
The females of all those species of animals which we keep in flocks, and whose increase is the principal object, are much more useful than the males. The cow produces milk, butter, cheese, &c., which are principal articles in our food, and besides answer many useful purposes in various arts.
Cows are generally in season, and receive the bull, from the beginning of May to the middle of July. Their time of gestation is nine months, which naturally brings the veal or calves to our markets from the beginning of January to the end of April. However, luxury has fallen upon methods of interrupting this natural course, and veal may be had almost every month in the year.
Cows, when improperly managed, are very subject to abortion. In the time of gestation, therefore, they ought to be observed with more than ordinary care, lest they should leap ditches, &c. Neither should they be suffered to draw in the plough or other carriage, which is a practice in some countries. They should be put into the best pasture, and should not be milked for six weeks or two months before they bring forth their young. The calf should be allowed to suck and follow its mother during the first six or eight days. After this it begins to eat pretty well, and two or three sucks in a day will be sufficient. But if the object be to have it quickly fattened for the market, a few raw eggs every day, with boiled milk, and a little bread, will make it excellent veal in four or five weeks. This management of calves applies only to such as are designed for the butcher. When they are intended to be nourished and brought up, they ought to have at least two months suck; because the longer they suck, they grow the stronger and larger. Those that are brought forth in April, May, or June, are the most proper for this purpose; when calved later in the season, they do not acquire sufficient strength to support them during the winter.
The cow comes to the age of puberty in 18 months, but the bull requires two years: But although they are capable of propagating at these ages, it is better to refrain them till they be full three years. From three to nine years those animals are in full vigour; but when older, they are fit for nothing but to be fed for the butcher. A milk cow ought to be chosen young, fleshy, and with a brisk eye.
The heaviest and most bulky animals neither sleep so profoundly, nor so long as the smaller ones. The sleep of the ox is short and slight; he wakes at the least noise. He lies generally on the left side, and the kidney of that side is always larger than the other. There is great variety in the colour of oxen. A reddish or black colour is most esteemed. The hair should be glossy, thick, and soft; for, when otherwise, the animal is either not in health, or has a weakly constitution. The best time for inuring inuring them to labour is at the age of two and a half or three years.
The ox eats very quick, and soon fills his first stomach; after which he lies down to ruminate, or chew the cud. The first and second stomachs are continuations of the same bag, and very capacious. After the grass has been chewed over again, it is reduced to a kind of maff, not unlike boiled spinach, and under this form it is sent down to the third stomach, where it remains and digests for some time; but the digestion is not fully completed till it comes to the fourth stomach, from which it is thrown down to the guts. The contents of the first and second stomachs are a collection of grass and other vegetables roughly macerated; a fermentation however soon commences, which makes the grass swell. The communication between the second and third stomach is by an opening much smaller than the gullet, and not sufficient for the passage of the food in this state. Whenever then the two first stomachs are distended with food, they begin to contract, or rather perform a kind of reaction. This reaction compresses the food, and makes it endeavour to get out: Now the gullet being larger than the passage between the second and third stomachs, the pressure of the stomach necessarily forces it up the gullet. The action of ruminating, however, appears to be in a great measure voluntary; as animals of this kind have a power of increasing the reaction of their stomachs. After the food undergoes a second maceration, it is then reduced into a thin pulp, which easily passes from the second to the third stomach, where it is still further macerated; from thence it passes to the fourth, where it is reduced to a perfect mucilage, every way prepared for being taken up by the lacteals, and converted into nourishment. What confirms this account of chewing the cud is, that as long as these animals suck or feed upon liquid aliment, they never ruminate; and in the winter, when they are obliged to feed upon hay and other dry victuals, they ruminate more than when they feed upon fresh grass.
Bulls, cows, and oxen, are fond of licking themselves, especially when lying at rest. But this practice should be prevented as much as possible; for as the hair is an indigestible substance, it lies in the stomach or guts, and is gradually coated by a glutinous substance, which in time hardens into round stones of a considerable bulk, which sometimes kills them, but always prevents their fattening, as the stomach is rendered incapable of digesting the food so well as it ought.
The age of these animals may be distinguished by the teeth and horns. The first fore-teeth fall out at the age of six months, and are succeeded by others of a darker colour, and broader. At the end of sixteen months, the next milk-teeth likewise fall out; and at the beginning of the fourth year all the fore-teeth are renewed, and then they are long, pretty white, and equal: However, as the animal advances in years, they become unequal and blackish. At the end of three years, the horns of oxen fall off, and new ones arise, which continue as long as they live. The horns of oxen four years of age are small pointed, neat, and smooth, but thicker near the head: This thick part next season is pushed further from the head by a horny cylinder, which is also terminated by another swelling part, and so on (for as long as the ox lives, the horns continue to grow); and these swellings become so many annular knots by which the age may easily be reckoned: But, from the point to the first knot must be counted three years, and every succeeding knot only one year.
Ox-beef is very nourishing, and yields a strong aliment; the flesh of a cow, when well fatted and young, is not much inferior. Bull-beef is hard, tough, and dry; for which reason it is not much used for food. Veal is well tasted, easy of digestion, and rather keeps the body open as otherwise.
The northern countries of Europe produce the best cattle of this kind. In general, they bear cold better than heat; for this reason, they are not so plenty in the southern countries. There are but few in Asia to the south of Armenia, or in Africa beyond Egypt and Barbary. America produced none till they were carried there by the Europeans. But the largest are to be met with in Denmark, Podolia, the Ukraine, and among the Calmuck Tartars; likewise those of Ireland, England, Holland, and Hungary, are much larger than those of Persia, Turkey, Greece, Italy, and Spain; but those of Barbary are least of all. In all mountainous countries, as Wales, the Highlands of Scotland, the black cattle are exceedingly small, but hardy, and when fattened make excellent beef. In Lapland, they are mostly white, and many of them want horns. The bull, cow, and ox, generally live about 14 or 15 years.
2. The bonafus, has a long main; its horns are bent round towards the cheek, and not above a span in length. It is about the size of a large bull, and is a native of Africa and Asia. When enraged, he throws out his dung upon dogs or other animals that annoy him; the dung has a kind of caustic quality which burns the hair off any animal it falls upon.
3. The bison, has likewise a long thick mane, which covers the whole neck and breast on each side. The horns are turned upwards, and exceedingly large; there is a large protuberance or bunch on the back; his eyes are red and fiery, which gives him a furious aspect. He is fierce, cruel, and so bold that he fears nothing. It is unsafe to hunt him but where the trees are large enough to hide the hunters. He is a native of Mexico and Florida.
4. The grunniens, or hog-cow, has cylindrical horns, bent backwards. The body is so hairy, that the hair hangs down upon its knees like a goat. The tail has a kind of mane on each side. The colour of the body is black; but the front is white. It has bristles on its back, tail, and hind-legs. It is an inhabitant of the North of Asia.
5. The bubalis, or buffalo, has large black horns bent backward and inward, and plain before. The hair on the back is very hard, but thinly scattered over the body. It is a native of Asia. But they are tamed in Italy, and used for the same purposes as black cattle in other countries. They draw carriages, and are guided by a rope tied to a ring thrust through their noses. The buffalo is larger than an ox, has a thicker body, and a very hard hide. His pace is slow; but he will carry a great burden. They feed in herds like cows, and yield plenty of milk, of which very good butter and cheese is made. Their flesh is pretty good, but not to be compared to beef. The wild buffalo is a very fierce and dangerous animal; he often attacks travellers, and tears them to pieces. However, they are not so much to be feared in woods as in the plains; because their horns, which are sometimes ten feet long, are apt to be entangled in the branches of trees, which gives those who are surprised by them time to escape. They are excellent swimmers, and will cross the largest river without any difficulty. They run wild in great troops on the coast of Malabar, for which reason strangers are allowed to hunt and kill them at pleasure.
6. The indicus, or little Indian buffalo, has horns shorter than its ears, a bunch on its back, and no mane. It is about the size of a calf six months old, and used in the East Indies for drawing coaches, &c.