Botany is that branch of natural history which treats of the uses, characters, classes, orders, genera, and species of plants.

Before we explain the most approved method of distinguishing plants, it will not be improper to inquire into the nature of the science, and what useful or ornamental purposes may be expected from the cultivation of it.

Sect. J. Uses of Botany.

When this science is carried no further than to distinguish one plant from another, its uses are few and uninteresting. However, even this exercise is attended with some advantages. It is the first, and a necessary step towards discovering those of a more noble kind. It is the rudiments of the science; and must therefore be acquired before we can expect to arrive at any improvement that may be useful to mankind. This part of botany is likewise more complete and systematic than many other branches of natural history. By means of the classical and generic marks, we are enabled in a few minutes to discover the name of any plant, from whatever quarter of the globe it may be brought. This is exceedingly curious, and altogether incredible to people unacquainted with the nature of the science. When we have learnt the name, we are then in a capacity of consulting authors with regard to the peculiar properties of the plant, so far as they are known.

Besides, there is an elegance and symmetry in plants, which give rise to many agreeable emotions. Their parts, like those of animals, are possessed of all the beauties of utility, regularity, uniformity, order, and proportion. Neither is there any class of natural bodies in which the beauty of variety makes such a capital figure. This variety is chiefly exhibited in the magnitude, figure, colour, odour, and taste of vegetables. It is therefore natural to expect, that the study of botany should have some influence in improving our taste.

But as botany is confessedly a branch of natural history, the botanist ought not to confine his researches to the mere names and characters of plants. He ought to inquire into their qualities. These qualities, indeed, when we talk of vegetables in general, are exceedingly numerous, and the investigation of many of them attended with such difficulty, that no person, however industrious, can ever expect to unfold the whole. But this circumstance does not afford any argument for losing sight of utility altogether. On the contrary, it is the only thing that can give dignity to the science, or entitle it to be ranked as a branch of natural history. There is but little pleasure in studying a science which is already carried to its highest pitch of improvement. The prospect of discovering any thing that may be useful to mankind stimulates our industry, and makes us prosecute our researches with vigour and alacrity.

A botanist, or an inquirer into the nature and properties of vegetables, ought to direct his views principally towards the investigation of useful qualities. For this purpose, in examining plants, he should consider whether they be possessed of any qualities which may render them of use in food, in medicine, or in any of the arts. These are objects worthy the attention of philosophers. Let us examine the assistance that may be expected from the study of botany with regard to these important articles.

1. Food.—Many animals are endowed with an instinctive faculty of readily distinguishing whether the food that is presented to them be noxious or salutary. Mankind have no such instinct. They must have recourse to experience and observation. But these are not sufficient to guide us in every case. The traveller is often allured by the agreeableness of smell and taste to eat poisonous fruits. Neither will a general caution not to eat anything but what we know from experience to be salutary, answer in every emergency. A ship's company, in want of provisions, may be thrown upon an uninhabited coast, or a desert island. Totally ignorant of the nature of the plants which they meet with;—diseases, or scarcity of animals, may render it absolutely necessary to make use of vegetable food;—the consequence is dreadful: They must must first eat, before any certain conclusion can be formed. This is not the description of danger arising from an imaginary situation. Before the vegetables that grow in America, the East and West Indies, &c., became familiar to our sailors, many lives were lost by trials of this kind: Neither has all the information received from experience been sufficient to prevent individuals from still falling a prey to ignorance or rashness.

If the whole science of botany were as complete as some of its branches, very little skill in it would be sufficient to guard us infallibly from committing such fatal mistakes. There are certain orders and classes which are called natural, because every genus and species comprehended under them are not only distinguished by the same characteristic marks, but likewise possess the same qualities, though not all in an equal degree. For example: Shew a botanist the flower of a plant whose calyx is a double-valved glume, with three stamens, two pistils, and one naked seed, he can pronounce with absolute certainty, that the plant from which the flower was taken bears seeds of a farinaceous quality, and that they may be safely used as food. In like manner, shew him a flower with twelve or more stamens, all inserted into the internal side of the calyx; though it belonged to a plant growing in Japan, he can pronounce, without hesitation, that the fruit of it may be eaten with safety. On the other hand, shew him a plant whose flower has five stamens, one pistil, one petal or flower-leaf, and whose fruit is of the berry kind, he will tell you to abstain from eating it, because it is poisonous. Many other examples might be given; but we shall reserve them till we come to the medical qualities.

Facts of this kind make botany not only a respectable, but a most interesting science. The French and some other nations use a greater variety of vegetable food than the British. This practice is attended with many advantages. The greater number of vegetables that are made use of in any country, the poorer have the greater number of resources when there happens to be a scarcity of any particular kind. It likewise affords an opportunity of a more universal cultivation. When agriculture or gardening is confined to few plants, there is great hazard from bad seasons and other unavoidable accidents, besides the certain loss arising from allowing such soils as are improper for raising the usual plants to lie unemployed. Though we are principally influenced by example in introducing the culture of new plants; yet the advice and direction of the botanist may be useful. From his knowledge of the qualities of plants that grow in other countries, he is enabled to guess, with tolerable exactness, whether they will agree with the soil or climate in which they are proposed to be cultivated. He can do more: he can point out what particular species of the plant will be most easily naturalized. Besides, without having recourse to the example of foreign countries, the botanist can point out a number of plants that grow wild in his own country, which might be cultivated with advantage, as food either for men or cattle. For example, in the whole class called diadelphia by Linnæus, which includes the polygala, or milkwort; the anthyllis, or kidney-vetch; the orobus, or heath-pease; the lathyrus and vicia, which comprehend a number of plants of the vetch-kind; the ornithopus, or bird's-foot; the hedyarum, or St-foin; the alfagalus, or wild liquorice; the medicago, or lucern; the lotus, or bird's-foot trifolium, &c.; the leaves are excellent food for cattle, and the seeds may be used either by men or cattle. In like manner, all the seeds of the grafs-kind, which belong to the triandria clas of Linnæus, and are very numerous, make excellent food for men, and the leaves afford the best pasture for cattle. Many of the plants belonging to this clas are not cultivated in this country, though we have a great variety of them growing wild.

It has been frequently observed, that poor people, during a scarcity of corn, have been induced to fill their bellies with substances that were both pernicious and loathsome, while they were trampling under their feet plants that would at once have afforded good nourishment and been highly grateful. This conduct could proceed from nothing but their ignorance of the nature and effects of these plants, and from their not being able to distinguish the noxious ones from the salutary. It is the duty of every man to point out the remedy for calamities of this kind, especially when it is not impossible that the causes which produced them may exist in some future period. For this purpose, we shall subjoin a short list of native plants that may be eaten with safety and advantage.

Salicornia Europæa, or marsh-samphire, jointed glasswort, or saltwort. This plant grows plentifully near the sea-coasts, and eats very well with salt and vinegar.

Veronica becumbens, or common brooklime. This plant, which grows in marshes, is commonly gathered in the spring, and cat as a salad.

Valeriana locuta, lamb's-lettuce, or corn-fallet, grows in corn-fields and pasture-grounds. The leaves are reckoned more wholesome than the common lettuce cultivated in our gardens.

Scirpus maritimus, or round-rooted cyperus, grows near the sea-shores. The root consists of a number of knots, which, after being dried and ground, have been frequently used as bread when provisions were scarce.

Bromus secalinus, or field brome-grass, grows in vast quantities in rye-fields, especially after the rye is cut down. The seeds of this plant, mixed with grain of a better quality, make very good bread: But if the quantity of brome-grass seeds be great; the people who use the bread are apt at first to be affected with a slight degree of intoxication; but this effect ceases, after being a little accustomed to the food.

Festuca fluitans, or flote-fescue-grass, grows in ditches and marshy places. In Sweden and Germany, the seeds are used in broths and gruels, on account both of their nutritive quality and agreeable flavour. When ground, and made into bread, they are esteemed little inferior to wheat or oats.

Triticum repens, common wheat-grass, dog's-grass, quick-grass, or couch-grass, grows so plentifully in our fields, that it is a great object with farmers to root it out. The roots of this plant, after being washed, dried, and ground, have often been used as bread in a dearth of corn. With regard to the other kinds of grafts, the seeds of them may be safely used as food; but some of them are so small, that a sufficient quantity cannot easily be collected.

Campanula, or bell-flower. Nine or ten species of bell-flower grow in Britain. Both the roots and leaves, when boiled, especially before the stalk grows up, may be used.

Chenopodium bonus henricus, common English mercury, or all-good, grows almost everywhere. This plant is used in broth by the country-people, in place of cabbage or other pot-herbs. When the young leaves and stalks are dressed with butter, they are not inferior, in their flavour and nutritive power, to asparagus or spinach.

Eryngium maritimum, sea-holly, or eryngo, generally grows near the sea-shore. The young twigs, prepared as asparagus, are grateful to the taste, very nourishing, and give vigour to the body.

Daucus carota, wild carrot, or bird's-neck, grows in every field. It is the same species with the carrot cultivated in gardens, and is equally nourishing.

Heracleum sphondylium, or cow-parsnip. The inhabitants of Poland and Lithuania make a fermented liquor of the seeds and leaves, which the poorer sort use as ale. The inhabitants of Camsetka eat the stalks, after peeling off the bark.

Carum carvi, or caraways, grows in meadows and pasture-grounds. The young roots of this plant are more agreeable to the taste than the parsnip, and therefore might be of great service to the poor in a dearth of provisions.

Convallaria polygonatum, or sweet-smelling Solomon's-seal, grows in the cliffs of rocks. The roots are made into bread, and eat by the inhabitants of Lapland, when corn is scarce. The Turks use the young stalks as asparagus.

Bunium bulbocastanum, earth-nut, kipper-nut, pig-nut, or hawk-nut, grows plentifully on lea-grounds, the banks of rivers, sides of hills, &c. The roots are very sweet, afford excellent nourishment, and may be eaten either raw, boiled, or roasted.

Vaccinium uliginosum, the great bilberry-bush, grows upon high grounds. The berries are much eaten by children; but when taken in too great quantity, are apt to occasion a giddiness and headache.

Vaccinium myrtillus, black whorts, whortle-berries, or bilberries, grows in woods. The berries have a fine flavour, and may be eaten with safety.

Vaccinium vitis idea, red whorts, or whortle-berries, grows on hills. The berries are eaten in the autumn, and many people make an excellent jelly of them.

Polygonum viviparum, small bitwort, or snake-weed, grows upon high grounds. The roots may be prepared into bread. In Lapland and the northern parts of Europe, it is principally eaten along with the flesh of flags and other wild animals.

Spergula arvensis, or corn-spearrey, grows in corn-fields, especially in sandy soils. In Norway, they collect the seeds of this plant, and make them into bread.

Sedum rupestre, or St Vincent's rock stone-crop, grows on high grounds. The Swedes cultivate this plant, and use it as a pot-herb.

Prunus padus, wild cluster-cherry, or bird's-cherry, grows in woods and hedges. Some people eat the berries with salt.

Prunus spinosa, the black-thorn, or sloe tree, grows in hedges and woods. The berries are very astringent; but the leaves are tender, and, when gently toasted, may be used in place of tea.

Prunus cerasus, or black-cherry, grows likewise in woods and hedges. The berries are eaten both in a crude and dried state. When this plant is wounded, a gum exudes from it nearly of the same quality with gum-arabic. Dr Hasselquist informs us, that above 100 men, when besieged in an Egyptian town, were preserved alive for more than two months, without any other sustenance than they derived from the use of this gum.

Crataegus aria, or the white bean-tree, grows in woods. The berries are eaten by the peasants; and in Sweden they are prepared and used as bread when there is a scarcity of corn.

Crataegus oxyacantha, the white thorn, or hawthorn, grows everywhere in woods and hedges. The berries, when dried and ground, are sometimes made into bread; but it is apt to bind the belly too much.

Sorbus aucuparia, the quicken-tree, or mountain-ash, grows in woods. Very good cider is made of the berries; and, when dried, they make very wholesome bread.

Rosa canina, red-flowered dog's-rose, or hip-tree, grows in hedges. The berries afford excellent nourishment, and may either be eaten in a crude state, or dried and made into bread.

Spiraea filipendula, or drop-wort, grows in pasture-grounds and the sides of hills. The roots of this plant, which are composed of small tubercles like pease, when dried and ground, make tolerably good bread.

Ranunculus ficaria, pile-wort, or lesser celandine, grows in pasture-grounds, &c. The Norwegians collect the leaves in the spring, and use them in broth.

Origanum vulgare, or wild marjoram, grows in hedges and among brushwood. The leaves of this plant, when toasted, and infused in boiling water, have such a resemblance to tea, that it is difficult to make a distinction. As tea is so universally used in diet, it is much to be regretted that the ladies cannot be prevailed upon to prefer this or some other of our own plants, and thereby save some millions sterling annually to their country.

Stachys palustris, or clown's all-heal, grows in marshes and the banks of rivers. The roots are succulent, and may be used either boiled, or dried and made into bread.

Melampyrum arvense, or purple cow-wheat, grows in corn-fields. Bread is sometimes made of the seeds; but it is a little bitter.

Sinapis arvensis, wild mustard, or charlock, grows plentifully in corn-fields, &c. The leaves of this plant are often used in broth.

Crambe maritima, or sea-colewort, grows in sandy ground near the sea-shore. The leaves, when young and tender, may be used in place of cabbage; but when too old, are apt to make the head giddy.

Malva rotundifolia, or dwarf-mallow, and malva sylvestris, or common mallow, are everywhere to be met with. The leaves of both these plants may be used in broth. Orobos tuberosus, wood-pease, or heath-pease, grows in pasture-ground, woods, hedges, &c. The roots, when boiled, or made into bread, afford excellent nourishment.

Pisum maritimum, or sea-pease. In the year 1655, when a great famine prevailed in England, the poor people in Oxfordshire lived principally upon the seeds of this plant.

Trifolium repens, or white clover, grows in meadows and pasture-grounds. The flowers of this plant, when dried, make tolerably good bread.

Trifolium pratense, purple or honeysuckle clover. The Scotch, when oppressed with a famine, used bread made of the flowers of this plant. And indeed bread may be made of the flowers of every plant belonging to the class called diadelphia, which comprehends near 600 species.

Hippochaës maculata, or spotted hawkweed, grows on high pasture-grounds. The peasants of Norway use the leaves as cabbage.

Sonchus oleraceus, or common sow-thistle. The young leaves eat exceedingly well when boiled.

Tragopodon pratense, or yellow goat's-beard, grows in meadows and pasture-grounds. The roots, when dug up before the plant flowers, have a fine flavour, and are very nourishing.

Arctium lappa, or burdock. The young stalks, when the bark is taken off, eat, when boiled, like asparagus. Some people use them in a crude state, with oil and vinegar.

Carduus palustris, or marsh-thistle. Almost all the species of thistle may be used in the same manner as the burdock.

Urtica dioica, or common nettle. The use of this plant as a pot-herb is well known.

Quercus robur, or common oak. Acorns, during a famine, have often been made into bread.

Fagus sylvatica, or beech tree. Bread has sometimes been made of the nuts; but unless they be well dried, the bread made of them will produce a slight degree of intoxication.

Corylus avellana, or the hazel-nut tree. Everybody knows the agreeable flavour and nutritive quality of hazel nuts.

Pinus sylvestris, or Scots fir. The Norwegians and others make bread of this tree in the following manner: They select such trunks as are most smooth and have least resin; they take off the bark, then dry it in the shade, and afterwards toast it over a fire, and grind it into meal. They generally mix with it a little oat-meal or barley. This bread, made of fir bark, is not only used in a scarcity of provisions, but is eaten at all times by the poorer sort.

Lichen islandicus, or eryngo-leaved liver-wort, grows among heath and upon high grounds. The inhabitants of Iceland have long used this plant, both boiled, and in the form of bread.

Lichen velleus, or fleecy liver-wort, grows upon hills. In time of famine, the inhabitants used this plant for food.

Fungus, or mushroom. The species of this plant are very numerous. Some of them are used by the rich; rather as a seasoning, than as food. When taken in too great quantity, they are absolutely indigestible; and, unless thrown up from the stomach, will prove as fatal as the most deadly poison. The poor, therefore, who would be very apt to fall into this error, had better refrain from the use of mushrooms altogether.

From this short list of esculent plants that grow wild in our own country, we see how liberally we are provided with resources in case of a scarcity of the vegetables usually cultivated for food, and at the same time the advantages that might be derived from a very slight degree of knowledge in botany. Many of these plants grow best in soils which cannot be employed for raising corn of any kind. Besides, they are exceedingly hardy, and suffer but little from seasons, which in a great measure destroy the more delicate plants which we cultivate with so much labour and expense. It may be further remarked, that many improvements in agriculture and the useful part of gardening might be expected from propagating a taste for researches into the nature and properties of vegetables.

2. Medicine.—It is an unhappy circumstance, that the bulk of physicians in all ages have been more remarkable for their attachment to the abstruse and useless parts of the science, than to the nature and cure of diseases, the proper objects of their profession. Instead of disputing in folio how such a plant cures such a disease, had they exerted their industry and genius in ascertaining the fact, and then proceeded to make further inquiries into the qualities of other simples, the practice of physic would not have been a thing of such a fluctuating nature as it ever has been, and still continues to be.

Many practitioners, some of them men of considerable abilities, affect to despise the science of botany, alleging that it affords no assistance to their art; and that it is very useless to load their memories with a long catalogue of hard names, without being a whit the wiser with regard to the medical properties. Besides, they imagine every single genus and species of the whole vegetable tribes to be possessed of peculiar and distinct properties; and that it would require the labour of a whole life time to ascertain the virtues of a few plants.

It must indeed be confessed, that the writers and teachers of botany have not been sufficiently careful to prevent reflections of this kind. The technical part of the science engrosses their chief attention: If the virtues are talked of, it is only in a cursory manner: The only thing that can render the science respectable, is either totally omitted in their systems, or dispatched in a line or two. But we are happy to find, that the science begins now to get some footing in this country. By the industry and spirit of a worthy Professor*, the taste has been propagated

* Dr John Hope professor of medicine and botany in the university of Edinburgh. Immediately after the Doctor's admission to the botanical chair, he offered gold and silver medals to his students for the best collections of indigenous plants. gated in a few years far beyond what could have been expected, especially when the state of the country before that period is taken into consideration.

We have no doubt of being able to show, that botany, even in its present state, is so far from lying open to the objections brought against it by those who are either unacquainted with it, or affect to despise it as useless and trifling, that we have little reason to hope for any extensive insight into the medical virtues of plants by any other means.

In order to bring the numerous tribes of vegetables under certain classes or denominations, various methods have been adopted by different authors. Some have classified them by the figure of their roots; some by the caulis or stems; some by the leaves. Linnaeus has preferred the parts of fructification, because these are not only the most essential, but likewise the most universal.

This method of classing is preferable to any that has been proposed, on many accounts. It is found by experience, that plants which are distinguished by the same characters in the flower and fruit, have precisely the same qualities, though not always in an equal degree as to strength or weakness; so that, upon inspection of the flower and fruit, a botanist can determine a priori the effects that will result from the plant when taken into the stomach. Here then is a foundation for natural classes. In order, therefore, to determine the medical virtues of all the plants belonging to a natural class, the physician has nothing further to do than to ascertain, by a set of clear and unquestionable experiments, the virtues of any one of them. This greatly shortens the labour of investigation. Supposing the number of known species to be 20,000, by ascertaining the virtues of one genus, at a medium, you determine the virtues of 12 species. But, by ascertaining the virtues of one genus belonging to a natural order, the virtues of perhaps 300 or 400 species are ascertained. Again, by ascertaining the virtues of one genus belonging to a natural class, you discover the virtues of perhaps 800 or 1000 species.

As this branch of the materia medica has been hitherto greatly neglected, we shall subjoin a few examples of natural orders and classes, with the virtues they are supposed to possess.

The Stellateae of Mr Ray, which make the 44th natural order of Linnaeus, are said to be all diuretics. Of these, the rubia and asperula are remarkable for their diuretic and detergent qualities, and as such are admitted into both the Edinburgh and London dispensaries. The aparine, gallium, &c., possess the same qualities, though not perhaps in an equal degree.

The Asperifoliaceae of Ray, belong to the pentandria monogynia class, with one petal and four seeds, of Linnaeus, and form his 43rd natural order. The plants of this order are said to be astringent and vulnerary. Under it the following genera are comprehended: Tournefortia, cerinthe, symphytum, pulmonaria, borrago, cynoglossum, anchusa, lithospermum, myosotis, heliotropium, alperrugo, lycopus, echium.

The plants included under the Pentandrae, with one stylus, one flower-leaf, and which bear berries, form the 33rd natural order, and are generally poisonous. To this order belong all the folana, or night-shades; the mandragora and atropa, which are well known to be poisonous; the hyoscyamus and datura occasion madness and death; the veratrum intoxicates and kills fishes.

The Umbellatae, which make the 22nd natural order, are said to be aromatic, resolvent, and carminative, especially those that grow in a dry soil; but such of them as grow in a wet soil are said to be poisonous. The virtues reside in the roots and seeds. To this order belong the daucus creticus, gentiana alba, filer montanum, ammi verum, petroselinum macedonicum, &c.

The roots of the plants belonging to the Hexandria class, are either efculent or poisonous. These qualities may be distinguished by the taste and smell. In the 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th natural orders, the following poisonous plants of the hexandria class are enumerated, viz. the leucoium, galanthus, pancratium, amaryllis, fritillaria, corona imperialis, gloriae, convallaria, hyacinthus, aloes, &c. The allium, cepa, and parum, are acid; and, when taken in too great a quantity, are highly corrosive; but, as this hurtful quality is owing to a volatile alkaline substance in the roots, when they are roasted or boiled it flies off, and they may be eaten with safety.

The fruit of all the plants belonging to the Icosandrae class, which are enumerated in the 36th, 37th, 38th, and 39th natural orders, are efculent, and not one of them poisonous. To this class belong the eucenia, punica, cerasus, crategus, pyrus, rosa, fragaria, &c.

The plants belonging to the Polyandria class, or the 23rd natural order, are mostly poisonous, e.g. the nymphea, argemone, papaver, ades, bocconia, euphorbia, delphinium, staphylinus, acanthus, nigella, errhina, aquilegia, helleborus, &c.

The leaves of the plants belonging to the Didynamia Gymnosperma, or 55th natural order, are said to be cephalic and resolvent. This order contains the ajuga, teucrium, hyoscyamus, lavendula, mentha, lamium, betonica, ballota, leonurus, origanum, thymus, melissa, dracocephalum, &c.

The plants belonging to the Tetrodynamia class, or the 57th natural order, are antiscorbutic, and a little acid; e.g. the lepidium, cochlaria, raphanus, cardamine, sinapis, erythrum barbarea, flosbrium, &c.

All the plants of the Monodelphia class, which form the 34th natural order, are emollient and mucilaginous. Whoever knows the qualities of the althea and malva, knows the qualities of the whole class, which comprehends about 180 species. The emollient and mucilaginous virtues are not confined to the leaves or any part of the plant prepared in the manner of a hortus siccus. The consequence of this plan fully answered his expectations. In a few years, he was in possession of many more plants than were ever formerly supposed to grow in Scotland. After this acquisition, the Dr judiciously changed the object of his medals, and offered them for the best accounts of the sensible qualities and medical virtues of any number of native plants. But we are sorry to find, that no gentlemen have hitherto become candidates for these medals since they were offered upon this sensible and useful plan. particular part, but are diffused through the whole plant.

The Diadelphia class forms the 5th natural order. This class comprehends above 500 species; and, as was observed above, the seeds of every one of them are excellent, the leaves afford excellent pasture for cattle, and not one of them have any poisonous quality.

The Syngenesia class, or 21st natural order, contains a very great number of species. The virtues of some plants belonging to this class are said to differ considerably. The bardana, carlina, tusilago, arnica, chicorium, scorzonera, taraxacum, &c., are supposed to be deobstruent, and are kept as such in the shops. But the greatest number of them are bitter and stomachic; e.g., the absinthium abrotanum, artemisia, santolina, ballamita, tanacetum eupatorium, matricaria, chamomilla, acmella, verbascina, &c.

The Gynandria Diandra, or 4th natural order, are said to excite venery; e.g., the orchis, satyrium, serapias, herminium, ophrys, epidendrum, &c. The roots of these are used with this intention by practitioners.

The Amentacea Acifoliae, or 15th natural order, are resinous; e.g., the pinus, abies, juniperus, cypress, &c. They are all warm stimulants and diuretics.

The virtues of the Cryptogamia class, which comprehends the 61st, 62d, 63d, and 64th natural orders, are mostly of a suspicious nature. Hardly any of the fleshes are excellent; their smell is disagreeable, and they are said to kill worms. All the mulci, except the lichen ilancticus, are improper for food. Some of the fungi are eat; but they are a very dangerous food.

Plants which have their nectaria separate from the flowers, are commonly poisonous; e.g., the epimedium, nigella, aquilegia, aconitum, monotropa, helleborus, &c.

Those plants which are called lacteiflora, from their oozing out a whitish juice upon being wounded, are generally poisonous; e.g., the euphorbia, papaver, periploca, cynanthum, &c. But those which are called semiflora by Tournefort, are of a milder nature; e.g., lactuca, hieracium, crepis, leontodon, &c.

Besides natural classes and orders, which presuppose some acquaintance with botany, we are provided with other means of discovering the general qualities of plants. The sensations of smell and taste give us some intimation of the nature and qualities of plants. An agreeable taste or smell is seldom accompanied with noxious qualities; on the other hand, when these senses are disagreeably affected, the qualities are generally more or less noxious, being either purgative, emetic, or poisonous. Plants that have a sweet taste are generally nutritive; those that have a salt taste are warm and stimulant. Plants of an acid taste are corrosive; but, when deprived of their acrimony by drying, some of them become fit for food. Bitter plants are alkaline, stomachic, and sometimes of a suspicious nature. Acid plants are cooling, and allay thirst; but those of an austere taste are astringent.

Even the colour and aspect of plants throw some light upon their nature. Flowers or fruit of a red colour are generally acid. Yellow flowers indicate a bitter taste. Plants that have green flowers are crude; those of a pale colour are commonly insipid; those of a white colour are generally sweet; and those whose flowers have a gloomy and dismal aspect, are mostly poisonous.

These examples naturally suggest the following observations.—The Creator of the universe hath endowed us with sufficient abilities for investigating the virtues of plants, and applying them to the cure of diseases and other useful purposes, even on the supposition that we were obliged to ascertain the virtues of every single plant by experiments. But this labour, though practicable in a course of years, and under proper regulations, is greatly abridged. The information afforded by the senses is considerable. Our inquiries are still further assisted by the general distribution of vegetables into tribes and families. The mutual relation and connection of these tribes depend not upon fancy or conjecture: The relations are so strongly marked by the similarity of their flowers, fruit, and sensible qualities, that they are conspicuous at first sight.

A person unacquainted with medicine, from this view of the virtues of plants, will be apt to imagine, that botany is the only road to that science; and of course that every physician must either be a good botanist, or a bad practitioner. The thought is natural, and, with some limitation, not unjust. The common practice of physic does not require an extensive skill in the virtues of plants. A certain number of vegetables and other substances are kept in the shops, and recommended for particular purposes in dispensaries and books of practice. It is the business of the practitioner to have a general acquaintance with these, and to prescribe them according to the custom of the times. But investigations into the nature and properties of simples or drugs, require more time than can be bestowed by men of business. Whenever any science is converted into a trade, and the study of it confined to people who must live by it, there is little prospect of improvement. This has been the fate of physic. Every body dispenses medicines; but few are none inquire into their virtues. Some valuable medicines have been discovered. But by whom? Not by physicians; but by savages, old women, priests, and chemists. Until, therefore, the study of physic be considered as a branch of natural history, and cultivated by people who have time to make experiments, the science must continue to be vague, defective, and limited in its utility.

Botany has always been considered as a branch of natural history. But, as was formerly observed, the useful part of it hath been too much neglected. The virtues of plants may be successfully investigated without an extensive knowledge in all the branches of the medical art. To propagate a taste for inquiries into the nature and properties of vegetables, would therefore lay the most solid foundation for improvements in medicine.

3. Arts.—The application of the qualities of vegetables to the various mechanical arts affords a most extensive field for useful observation. There are few plants, however different in their nature, but are found, by experience to be not only the most proper, but essentially necessary, in some particular art or employment.

The qualities which render vegetables so generally applicable to mechanical employments are principally these: Softness or hardness of texture, elasticity, inflammability, astringency, colour, &c. Hence some plants are proper for domestic utensils, others for dying, tanning, &c. Some may be apt to think that qualities of this kind are not the proper objects of botany. But if the natural historian be at liberty to neglect useful qualities, he deserves little thanks for expatiating on those that are useless. It would be foreign to our design in this place, to enumerate the particular plants that are used for the various purposes of the mechanic. We shall however, by way of specimen, subjoin a list of plants that change the colour of cloths and other substances.

**List of Dying Plants.**

**Yellow.**

Curcuma, or turmeric. This plant grows in the East Indies; the root of it tinges a rich yellow colour; but it is not very durable.

Rumex maritimus, or golden dock, grows on roadsides, &c. The root dyes a fine yellow.

Thalictrum flavum, or meadow-rue, grows in marshes, on the banks of rivers, &c. Both the root and the leaves dye a very deep yellow.

Urtica dioica, or common nettle. The country people dye eggs a beautiful yellow with the roots of this plant at the feast of Easter.

Santalum album, or white sanders. The wood of this tree, which is a native of the East Indies, dyes a good yellow.

Lawsonia inermis, or alkanna, is a small shrub cultivated in Asia and Africa. The stem and branches of this plant afford an excellent yellow; the natives paint their bodies with it. The root, prepared with quicklime, gives a fine shining red. The natives use it for dyeing their teeth, nails, faces, the mains of their horses, leather, &c.

Morus tinctoria, or fustic, grows in America. The wood of this tree is in great esteem among dyers for the fine yellow it affords.

Rhamnus frangula, or the black berry-bearing alder, grows in woods and hedges. The bark tinges a dull yellow; and the unripe berries dye woollen stuffs green.

Rhamnus catharticus, or purging buck-thorn, grows wild in woods and hedges. The bark gives a beautiful yellow.

Rhamnus minor, grows in the southern parts of Europe. The berries give an excellent yellow.

Rhus Coriaria, or sumach, grows in Italy, &c. The bark of the stem gives a yellow colour, and the bark of the root a yellowish red.

Berberis vulgaris, barberry or pepperidge-bush. The root of this plant gives an excellent yellow to cloth; and the bark gives leather a beautiful yellow colour.

Prunus domestica, or common plum-bush. The country people use the bark for dyeing their cloth yellow.

Pyrus malus, or apple-tree. The dyers use the bark for giving cloth a yellow colour.

Carpinus betulus, the horn or hard beam-tree, horse or horn-beach tree, grows in woods. The bark is used as a yellow dye.

Refeda luteola, or balsam-rocket, grows in pasture grounds, meadows, and especially on chalky soil. This herb, which is a native of Scotland, gives cloth a most beautiful yellow colour, and is much used by dyers, who import it in large quantities, though it might be easily cultivated in our own country.

Serratula tinctoria, or saw-wort, grows in woods and meadows. This plant gives the same colour with the refeda, and, though not so beautiful, is much used by dyers.

Hierachium umbellatum, or narrow-leaved bushy hawkweed, grows in woods, hedges, and gravelly soils. This plant gives a very fine yellow.

Acanthus mollis, is a native of Italy. It appears that this plant was used by the ancients for dying yellow:

*Et circumtextum croco velamen acantho.* Virg.

Bidens tripartita, or trifid water hemp-agrimony, grows in marshy places. This plant gives a pretty elegant yellow.

Xanthium strumarium, or lesser burdock, grows near dunghills. When this plant is boiled entire, together with the fruit, it gives a pretty good yellow.

Salix pentandra, or sweet willow. The dried leaves give a fine yellow.

Betula alba, or birch-tree. The leaves give a faint yellow colour to cloth.

Stachys sylvatica, or hedge-nettle, grows in woods and hedges, and gives a yellow colour to cloth.

Centaurea jacea, or common knapweed, grows in pasture and barren grounds. This plant is often used as a succedaneum for the serrata or saw-wort.

Polygonum perlicaria, dead or spotted smartweed, grows in corn-fields, &c. and dyes cloth yellow.

Lythrum vulgaris, yellow willow-herb, or loose-strife, grows in marshes, and on the banks of rivers. This herb is said to dye yellow.

Scabiosa succisa, or devil's-bit, grows in meadows and pasture-grounds. The dried leaves give a yellow colour; but it is seldom used.

Anthyllis vulneraria, kidney-wetch, or ladies-finger, grows on dry pasture-grounds. The country people use this plant for dyeing their cloth yellow.

Lichen juniperus, or juniper-liverwort, grows on the trunks and branches of trees. Lichen parietinum, or common liverwort, grows on walls and the bark of trees. Lichen candelarius, or yellow liverwort. These three species of liverwort are used by the common people for dyeing their stuffs yellow.

Anthemis tinctoria, or common ox-eye, grows on high grounds. The flowers give a bright yellow colour.

Cherophyllum sylvestre, wild cicely, or cow-weed, grows in hedges, &c. The umbel or tops and flowers of this plant give an excellent yellow.

Thalia villosa, or deadly carrot, grows in Spain; and its umbel is used as a yellow dye by the inhabitants of that country.

Genista tinctoria, green wood, dyers-weed or woad-waxen, grows in pasture-grounds, &c. The flowers are much used as a yellow dye.

Hypericum perforatum, or St. John's wort, grows among brushwood and in hedges. The flowers are used as a yellow dye, but it is not much esteemed. Calendula officinalis, or garden marigold. The dried flower-leaves are sometimes used as a yellow dye; their expressed juice, boiled with alum, makes an excellent yellow paint.

**RED**

Rubia tinctorum, or madder, grows in the southern parts of Europe. The roots are much used by dyers for giving a red colour to cloth.

Gallium boreale, or crosswort madder; gallium verum, yellow ladies bed-straw, or cheese-rening. Both these plants grow plentifully in our own country; and their roots are used for dying cloth red.

Lithospermum tinctorium, grows in France. The root gives a red colour, but it is not easily fixed.

Rumex acetosa, or common sorrel, grows in meadows and pasture-grounds. The root is used by apothecaries for tinging decoctions, &c. with a red colour; but it is not used by dyers.

Caesalpina brasiliensis, or Brazil wood, is a native of the East Indies. The wood is commonly used by the dyers for giving a red colour.

Calamus rouang, or dragon's blood, is an East-India fruit. The inflorescence is principally used by apothecaries for giving a red tinge to their medicines.

Bixa orellana, grows in both the Indies. The seeds of this tree are much used as a red dye, and the natives of America paint their bodies with them.

**PURPLE**

Caesalpinia vesicaria. The wood of this tree gives a purple dye. The caesalpinia sappan is used for the same purpose. The lignum rubrum, or Fernambuca wood, gives likewise a reddish purple dye.

Origanum vulgare, or wild marjoram, grows in woods, &c. The tops of this plant are used for dying cloth purple.

Carthamus tinctorius, is an annual plant, and a native of Egypt. The corolla of this plant give a fiery red colour to cloth; but they are principally used for dying silks.

**BLUE**

Isatis tinctoria, or woad. This plant grows wild in corn-fields, and gives a blue colour to cloth.

Indigofera tinctoria, or indigo, grows in the East Indies. The blue dye given to cloth by this plant is preferable to any other; because it is of so fixed and durable a nature, that it is not affected either by acid or alkaline substances.

Galega tinctoria, is a perennial plant of Zeylon. Hermannus affirms, that the blue obtained from this plant is even preferable to the indigo, although it has never hitherto been used by Europeans.

Fraxinus excelsior, or common ash-tree. The bark tinged water blue; and the inner bark is said to give cloth a very good blue colour.

**VIOLET**

Hæmatoxylon campechianum, or logwood, grows in the West Indies, and gives cloth a violet colour. It is, however, chiefly used as a basis for some other colours.

Emetrum nigrum, black-berryed heath, crow or crakeberries, grows on high grounds. The berries, boiled with alum, are used as a purple dye.

**GREEN**

Senecio jacobæa, or common raywort, grows in pasture-grounds, &c. The whole plant is used, before it begins to flower, for dying cloths green.

Chærophylum sylvestre, or wild cicely. This plant, when the tops are taken off, dyes cloth a beautiful green.

Iris germanica, grows in the southern parts of Europe. The expressed juice of the corolla gives a green dye.

**BLACK**

Lycopus europæus, or water horehound, grows in marshy places. The juice of this plant gives a black dye of such a fixed nature, that it cannot be washed out.

Actea spicata, herb-christopher, or barberries, grows among brushwood. The juice of the berries, when boiled with alum, affords a fine black ink.

Genipa americana, is an American tree. The unripe berries tinge cloths with a deep black. The natives dye their mouth with these berries, to give them a terrible aspect to the enemy. It remains fixed for many days.

Quercus, or oak-tree. The capsulæ of the oak, on account of their great dipticity, are used for fixing and improving the mineral black. They are used both by dyers and curriers.

This short sketch of the utility of botany with regard to Food, Medicine, and the Arts, will be sufficient to suggest the many advantages that may be expected from the cultivation of it. The objects presented by the science are curious, respectable, and useful. The natural history of plants is not even confined to the above important articles. It is strictly connected with agriculture and gardening. The structure of vegetables, the soils that naturally produce particular kinds, things that promote or retard their growth, are essential parts of their natural history. Hence a school of botany, especially when sufficient attention is paid to the useful part of the science, merits the highest encouragement from the public, and ought to be attended by farmers, landed gentlemen, gardeners, &c. as well as by physicians and philosophers. Sect. II. Of the Method of reducing Plants to Classes, Orders, Genera, and Species; and of investigating their generic and specific names by certain marks or characters.

We observed in the former section, that in the progress of this part of botany many different methods had been followed by different authors. Caspianus, R.y., Bauhinus, Van Royan, Ricinus, Tournefort, Linnæus, Sauvages, have each adopted a peculiar method of characterizing and classing plants. It would be foolish to distract the attention of the reader by an explanation of all these methods. We shall therefore proceed to explain that of Linnæus, which is perhaps the only one now taught in Europe.

This method of reducing plants to classes, genera, and species, is founded upon the supposition that vegetables propagate their species in a manner similar to that of animals. Linnæus endeavours to support this hypothesis by the many analogies that subsist between plants and animals, which shall be more particularly pointed out in the third section. It is from this circumstance that Linnæus's system of botany has got the name of the sexual system. The names of his classes, orders, &c. are all derived from this theory. He calls the stamens of flowers the males, or the male parts of generation; and the pistils females, or the female parts of generation. Plants whose flowers contain both male and female parts, are said to be hermaphrodite, &c. His classes, orders, and genera, are all derived from the number, situation, proportion, and other circumstances attending these parts, as will appear from the following scheme.

**Scheme of the Sexual System.** See Plate LIII.

Either publicly, i.e. have visible flowers.

Monoclinia, males and females in the same bed:—i.e. The flowers are all hermaphrodite, having filaments and pistils in the same flower.

Diffinitas, the males or stamens unconnected with each other.

Indifferentissimus, the males or stamens having no determinate proportion betwixt each other as to length.

1. Monandria, i.e. one male or stamen in a hermaphrodite flower. 2. Diandria, two males or stamens. 3. Triandria, three males. 4. Tetrandra, four males. 5. Pentandra, five males. 6. Hexandra, six males. 7. Heptandra, seven males. 8. Octandra, eight males. 9. Enneandra, nine males. 10. Decandra, ten males. 11. Dodeandra, eleven males. 12. Icosandra, twenty, or more males inserted into the calyx, and not into the receptacle.

Polyandra, all above twenty males inserted into the receptacle.

Subordinatio, two of the males or stamens uniformly shorter than the rest.

Didynamia, four males, two of them uniformly shorter than the other two.

Tetradynamia, six males, two of which are uniformly shorter than the rest.

Affinitas, the males or stamens either connected to each other, or to the pistillum.

Monodelphia, the males or stamens united into one body by the filaments.

Diadelphia, the stamens united into two bodies or bundles by the filaments.

Polyadelphia, the stamens united into three or more bundles by the filaments.

Syngenesia, the stamens united in a cylindrical form by the antheræ.

Gynandra, the stamens inserted into the pistillum.

Diclinia, males and females in separate beds; i.e. plants that have male and female flowers in the same species.

Monoecia, male and female flowers in the same plant.

Dioecia, male flowers in one plant, and females in another, of the same species.

Polygamia, male, female, and hermaphrodite flowers in the same species.

Or clandestinely, i.e. whose parts of fructification are invisible.

Cryptogamia, the flowers invisible, so that they cannot be ranked according to the parts of fructification. There twenty-four classes comprehend every known genus and species. It is an easy matter to clasps a plant belonging to any of the first eleven classes, as they all depend on the number of stamens or male parts, without regard to any other circumstance. The 12th class requires more attention. When the stamens amount to above 20, a tyro will be apt to imagine that the plant belongs to the polyandria class. In reducing plants of this kind to their classes, particular regard must be had to the insertion of the stamens. If they are inserted into the calyx or cup, the plant belongs to the icosaandra class; if to the receptacle or basis of the flower, it belongs to the polyandria.

The 14th class is likewise in danger of being confounded with the 4th. In the 4th, the number of stamens is the same with that of the 14th. But, in the 14th, two of the stamens are uniformly much shorter than the other two; at the same time each particular stamen belonging to the different pairs stands directly opposite to one another.

The 15th class may be mistaken for the sixth, as they consist of the same number of stamens. But in the 15th, four of the stamens are uniformly longer than the other two; and these two are always opposite to each other.

**ORDERS.**

In the first thirteen classes, the orders, which are inferior divisions, and lead us a step nearer the genus, are taken from the pistils or female parts, in the same manner as the classes from the stamens: Monogynia, digynia, trigynia, tetragynia, &c., i.e. one, two, three, four, &c., female parts: When the pistils or female parts have no stalk or filament like the stamens, they are numbered by the stigmas or tops of the pistils, which in that case adhere to the capsule in the form of small protuberances, as may be observed in the flowers of the poppy, &c.

The orders of the 14th class are derived from a different source. The plants belonging to it have their seeds either inclosed in a capsule, or altogether uncovered. Hence they naturally admit of a division into the following orders, viz. gymnospermia, comprehending such as have naked seeds; and angiospermia, which comprehends such as have their seeds covered, or inclosed in a capsule.

The 15th class is divided into two orders, viz. the filiculosa, or those which have a short siliqua or pod; and the filiquea, or those which have a longer siliqua.

The orders of the 16th, 17th, 18th, and 20th classes, are taken from the number of stamens, e.g. monodelphia pentandra, decandra, polyandra, &c.

The Syngenesia, or 19th class, consists of plants whose flowers are compounded of a great number of small flowers or florets inclosed in one common calyx. The orders of this class are,

Polygamia aquatis, or such whose florets are all furnished with stamens and pistils.

Polygamia pura, comprehends those which have hermaphrodite florets in the disk, and female florets in the margin. This circumstance is made the foundation of the three following orders. 1. Polygamia superflua, includes all those whose hermaphrodite flowers in the disk are furnished with stigmas, and bear seed; and whose female flowers in the radius likewise produce seeds. 2. Polygamia frustans, include such as have hermaphrodite seed-bearing florets in the disk; but whose florets in the radius, having no stigmas, are barren. 3. Polygamia necifaria, is the reverse of the former; The hermaphrodite flowers in the disk want stigmas, and are barren; but the female florets in the radius are furnished with stigmas, and produce seeds.

Polygamia fragilis, many florets inclosed in one common calyx, and each of the florets likewise furnished with a perianthium proper to itself.

Monogamia, this order consists only of seven genera, viz. the strumphia, seriphium, corymbium, jasione, lobelia, viola, and impatiens; none of which have properly compound flowers, but are ranked under this class purely from the circumstance of having their stamens united by the antheræ.

The orders of the 21st class are partly taken from the number of stamens, and partly from the names and characters peculiar to some of the other classes, e.g. monœcia triandra, monœcia syngenesia, monœcia gynandra.

The orders of the 23rd are all taken from calycal characters, e.g. polygamia monœcia, polygamia ...œcia, and polygamia triœcia.

The 24th, or Cryptogamia class, is divided into the four following orders: 1. Filices, comprehending all plants that bear their seed in the back or edges of the leaf, and those that are called capillary plants. 2. Musci, which comprehends all the mosses kind. 3. Algae, including the lichens, fuci, and many others whose parts of fructification are either altogether invisible or exceedingly obscure. 4. Fungi, comprehending all the mushroom tribe.

Having thus explained the method of reducing plants to their classes and orders, we shall proceed to inform the young botanist how to investigate the genus. This depends upon minute distinctions, and requires more attention. But it is impossible to investigate the genera, without being previously acquainted with a considerable number of terms. All the terms necessary for this purpose belong to the parts of fructification. To attempt to give an idea by words of the parts to which particular terms are applied, would not only be difficult, but, in a great measure, useless, especially to such as are totally ignorant of botany. We shall therefore give a list of the terms themselves, with proper references to the figures of the things signified by them, which will both be shorter, and more intelligible than the most accurate description that language is capable of.

**List of Terms belonging to the Flowers and Parts of Fructification.** See Plate LIV.

1. Spatha, a species of calyx opening longitudinally when the flower breaks through it.

2. Spadix, a species of receptacle peculiar to palm-trees, which consists of fruit-bearing branches included in a spatha. Fig.

3. a, Gluma, another species of calix, belonging chiefly to grasses and corns, and consists of different valves; b, arista, or awn.

4. a, Umbella universalis, comprehends the whole flowers, &c., arising from a common centre, and resembling a large fan. b, Umbella partialis, or a smaller parcel of the flowers, &c., resembling a small fan. c, Involucrum universale, a species of calix in which the whole flowers were inclosed before their blowing. d, Involucrum partiale, a lesser calix, which includes a smaller bundle of flowers, and which, before their blowing, is inclosed in the involucrum universale. Examples of these are found in the hemlock, carrot, &c.

5. c, Calyptra; b, operculum; a, capitulum. These terms are peculiar to mosses.

6. Amentum, a species of calix, e.g. in the willow, birch-tree, &c.

7. Strobilus, a pericarpium or capsule composed of an amentum, an example of which occurs in the magnolia.

8. Fungi, a, Pileus; b, volva; c, stipes. These two are mostly applied to the parts of mushrooms.

9. a, Receptaculum commune nudum, the common receptacle, or base of the flower, where the stamina, pistil, capsule, &c., are taken off.

10. Receptaculum commune paleis imbricatum, or common receptacle imbricated or tiled with palea, or membranaceous lamellae.

11. Corolla monopetala, a, Tubus; b, limbus; i.e., a, the tube; b, the edge or margin of a monopetalous corolla. The corolla signifies the flower-leaf, when it consists but of one, and the whole flower-leaves, when it consists of more.

12. Is a flower laid in a proper position for shewing its different parts. a, Germen, which includes the seeds and capsule in which they are inclosed; b, stylus, which is a continuation of the germen; c, stigma, or top of the stylus; d, filaments, or threads; e, e, e, antheræ. The filaments and anthers, considered as a whole, are called stamina; and the germen, stylus, and stigma, as a whole, are called pistillum. f, f, f, Petala, or flower-leaves.

13. a, The unguis, or claws; b, the lamina, or plates of a polypetalous corolla, or corolla consisting of several flower-leaves.

14. a, Nectarium campanulatum in narcissa, or bell-shaped nectarium of the narcissus. Nectarium is applied to every glandular part of a flower which secretes a sweet juice. Their structure is very different in different plants.

15. Nectaria cornuta in aconita, horned nectaria of the monkshood.

16. Horned nectarium in the calyx of the tropæolus.

17. a, a, a, Nectarium in parnassia; the nectaria of the parnassia grafts are six in number, each of which have thirteen styli, with round buttons on their tops.

18. a, Perianthium, that species of calix which is contiguous to the fructification; b, germen; c, stylus; d, stigma; e, e, filaments; f, f, antheræ debifcentes, or anthers shedding the pollen or dust; g, anthera integra, i.e. the appearance of the anthera before it sheds the pollen.

19. a, The filament, and b, the anthera, separated from the flower.

20. a, One grain of the pollen magnified by a microscope; b, halitus elasticus, i.e. an elastic aura supposed to be necessary for impregnating the seeds.

21. a, Germen; b, stylus; c, stigma.

22. Folliculus, i.e. a pericarpium consisting only of one valve, opening longitudinally, and in which the seeds do not adhere to the future, but are inclosed in a particular receptacle a.

23. Legumen, is a double-valved pericarpium, having the seeds fixed only to one of the sutures a.

24. Siliqua, is a double-valved pericarpium with the seeds fixed to both sutures or margins a b.

25. Pomum, a pericarpium without any valve, but made up of a pulpy substance, and containing a capsule in which the seeds are inclosed, as in the apple, &c.

26. a, Drupa, or a pericarpium containing a nut or stone, and having no valve, e.g. plumbs, &c. b, the nucleus, or stone.

27. Baccæ, or berry, is a pericarpium containing naked seeds dispersed through the pulpy part.

28. Capsula apice dehiscens, a capsule opening at the top to allow the seeds to fall out.

29. Four capsules included in a common pericarpium.

30. a, The valves; b, the dissepimentum, or partition which separates the different seed-capsules from one another; c, columella, or central column by which the capsules are connected.

31. A capsule cut open longitudinally, to show the receptacle of the seeds.

32. Pappus, a kind of corona or crown which is either hairy or penniform, and connected to the seeds of some plants, by means of which they are blown about by the wind. a, Pappus pilosus, or pappus resembling a hair; b, pappus plumulosus, or feathered pappus; c, semen; d, stipes. The dandelion, and many plants of the syngenesia class, afford examples of these parts.

Terms belonging to the Pedunculus or Foot-stalks of Flowers.

32. Corymbus, i.e. flowers upon alternate pedunculi and foot-stalks, elevated proportionally above each other.

33. Racemus, a pedunculus or foot-stalk furnished with lateral branches.

34. Spica, alternate sessile flowers [i.e. flowers without any particular foot-stalk, but inserted directly into one common to the whole], upon a common foot-stalk, as in the scirpus.

35. Verticillus. This term is applied to such plants as have clusters of flowers at different distances surrounding the caulis or stem; as in several species of mint.

36. Panicula, i.e. flowers placed sparsely upon separate foot-stalks, as in oats, &c.

When these terms are understood, the genus may be easily investigated. But in order still further to assist the young botanist, we shall give a systematic description of a few common plants belonging to different classes. DIANDRIA MONOGYNYA.

Veronica, or Speedwell.

The Calyx is a perianthium (18), divided into four parts or segments, and persistent (i.e., does not fall off till the seeds are ripe); the segments are sharp and lance-shaped.

The Corolla (11) consists of one rotated petal; the tubus (11) is about the same length with the calyx; the limbus (11) is plane, and divided in four oval segments, the lowest of which is narrower than the rest, and the one immediately opposite broader.

The Stamina (12) are two, narrower below, and inclined upwards; the antheræ (12) are oblong.

The Pistillum (12) has a compressed germen (12), a filiform or thread-like stylus (12), about the same length with the stamina, and a little declined to one side; the stigma (12) is simple.

The Pericarpium (12) is a heart-shaped capsule, compressed at the top, and having two cells or partitions, and four valves.

The Seeds are roundish and numerous.

ICOSANDRIA POLYGAMIA.

Fragaria, or Strawberry.

The Calyx is a perianthium, consisting of one plain leaf, divided into ten segments, each alternately narrower.

The Corolla has five roundish open petals inserted into the calyx.

The Stamina are twenty in number, subulated or tapering, shorter than the corolla, and inserted into the calyx. The antheræ are lunulated, or shaped like a crescent.

The Pistillum consists of many small germina, collected into a little head or knob. The styli are simple, and inserted into the sides of their respective germina. The stigmata are simple.

The Pericarpium is wanting in this plant. But the common receptacle of the seeds, which supplies the place of a pericarpium, is a roundish oval berry, plain at the base, pretty large, soft, pulpy, coloured, and deciduous, i.e., falls off before the seeds be ripe.

The Seeds are small, pointed, very numerous, and dispersed through the superficial part of the receptacle.

DIDYNAMIA ANGIOSPERMIA.

Digitalis, or Fox-glove.

The Calyx is a perianthium, divided into four deep-cut segments, which are roundish, sharp at the top, persistent, and the highest one is narrower than the rest.

The Corolla consists of one bell-shaped petal; the tubus is large, open, ventricose or bellied at the backside; the base is cylindrical and narrow; the limbus is small, and divided into four segments; the superior segment is more open and more emarginated than the rest, and

The Stamina are four, subulated (44), inserted into the base of the corolla, and inclined to the same side; two of them are longer than the other two; the antheræ are divided into two parts, and pointed at the top.

The Pistillum consists of a germen sharp at the top, a simple stylus situate like the stamina, and an acute stigma.

The Pericarpium has an oval capsule, of the same length with the calyx, sharp at the top, having two cells, and two valves which burst open at both sides.

The Seeds are many and small.

TETRADYNAMIA SILIQUOSA.

Sinapis, or Mustard.

The Calyx is a perianthium consisting of four open or spreading leaves; the leaves are linear (43), concave, furrowed, disposed in the form of a crofs, and deciduous.

The Corolla consists of four cruciform petals: The petals are roundish, plain, open, entire or not emarginated, with erect linear ungués (13) scarcely so long as the calyx.

The Nectaria (14, &c.), or glandula nectariferae, are four, of an oval figure, one of which is situate on each side between the short stamina and stylus, and likewise one on each side between the long stamina and the calyx.

The Stamina have six subulated, erect filaments, two of which are of the same length with the calyx, and always opposite to each other, and the other four are uniformly longer; the antheræ are erect, and sharp at the top.

The Pistillum has a cylindrical germen; the stylus is of the same length with the germen, and the same height with the stamina; the stigma is entire, with a little knob or button.

The Pericarpium is an oblong, scabrous, double-celled, two-valved pod, gibbous, and full of little protuberances on the under parts; the dissepimentum (29) is large, compressed, and often twice the length of the valves.

The Seeds are many and round.

MONODELPHIA POLYANDRIA.

Malva, or Common Mallow.

The Calyx is a double perianthium: The exterior one consists of three lanceolate, loose, persistent leaves; the interior has but one large, broad, persistent leaf, divided into five segments.

The Corolla has five plain leaves, united at the base, heart-shaped, and premorse (54).

The Stamina consist of numerous filaments, united into a cylindrical form below, loose above, and inserted into the corolla: The antheræ are kidney-shaped.

The Pistillum has an orbicular germen, a cylindrical, short stylus, and many bristly stigmata of an equal length with the stylus.

The Pericarpium consists of several distinct capsules joined by an articulation, resembling a depressed globe, and and opening from within when ripe: The receptaculum is a kind of column binding the capsules together.

The Seeds are solitary, and kidney-shaped.

SYNGENESIA POLYGAMIA AEQUALIS.

LEONTODON, or DANDELION.

The common Calyx is oblong, and imbricated. The interior scales are linear, parallel, equal, and open at the top; the exterior scales are fewer in number, and frequently reflected at the base.

The compound Corolla is uniform and imbricated.

The small hermaphrodite corollae are very numerous and equal.

The corolla proper to each floscule consists of one liguated (i.e., plain and expanded outwards), linear, truncated (i.e., terminated by a transverse line), and five-toothed petal.

The Stamina consist of five very small capillary filaments: The anthers are connected together, and form a cylindrical tube.

The Germen of the pistillum is situated below the proper corolla. The stylus is filiforme, and nearly of the same length with the corolla: The stigmata are two, and turned back in a spiral form.

This plant has no pericarpium.

The Seeds are solitary, oblong, rough, and terminated by a long papuous stipes (31).

The receptacle, or common base of the floscules (9), is naked, and full of small hollow points.

GYNANDRIA PENTANDRIA.

PASSIFLORA, or PASSION-FLOWER.

The Calyx is a perianthium consisting of five plain, coloured leaves, similar to those of the corolla.

The Corolla consists of five plain obtuse semi-lanceolate leaves, of the same magnitude and figure with those of the calyx.

The nectarium is a triple corona, the exterior of which is longest, surrounding the stylus within the petals, and straitened above.

The Stamina are five, subulated, open, and connected to the stylus at the base of the germen: The anthers are oblong, obtuse, and incumbent.

The Pistillum consists of an erect cylindrical stylus, upon the top of which an oval germen is placed: The styli are three, thicker, and wider above: The stigmata are roundish knobs.

The Pericarpium is a fleshy, suboval, one-celled berry, resting upon the styles.

The Seeds are numerous, oval, and each of them inclosed in a small membrane.

MONOECIA TETRANDRIA.

URTICA, or COMMON NETTLE.

The Calyx of the male flowers is a four-leaved perianthium; the leaves are roundish, concave, and obtuse.

The Corolla has no petals; but there is a small urceolate (i.e., an inflated skin, gibbous on each side) nectarium in the centre of the flower.

The Stamina consists of four subulated open filaments, of an equal length with the calyx, and one of them is placed between each leaf of the calyx: The anthera have no cells.

The Calyx of the female flowers is a double-valved, oval, concave, erect, persistent perianthium.

The Corolla is wanting.

The Pistillum has an oval germen, no stylus, and a downy stigma.

They have no pericarpium.

The Seed is single, oval, shining, and a little compressed.

These examples will not only illustrate most of the generic terms, but will likewise fix them in the mind more successfully than any formal explanation. A careful perusal of them will enable any person to understand the descriptions in the Genera Plantarum of Linnaeus, although he should not be much acquainted with the Latin language.

But the young botanist, after advancing this far, must still be conducted a step further. Though he may be able to reduce plants to their classes, orders, and genera, he is hitherto totally ignorant of the specific characters. Before he be able to investigate the species, he must again submit to learn a considerable number of terms necessary for that purpose.

List of Terms necessary for investigating the Species of Plants.

SIMPLE LEAVES.

Fig. 37. Orbiculatum, globular. 38. Subrotundum, roundish. 39. Ovatum, shaped like an egg. 40. Ovalis, oval or elliptical. 41. Oblongum, oblong. 42. Lanceolatum, in the form of a dart, or tapering on each side to a point. 43. Lineare, like a line, or of the same breadth and thickness throughout. 44. Subulatum, tapering to a point, like an awl. 45. Reniforme, shaped like a kidney. 46. Cordatum, like a heart. 47. Lunulatum, resembling a crescent or half-moon. 48. Triangulare, three-cornered. 49. Sagittatum, like an arrow. 50. Cordate-sagittatum, resembling both a heart and an arrow. 51. Hastatum, like a spear or lance. 52. Fissum, cut in at the top. 53. Tribolum, consisting of three (55) lobes. 54. Premorsum, i.e., as if a piece were bit out of the fore-part of the leaf. 55. Lobatum, consisting of lobes, or segments cut to the middle of the leaf, and convex at the edges. 56. Quinangulare, consisting of five angles. 57. Erosum, Fig.

57. *Erosum*, as if eroded or cut irregularly by some corrosive substance.

58. *Palmatum*, resembling a hand.

59. *Pinnatum*, divided into pieces resembling fins.

60. *Laciniatum*, with many cuts or indentures in the margin.

61. *Sinuatium*, having wide sinuses or hollows in the margin.

62. *Dentato-sinuatium*, having sinuses and divisions resembling teeth.

63. *Retrofum sinuatium*, hollowed and bent backwards.

64. *Partitum*, when the divisions or segments reach near the base of the leaf.

65. *Repandum*, a waving but undivided margin.

66. *Deniatum*, toothed, i.e., when the tops of the segments are remote from each other.

67. *Serratum*, when the segments uniformly incline to the extremity.

68. *Duplicato-ferratum*, doubly serrated, i.e., when the lesser segments incline to the extremities of the larger ones.

69. *Duplicato-crenatum*, doubly crenated.

70. *Cartilagineum*, when the margin of the leaf has a cartilaginous or gristly texture.

71. *Acute-crenatum*, sharp segments having no determinate inclination to either extremity.

72. *Obtuse-crenatum*, the same with the above, only the segments are blunt.

73. *Plicatum*, plaited, or consisting of regular folds.

74. *Crenatum*, segments having no inclination to either extremity.

75. *Crifsum*, when the margin is larger than the disc, and formed into a kind of waves.

76. *Obtusum*, blunt at the top.

77. *Acutum*, sharp, or pointed.

78. *Acuminatum*, when the leaf tapers to a sharp point at the top.

79. *Obtusum acumine*, having a short subulated point.

80. *Emarginatum acute*, having sharp divisions at the top of the leaf.

81. *Unciforme marginatum*, having wedge-shaped divisions at the top.

82. *Retusum*, having blunt sinuses.

83. *Pilosum*, covered with long distinct hairs.

84. *Tomentosum*, interwoven with soft hairs, and often of a white colour.

85. *Hilpidum*, having brittle rough bristles diffusely scattered upon the disc of the leaf.

86. *Ciliatum*, having parallel bristles round the margin.

87. *Rugosum*, full of rugae or wrinkles.

88. *Venosum*, having veins or nerves consisting of many ramifications.

89. *Nervosum*, when the veins or nerves are extended from the base to the top without any branches.

90. *Papillosum*, covered with vehicles, bladders, or hollow points.

91. *Lingualiforme*, like a tongue, i.e., fleshy, linear, obtuse, convex below, and having frequently a cartilaginous margin.

92. *Acinaciforme*, resembling a kernel;—compressed, fleshy, having one edge narrow and convex, and the other thicker and more straight.

93. *Delabiforme*, resembling an ax;—compressed, roundish, gibbous on the outside, with a sharp edge, which is a little blunter below.

94. *Deltoides*, an irregular rhomboidal figure. See the leaf of the black poplar.

95. *Triquetrum*, having three plain sides.

96. *Canaliculatum*, having a deep longitudinal furrow.

97. *Sulcatum*, having several deep furrows.

98. *Terei*, cylindrical, or like a cylinder.

99. *Binatum*, when a simple petiolus has two leaves connected to its apex.

100. *Ternatum foliis sessilibus*, three sessile leaves (i.e., having no petioli) connected to one common petiolus.

101. *Ternatum foliis petiolatis*, three leaves upon a common petiolus, each having at the same time a separate petiolus.

102. *Digitalatum*, or resembling fingers, i.e., when a simple petiolus has two, three, four, or more leaves connected to its apex.

103. *Pedatum*, a bifid or forked petiolus, having small leaves connected to its interior side.

104. *Pinnatum cum impari*, small leaves connected to the sides of a simple petiolus, terminated by an odd leaf.

105. *Pinnatum abruptum*, neither terminated by an odd leaf nor a cirrus.

106. ——— *alternatum*, when the small leaves rise higher and higher alternately upon the petiolus.

107. ——— *interrupte*, when the pinnated leaves are alternately larger and smaller.

108. ——— *cirrhofum*, when the common petiolus ends in a cirrus.

109. ——— *conjugatum*, when the common petiolus has only two leaves connected.

110. ——— *decursive*, when the small leaves run along the petiolus.

111. ——— *articulate*, when the common petiolus is jointed.

112. *Lyratum*, like a harp, i.e., when the leaf is transfervely divided into segments, the superior of which are larger than the inferior, and the inferior ones are more distant from each other.

113. *Biternatum*, or duplicato-ternatum, when the common petiolus has three ternated (100) leaves fixed to it. The epimedium is an example of this.

114. *Bipinnatum*, or duplicato-pinnatum, when the common petiolus gives off pinnated (104) petioli from its sides.

115. *Triternatum*, or triplicato-ternatum, when the common petiolus sends off from its sides three biternated (113) leaves.

116. *Tripinnatum fine impari*, when the common petiolus has three or more bipinnated (114) leaves fixed to its sides, not terminated by a single leaf.

117. ——— *cum impari*, the same with the former, only terminated by a single leaf.

Terms Terms respecting the Determination of Leaves.

Fig. 118. Inflexum, when the leaves bend or arch upwards upon the caulix or stem. 119. Erectum, when the leaves make a very acute angle with the caulix. 120. Patens. This term is applied to leaves which make a more obtuse angle with the caulix than the former. 121. Horizontale, when the leaves stand at right angles with the caulix. 122. Reclinatum, or reflexum, when the leaf bends down, so that the apex is lower than the base. 123. Revolutum, when both sides of the leaf are rolled backwards in a spiral form. 124. Seminale, seed-leaves, or dissimilar leaves. They are the lobes of the seed, which in many plants arise entirely out of the ground, and are always the first that appear above the surface. See Agriculture, p. 41. 125. Caulinum, such as rise immediately from the caulix or stem. 126. Rameum, such as arise from a branch of the caulix. 127. Florale, such as arise from the same place with the flower. 128. Peltatum, when the petiolus is inserted, not into the edge or base, but into the disk of the leaf. 129. Petiolatum, when the petiolus is inserted into the margin of the base. 130. Sefile, when the leaf has no petiolus, but is immediately connected to the caulix. 131. Decurrent, when the base of a sefile (130) leaf is extended downwards along the caulix; as in the verbascum, carduus, &c. 132. Amplexicaule, when the base of the leaf embraces the caulix on all sides. 133. Perfoliatum, when the base of the leaf entirely surrounds the caulix, so that the caulix seems to perforate the leaf. 134. Comatum, when the opposite leaves run into one another, and surround the caulix, as in the eupatorium. 135. Vaginans, when the base of the leaf forms a cylindrical tube inclosing the caulix. 136. Articulatum, in the form of joints, i.e. when one leaf arises from the apex of another. 137. Stellata, radiated like a star, i.e. when more than two leaves surround a verticillated (35) caulix. 138. Quaterna, quina, fena, &c. are species of stellated (137) leaves, when there are four, five, or six, &c. leaves surrounding the caulix. 139. Oppositia, when the leaves of the caulix are exactly opposite to one another. 140. Alterna, when the leaves rise alternately higher upon the caulix. 141. Acerofa, linear, persistent leaves, as in the pinus or fir-tree, &c.

Fig. 142. Imbricata, when the leaves rest upon one another like tiles on a roof. 143. Fasciculata, when many leaves rise from the same point, as in the larynx. 144. Frons. This term is applied to a species of trunk, which consists of branches and leaves, and sometimes the fructification, all united together: It is peculiar to the silices, or ferns, and the palmæ. 145. Spathulatum folium, is a roundish leaf, with a narrow linear base. 146. Parabolum folium, like a parabola, i.e. having its longitudinal diameter longer than the transverse, and growing narrower from the base till it terminates in an oval figure.

Terms relating to the Caules or stems. Plate LVII.

147. Squamosus culmus. The caulix is a trunk or stem peculiar to graminæ; and squamosus culmus is a scaly culmus. 148. Repens caulis. The caulix or stem is a species of trunk peculiar to herbaceous plants, and supports the leaves or parts of fructification: Repens caulis is a stem which gives out small roots on every side, as it runs along the surface of the ground, or upon another plant. 149. Scapar, is a species of trunk which supports the parts of fructification, but has no leaves. 150. Articulatus culmus, a culmus (147) with many joints. 151. Volubilis caulis, a caulix (148) which runs in a spiral form upon the trunk or branch of another plant, &c. 152. Dichotomus caulis, a caulis (145) uniformly dividing into branches. 153. Brachiatus caulis, a caulis having opposite decussating branches, resembling arms.

Terms relating to the Fulera or supports of Leaves.

154. a, Cirrus, a spiral thread which connects the plant to any other body. b, Stipulae, or little scales at the base of the petiolus or pedunculus. c, Glandula concavae, small hollow glands for secreting a liquor. 155. a, Glandula pedicellatae, small glands, each supported by a pedunculus. 156. a, Bractea, or flower-leaf, which differs in shape from the other leaves of the plant b. 157. a, Spina simplex, a simple thorn or prickle. b, Spina triplices, or three prickles proceeding from one. Spina is applied to such thorns as are protruded from the wood of the plant. 158. Aculeus simplex. Aculeus is a prickle not protruded from the wood, but only fixed to the bark. It is said to be simplex, when it rises single. 159. Aculeus triplices, a triple aculeus (158). 160. Oppositia folia, or opposite leaves. a, The axilla or arm-pit. Terms relating to Roots.

Fig. 161. Bulbus squamosus, when the root is composed of imbricated or tiled scales or plates, as in the lily-root. 162. Bulbus solidus, consisting of a solid substance. 163. Bulbus tunicatus, consisting of coats lying above one another, as in the onion. 164. Tuberosa radix, a root consisting of a great many little knots, as in the filipendula. 165. Fufiformis radix, like a spindle, i.e. oblong, thick, and tapering to a point below, as in the root of the carrot. 166. Ramosa radix, having many lateral branches. 167. Repens radix, a root which creeps horizontally, and sends off everywhere smaller roots at different distances.

These are the principal terms necessary for understanding Linnaeus's description of the specific characters of plants.—To make the reader acquainted with the manner in which these terms are used, we shall give a few examples.

Class II. DIANDRIA. Order, MONOGYNYA. Genus, VERONICA, or SPEEDWELL. Species, Veronica arvensis, has solitary flowers, cut, sessile (130), and cordated (46) leaves. Veronica agrestis, has solitary flowers, cut, cordated (46), and petiolated (129) leaves.

Class XVI. MONODELPHIA. Order, POLYGYNYA. Genus, MALVA, or MALLOW. Species, Malva sylvestris, has tomentose (84), crenated (74), and cordated (46) leaves, and oblong hairy spicule (34). Malva sylvestris, has an erect (119) herbaceous caulis (148), with acute (74), seven-lobed (50) leaves, and hairy pedunculi and petioli (129).

Class XIX. SYNGENESIA. Order, POLYGAMIA AQUALIS. Genus, CARDUUS, or THISTLE. Species, Carduus heliotropoides, or melancholy thistle, has lanceolated (42), teethed (66), amplexicaule (132) leaves, with unequal ciliated (86) small spines (158).

Class XXIV. CRYPTOGAMIA. Order, FILICES. Genus, ASPLENIUM, or MAIDENHAIR. Species, Asplenium trichomanes, has a pinnated (104) frons (144); the pinnae (104) are roundish (38) and crenated (74).

To these examples we shall add a complete description of a plant reduced to its class, order, genus, and species, with figures of all the parts necessary for that purpose.

RHEUM PALMATUM, or True Rhubarb. See Plate LVIII.

The flower of this plant has no Calyx. The Corolla dd, consists of one petal, narrower at the base, not perforated, and divided in the margin into six obtuse segments, one less and one larger alternately; the petal is marcellent, i.e. decays, but does not fall off till the seeds be ripe. The Stamina ee, consist of nine capillary filaments inserted into the corolla, and about the same length with it. The antherae are didymous, (i.e. appear to be double), oblong, and obtuse. The Pistillum f, has a short three-sided germen. It can hardly be said to have any style; but has three reflected, plumose stigma. The Pericarpium is wanting. Each flower contains but one large, three-sided, acute seed g, with a membranaceous edge.

The number of stamens determines this plant to belong to the Enneandria class; and the number of Stig mata fixes its order to be Trigynia. The other parts of the above description clearly demonstrate the genus to be the Rheum or Rubarb, and sufficiently distinguish it from the Laurus, Tinus, Caffyta, and Butomus, the only other genera belonging to this class.

The Specific mark is taken from the leaves, which are palmated (58), and sharp and tapering at the points. There are but five species of Rheum, none of whose leaves are palmated, except the species now described.

But though the above description be sufficient for ascertaining the genus and species of this valuable plant, there are other reasons for giving a complete botanical description of the whole parts of it. The true rhubarb, though of the most extensive use in medicine, was never known in this country till the year 1762, when Dr Mounsey brought some seeds from Russia, and gave them to Dr Hope professor of medicine and botany in Edinburgh. Dr Hope sowed them in the botanical garden, and collected about 30 seeds from one of the plants, which rose to eight feet in height. This plant is now propagating in the botanic garden, in the garden of Sir Alexander Dick, and many other gardens in Scotland. The root is found, by repeated trials, to be equally powerful in its operation as the best foreign rhubarb; and we have the greatest reason to hope, that in a short time this plant will be so universally cultivated as to prevent the future importation of it. The first botanic description we have of the true rhubarb was published by Dr Hope in the philosophical transactions for the year 1765*; which we shall translate into English.

* Vid. Phil. Trans. for the year 1765. The Root, is of the branchy kind, and perennial.

The Leaves of (which b in the plate is an outline) are about fifteen in number, grow near the root, about two feet long, and are furnished with petioli or foot-stalks.

—The petioli are about a foot long, cylindrical, plane above, smooth, of a green colour, but in some places interperfed with small, narrow, purple spots; at the base of the leaf, the petioli terminates in three or five large nerves or ribs, which are prominent above; the leaves are ovated, deep cut, with sharp lacinia or segments; the superior part of the base is green, the inferior of a whitish green, and both are a little rough.

The Caulis or Stem is erect, somewhat cylindrical, fultuous or hollow within, jointed, sheathed, rough, striated, about eight feet high, and about two inches over near the base. It has fourteen joints, each of which, from the base to the ninth joint, is furnished with a reflected leaf, placed alternately, gradually diminishing as they rise higher, and the petioli forms a kind of sheath, which embraces the stem.

The Pedunculi or Foot-stalks of the flowers, which are numerous, arise from the axil or arm-pits of the leaves, are almost erect, unequal, striated, cylindrical, plainish at the base, and out of their sides other foot-stalks arise, to be distributed in the same manner.

c, is a flowering branch separated from the stem.

The Taste, Odour, and Colour of the Root are precisely the same with those of the foreign rhubarb.

The Taste of the Flowers is astringent, herbaceous and subacid; they have no sensible smell.

The Taste of the Leaves is bitterish, astringent, and herbaceous; the taste of the Ribs or Nerves is acid, bitterish, and very ungrateful;—the taste of the Stem is a little sour.

We have now pretty fully explained the method of reducing plants to classes, orders, genera, and species, according to the sexual system of Linnæus. The manner in which this explanation has been executed was suggested by the difficulties which naturally occur to a person unacquainted both with the subject and the system. Although this manner has not, so far as we know, been hitherto attempted, we hope it will not be the least acceptable to the public, especially as it is likely to be more useful to the botanical student.

It only now remains to make the reader more fully acquainted with the origin and nature of the sexual system.

Sect. III. Of the Sexes of Plants.

As many philosophers and botanists deny that such a thing as the distinction of sexes takes place in vegetables, it will be necessary to give a narration of the arguments employed by both parties on this subject. We shall begin with the arguments in favour of the sexes.

Linnæus, like every person attached to a particular doctrine or theory, is at great pains in tracing the notion of sexes in plants to the remotest periods of antiquity. He informs us, that Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and other ancient philosophers, not only attributed the distinction of sexes to plants, but maintained that they were capable of perceiving pleasure and pain.

Hippocrates and Theophrastus are next introduced as distinguishing the conyza, the abies, the filix, &c., into male and female. The latter of these writers affirms, that the fruit of the female palm will not germinate unless the pollen of the male be shaked over the spathe of the female, previous to the ripening of the seed.

Dioecorides takes notice of a male and female mandragora, mercurialis, cistus, &c.

Pliny does not confine his views of sex to animals, but exclaims, that every thing this earth produces is characterized by the distinction of sex.

From the days of Pliny to those of Cæsalpinus, who lived in the 16th century, the analogy between the vegetable and animal seems to have been entirely neglected. Cæsalpinus tells us, that the males of the oxycoccus, taxus, mercurialis, urtica, and cannabis, are barren; and that the females of these plants only bear fruit.

After Cæsalpinus, we find Dr Grew and Sir Thomas Millington engaged in a conversation concerning the utility of the stamens and styli of plants. The result of this conversation was the mutual agreement of these two eminent naturalists, that the stamens and styli of vegetables were analogous to the organs of generation in animals, and that they were adapted by nature to answer the same purposes. Dr Grew, in his anatomy of plants, after enumerating the analogies between plants and animals, concludes, that the pollen probably emits certain vivific effluvia, which may serve for the impregnation of the seeds.

Mr Ray gave a further sanction to the doctrine of sexes, by concurring with Grew, and adding some further illustrations from analogy.

In the year 1695, Camerarius attempted to prove the sexes of plants. But, as he trusted solely to the palm-tree, and withal seemed to be doubtful as to the authenticity of the fact, he cannot be considered as having done any thing in confirmation of the sexual hypothesis.

Mr Morland, in the year 1703, adopted the same hypotheses; but gave it a new modification, by supposing that the pollen contained the seminal plant in miniature; and consequently, that one pollen at least behoved to be conveyed into every separate seed before it could be properly impregnated. Analogy and the structure of the parts are the only arguments he employs.

Some years after this, Mr Geoffroy wrote a treatise on the sexes of plants: But as he advanced nothing new, we shall take no further notice of him.

Vaillant, in the 1717, judiciously considering that the canal in the styli of most plants was too narrow to admit the pollen itself, republished Dr Grew's theory of impregnation by means of a subtile seminal aura. These are the sentiments of the principal botanists with regard to the generation of plants, till the celebrated Linnæus made his appearance as a botanical writer, who has extended the idea so far as to compose a complete system upon it.

Although Linnæus can have no claim to the supposed discovery of the sexual hypothesis, his being precisely the same with that of Dr Grew; yet, as he is the chief supporter and improver of this doctrine, we shall give a succinct narration of the arguments he makes use of in order to prove that vegetables propagate their species by a regular commerce of sexes.

In a treatise, intitled, *Sponfalia Plantarum*, published as an inaugural dissertation by Wahlbom, in the first volume of the *Amenitatis Academicae*, all the arguments made use of by Linnæus in his *Fundamenta Botanica* and other works, are collected and arranged in one view. But as Wahlbom honestly attributes all the merit of this dissertation to his great matter, we shall here drop his name altogether, and give the arguments as the property of Linnæus, by whom they were originally employed.

Linnæus, then, first attempts to show, that vegetables are endowed with a certain degree of animal life; and, secondly, that they propagate their species in a manner similar to that of animals.

"That vegetables are really animated beings," says he, "must be obvious at first sight; because they possess all the properties contained in that accurate definition of life laid down by the great Dr Harvey, namely, *Vita est spontanea propulsio humorum*. But universal experience teaches, that vegetables propel humours or juices: Hence it is plain that vegetables must be endowed with a certain degree of animal life."

Not trusting solely to a syllogism founded on a definition, Linnæus proceeds to support the life of vegetables by arguments drawn from the following particulars in their economy; the first of which he intitles

*Nutrition.*—The very idea of nutrition implies a propulsion of humours, and, of course, the idea of life. But vegetables derive their nourishment from the earth, air, &c., and consequently must be considered as living creatures.

"2. Ages.—Every animal must not only begin to exist, and have that existence dissolved by death, but must likewise pass through a number of intermediate changes in its appearance and affections. Infancy, youth, manhood, old age, are characterized by imbecility, beauty, fertility, dotage; are not all these vicissitudes conspicuous in the vegetable world? Weak and tender in infancy; beautiful and salacious in youth; grave, robust, and fruitful in manhood; and when old age approaches, the head droops, the springs of life dry up, and, in fine, the poor tottering vegetable returns to that dust from whence it sprung.

"3. Motion.—No inanimate body is capable of self-motion. Whatever moves spontaneously is endowed with a living principle; for motion depends on the spontaneous propulsion of humours, and where-ever there is a spontaneous propulsion of humours, there also is life. That vegetables are capable of motion is evident from the following facts: Plants, when confined within doors, always bend towards the light, and some of them even attempt to make their escape by the windows. The flowers of many plants, especially those of the syngenesia clasps, pursue the sun from east to west, rejoicing in his beams. Who then can deny that vegetables are possessed of living and self-moving powers?

"4. Morbus.—The term disease means nothing more than a certain corruption of life: It is well known, that vegetables are subject to diseases as well as animals: When over-heated, they turn thirsty, languid, and fall to the ground: When too cold, they are tormented with the chillblain, and not unfrequently expire: They are sometimes afflicted with cancers; and every plant is infected with lice peculiar to its species.

"5. Mors.—Death is opposed to life, the former being only a privation of the latter. Experience shows, that every living creature must die. But, as vegetables are daily cut off by internal diseases and external injuries; as they are subject to death from the attacks of hunger, thirst, heat, cold, &c., with what propriety could vegetables be thus said to die, unless we allow that they previously lived?

"6. Anatomia.—Under this article we are referred to Malpighius and Grew for the organic fibres, membranes, canals, vessels, &c. of plants, as additional proofs of their living powers.

"7. Organization.—Vegetables not only propel humours, but also prepare and secrete a number of different juices for the fruit, the nectar, &c. analogous to the various secretions in animal bodies."

From these facts and observations, Linnæus concludes, that plants are unquestionably endowed with life as well as animals; and then proceeds in the following manner to show how these animated vegetables propagate their species.

After discussing the long exploded doctrine of equivocal generation, he lays hold of another maxim of Dr. Harvey, viz. *Omne vivum ex ovo.*—"It being fully evident," says he, "from the foregoing chain of reasoning, that vegetables are endowed with life, it necessarily follows, agreeable to this maxim of Harvey's, that every vegetable must in like manner derive its existence from an egg. But as vegetables proceed from eggs, and as it is the distinguishing property of an egg to give birth to a being similar to that which produced it, the seeds must of course be the eggs of vegetables.

"Granting then that the seeds of vegetables are intended by nature to answer the same end as the eggs of animals, and considering at the same time that no egg can be fecundated without receiving an impregnation from the male, it follows, that the seed or eggs of vegetables cannot be fecundated by any other means. Hence also the necessity of vegetables being provided with organs of generation. But where are these organs situated? The answer is easy.—We have already found impregnated seeds within the flowers of plants; and it is natural to expect that the genitalia should not be at a great distance. Now, as copulation always precedes birth, and every flower precedes the fruit, the generating faculty must be ascribed to the flower, and the birth to the fruit. Again, as the antheræa and stigmata are the only essential..." Rheum Palmatum or True Rhubarb. tial parts of flowers, these parts must necessarily be the organs of generation."

Being thus far advanced, Linnaeus affirms, that the antheræ are the testes, and that the pollen performs the office of the male semen. These affirmations he attempts to establish by the following arguments; the first of which he terms

"1. Præcedentia.—The antheræ, or vegetable testes, always precede the fruit; and as soon as the antheræ come to maturity, which constantly happens before the maturity of the fruit, they continue to throw out their pollen as long as the flower lasts; but decay and fall off whenever the fruit comes to perfection.

"2. Situs.—The antheræ of all plants are uniformly situate in such a manner that the pollen may with the greatest facility fall upon the stigma or female organ.

"3. Tempus.—The antheræ and stigmata always flourish at the same time, whether the flowers be of the hermaphrodite or dioicous kind.

"4. Loculamenta.—When the antheræ are dissected, they discover as great a variety of structure as the pericarpia or seed capsules: For some of them have one cell, as the mercury; some two, as the heliobore, &c.

"5. Castration.—If all the antheræ be cut off from an hermaphrodite plant, just before the flowers begin to expand, taking care at the same time that no plant of the same species grows near it, the fruit will either prove entirely abortive, or produce barren seeds.

"6. Figura.—When the pollen of different plants is examined by the microscope, it exhibits as great a variety of figures as is discoverable in the seeds themselves.

"The accumulated force of these arguments", concludes Linnaeus, "amounts to a full demonstration that the antheræ are the testes, and that the pollen is the semen or genitura of vegetables.

"The male organ being thus investigated, we hope," says Linnaeus, "that none will hesitate to pronounce the stigma to be the female organ, especially when the following observations are sufficiently attended to.

"The pistillum is composed of the germen, stylus, and stigma. The germen being only a kind of rudiment of the future fetus or seed, ceases to exist as soon as the flower comes to maturity. Neither is the stylus an essential part, as many flowers have no stylus. But no fruit ever comes to maturity without the assistance of the stigma. It follows, that the stigma must be the female organ adapted by nature for the reception of the pollen or impregnating substance. This will appear still clearer from the following chain of reasoning.

"1. Situs.—The stigmata are always situate so that the pollen may with most ease fall upon them. Besides, it is remarkable, that in most plants (though not in all) the number of the stigmata exactly corresponds with the loculamenta or cells of the pericarpium.

"2. Tempus.—Here the observation, that the stigmata and antheræ constantly flourish at the same time, is repeated.

"3. Decidentia.—The stigmata of most plants, like the antheræ, decay and fall off as soon as they have discharged their proper function; which evidently shows, that their office is not to ripen the fruit, but solely to answer the important purpose of impregnation.

"4. Abscissio.—The argument here is precisely the same with the castration of the antheræ; and the result is likewise the same, namely, the destruction of the fruit.

"These arguments," concludes Linnaeus, "are sufficient to demonstrate, that the stigma is the female organ of generation, or that organ which is suited for the reception and conveyance of the semen to the vegetable eggs. Hence, plants may be said to be in actu veneris, when the antheræ, or testiculi, spread their pollen over the stigma or female vulva."

To show how the citus of vegetables is effected, is our author's next object of investigation. He affirms, that the pollen is conveyed, by means of the wind or insects, to the moist stigma, where it remains until it discharges a subtile fluid, which, being absorbed by the vessels of the stigma, is carried to the seeds or ova, and impregnates them. His proofs are taken from the following particulars.

"1. Oculi.—When the flowers are in full blow, and the pollen flying about, every one may then see the pollen adhering to the stigma. This, he illustrates by mentioning as examples the viola tricolor, iris, campanula, &c.

"2. Proportio.—The stamina and pistilla, in most plants are of equal heights, that the pollen, by the intervention of the wind, may, with the greater facility, fall upon the stigma.

"3. Locus.—The stamina of most plants surround the pistillum, to give the pollen an opportunity of falling on the stigma at every breeze of wind. Even in the monocota clas, the male flowers stand generally above the female ones, to afford an easier conveyance of the pollen to the stigma.

"4. Tempus.—It is remarkable that the stamina and pistilla constantly appear at the same time, even in plants belonging to the monocota clas.

"5. Pluvia.—The flowers of most plants expand by the heat of the sun and shut themselves up in the evening or in rainy weather. The final cause of this must be to keep the moisture from the pollen, lest it should be thereby coagulated, and of course prevented from being blown upon the stigma.

"6. Patinica.—That the cultivators of palm trees were in use to pull off the spadices from the males, and suspend them over the spathe of the females, is attested by Theophrastus, Pliny, Proper Alpinus, Kempfer, and many others. If this operation happened to be neglected, the dates were sour and destitute of nuts. Kempfer adds this singular circumstance, that the male spadix, after being thoroughly dried and kept till next season, still retained its impregnating virtue.

"7. Flores nutantes.—As the pollen is specifically heavier than air, such flowers as have their pistillum longer than the stamina, hang down, or incline to one side, e.g. the fritillaria, campanula, &c. An easy admission of the pollen to the stigma, is the final cause of this appearance.

"8. Submersio.—Many plants that grow below water, emerge when their flowers begin to blow, and swim upon the surface till they receive their impregnation, and then sink down.

"O. Omnium florum genuina consideratio.—Here a number of particulars are recited. We shall confine ourselves to those that are most striking and applicable to the subject.

"When the flowers of the male hemp are pulled off before those of the female are fully expanded, the females do not produce fertile seeds. But as a male flower is sometimes found upon a female plant, this may be the reason why fertile seeds are sometimes produced even after this precaution has been observed.

"The tulip affords another experiment to the same purpose.—Cut off all the anthers of a red tulip before the pollen is emitted; then take the ripe anthers of a white tulip, and throw the pollen of the white one upon the stigma of the red; the seeds of the red tulip being thus impregnated by one of a different complexion, will next season produce some red, some white, but most variegated flowers."

In the year 1744, Linnæus published a description of a new genus, which he called peloria, on the supposition of its being a hybrid or mule plant, i.e., a plant produced by an unnatural commixture of two different genera. The root, leaves, caulis, &c. of this plant are exceedingly similar to those of the antirrhinum lindera; but the flower and other parts of fructification are totally different. On account of its similarity to the lindera in every part but the flower, Linnæus imagined it to have been produced by a fortuitous commixture of the lindera with some other plant, although he has never yet been able to condescend on the father. This doctrine of the production of mule plants has since been greatly prized and carefully propagated by Linnæus and the other supporters of the sexual hypothesis. In the third volume of the Commentarii Academici, there is a complete dissertation, intitled, Planta Hybrida, wherein the doctrine of vegetable mules is much improved and extended. This dissertation contains a list of 47 mules, with their supposed fathers and mothers. For example,

The Veronica Spuria is said to be a mule plant begot by the verbena officinalis upon the veronica maritima. The delphinium hybrida, a mule begot by the aconitum napellus upon the delphinium elatum. The arctotis calendula, a mule begot by the calendula pluvialis upon the arctotis triflora. The asclepias nigra, a mule begot by the cynanchum acutum upon the asclepias vincetoxicum, &c.

From the examples given in this dissertation, Linnæus draws this singular conclusion, that only two species of each genus existed ab origine; and that all the variety of species which now appear have been produced by unnatural embraces betwixt species of different genera.

Under this head, Linnæus likewise quotes from Ray the story of Richard Baal gardener at Brentford. This Baal sold a large quantity of the seeds of the brassica florida to several gardeners in the suburbs of London. These gardeners, after sowing their seeds in the usual manner, were surprised to find them turn out to be plants of a different species from that which Baal made them believe they had purchased; for, instead of the brassica florida, the plants turned out to be the brassica longifolia. The gardeners, upon making the discovery, commenced a prosecution of fraud against Baal in Westminster-hall. The court found Baal guilty of fraud, and decreed him not only to restore the price of the seeds, but likewise to pay the gardeners for their lost time, and the use of their ground.

"Had these judges (says Linnæus) been acquainted with the sexual hypothesis, they would not have found Baal guilty of any crime, but would have ascribed the accident to the fortuitous impregnation of the brassica florida by the pollen of the brassica longifolia."

Linnæus next proceeds to celebrate the utility of insects, because they convey the pollen of the male to the stigma of the female. "In this way," says he, "it is reasonable to think that many dioicous plants are impregnated. Nay, even the hermaphrodites themselves are greatly obliged to the different tribes of insects, which, by fluttering and treading in the corolla, are constantly scattering the pollen about the stigma.

"Upon the whole," then, concludes Linnæus, "the coitus of vegetables is evident to a demonstration. This coitus is nothing more than the conveyance of the pollen to the stigma, to which it adheres till it bursts and discharges a subtile elastic fluid. This fluid or aura is absorbed by the vessels of the stylus, and carried directly to the ovarium or germen, where the mysterious work of impregnation is fully completed."

These are the arguments employed by Linnæus and other advocates for the sexual commerce of vegetables.—Let us next attend to those employed by the opposers of this hypothesis.

It is admitted by Pontedera, Dr Alton, &c. that some of the ancients applied the terms male and female to several plants. But then they deny that these terms conveyed the same ideas to the ancients that they do to the moderns. Male and female, when applied to plants, were to the ancients mere terms of distinction, serving only as trivial names to distinguish one species or variety from another. The ancients were ignorant of the very characters which constitute the difference between what is called a male and female plant among the moderns. Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Pliny, and, in a word, the whole ancient botanical writers, confound the very notion of the modern sexes; they call the real female, or seed-bearing plant, the male; and the male, or barren plant, the female. Nay, they have even applied the terms male and female to many plants which bear nothing but hermaphrodite flowers.

Such is the nature of this controversy, that it cannot be determined with any degree of certainty, but by experiments made upon dioicous plants. If a female plant can produce fertile seeds without having any communication with the pollen of the male, the use of this pollen, with respect to the impregnation of seeds, must of necessity be entirely superfluous.

Now, both Camerarius and Dr Alton tried these experiments with the same success. Those two eminent botanists took female plants of the mercury, spinach, and hemp. hemp, transplanted them at a great distance from any males of the same genus, and besides had them inclosed by double rows of hedges. The result was, that each of these plants produced great quantities of fertile seeds. Tournefort made the same trial upon the lupinus, Miller upon the bryony, and Geoffroy upon the mays; and all of them declare that the seeds of these plants were as fertile as if they had been surrounded by a thousand males.

Linnaeus, in his first argument for the coitus of plants, refers every man to the evidences of his senses.

"Do we not see, (says he) the stigma of almost every hermaphrodite flower covered over with the pollen or impregnating substance? Do not we see the parietaria, the urtica, &c., by violent explosions, discharging their pollen in the open air, that it may be carried in that vehicle to the stigmata of their respective females?"—All this is admitted by the opposers of the sexes; but then they deny that these explosions, &c., are intended to create any intercourse between the male and the female; and further allege, that this ejection of the pollen is intended by nature to throw off something excrementitious, or at least something which, if retained, would prove noxious to the fructification.

Linnaeus takes his second argument from the proportion which the stamens bear to the style, alleging that they are generally of the same height.—This observation is not only contrary to experience, but, allowing it to be universal, no conclusion can be drawn from it either for or against the sexual hypothesis.

The third argument is taken from the locus or situation of the stamens with respect to the style; "and as the male flowers in the monoecia clasps stand always above the female flowers, it must be concluded (says Linnaeus) that the intention of nature, in this disposition of the parts, is to allow a free and easy access of the pollen to the stigma."—But the stamens cannot be said to surround the pistil in the monandra and diandra classes: And the position of the male flowers in the monoecia clasps is a mere chimera; for in the ricinus, one of the examples which Linnaeus mentions in confirmation of his doctrine, the female flowers stand uniformly some inches above the males.

That the stamens and pistils generally come to perfection at the same time, and that this happens even in the dioecious plants, is Linnaeus's fourth argument. But, as it is acknowledged by Linnaeus himself, that there are many exceptions with respect to this fact, the opposers of the sexual hypothesis allege that it carries the best answer in its own bosom.

The fifth argument is founded on the circumstance of some flowers shutting up their petals in rainy or moist evenings.—But many flowers do not shut themselves up, either in the night or moist weather, as the passion-flower, &c. The lychnis noctiflora, mirabilis peruviana, &c., open their flowers in the night, and shut them at the approach of the sun. Hence this is another final cause evidently perverted to support a favourite hypothesis.

We come now to the culture of the palm-tree, which is the sixth and most plausible argument employed by the sexualists. Herodotus, Theophrastus, Pliny, and some others, have informed us, that the female palm-tree, unless a male grows sufficiently near it, or unless the pollen be artificially conveyed to the female spathe, will produce nothing but four dates and unfertile seeds. This fact is partly denied by Pere-Labat and Tournefort. The former of these authors expressly affirms, that a female palm-tree, in the garden belonging to the monastery at Martinico, produced most excellent fruit, although there was not a male within six miles of it: From which he concludes, that the presence of the male is not necessary to render this tree fruitful, whatever may be pretended by ancient or modern naturalists. Herodotus relates, that the people of Babylon, when the male was at too great a distance from the female, made a rope pass from the boughs of the one to the boughs of the other, to afford an opportunity to the culices and other insects to pass along the rope, and convey some kind of impregnating influence from the male to the female. Tournefort, when he was in that country, inquired at the most intelligent people of the place, as to the truth of this relation; but received for answer, That they had never heard of any such matter. Even the favourers of the sexual hypothesis give very different accounts of the method of cultivating palm-trees in those countries. Vellingius, who resided many years in Egypt, denies that any artificial method is employed for fructifying the palm-trees in that country. Thus Vellingius expressly contradicts Herodotus and many others. In a word, almost every different author gives a different account of this story. Amidst so many contradictions concerning the culture of palm-trees, the opposers of the sexes conclude, that the whole story is a vulgar error, taken for granted by some learned men, spuriously fathered upon others, and swallowed down without examination by their credulous readers.—As we have not seen any answer to Myletius's letter on this subject, our observations upon it shall be reserved till this historical view of the controversy be finished.

The seventh argument of Linnaeus is taken from the flores nutantes.—The pistils of these flowers, according to Linnaeus, are always longer than the stamens, and nature has assigned them this penile posture, that the pollen, which is specifically heavier than air, may the more conveniently fall upon the stigma.—But the pistils of the campanula, lilium, and many other flores nutantes, are not longer than the stamens. Besides, granting this were uniformly the case; yet, as the pollen is heavier than air, this posture must of necessity either make the pollen miss the pistil altogether, or, at any rate, it can only fall upon the back part of the pistil in place of the stigma; and, of course, such a direction would rather tend to frustrate than promote the impregnation of the seed.

The eighth argument is taken from the plantae submersae, which are said to emerge as soon as their flowers begin to blow, lest the pollen should be coagulated or washed off by the water.—But many submarine and aquatic plants fructify entirely below water; and, supposing they did not, the same argument would equally prove it to be the intention of nature, that the pollen should be blown away by the winds, as that it should be subservient to the impregnation of the seed. The ninth and last argument is intitled *Omnium florum genuina consideratio*; which is nothing more than a collection of vague observations upon the structure and economy of particular plants, some of them true, others false, but all of them evidently thrust in as supports to a favourite hypothesis.

Having thus given a pretty full historical view of the controversy concerning the sexes of plants, we shall now lay before our readers a few observations that have occurred from the perusal of it.

It may be observed in general, that the facts and arguments adduced by the sexualists are by far too few to admit of any general induction. Nay, most of them are merely accidental, many of them not being uniform even in the same species; and the final causes of the whole are unnatural, and tortured so as best to answer the purposes of a theory, which, for all that hath yet been said, merits no higher appellation than that of a whimsical conjecture.

First, then, Linnæus's reasoning is of a mixt nature, partly analogical, partly founded on observation. He sets out with an attempt to prove, that plants are endowed with a certain degree of animal life; and his fundamental reason is, because agreeable to Dr Harvey's definition of life, they *spontaneously propel humours*.—Strange, that a man of Linnæus's capacity, or indeed of any capacity at all, should seriously employ an argument pregnant with every degree of absurdity!—Stranger still that he should take up near twenty pages in illustrating and drawing conclusions from such an argument!—If Harvey has given a vague and unintelligible definition of life, can that be a sufficient excuse for laying hold of such a definition in order to fortify an untenable hypothesis? But, were Harvey's definition more accurate than it is, and were vegetables actually possessed of living powers, it is easy to conceive how the life of vegetables might be a proper test of, or contradiction to, the received definition: But, how a definition, which, from the complex and intricate nature of the subject defined, must necessarily be vague and precarious, can be employed in confirmation of any general theory, exceeds the powers of common apprehension.

But let us examine this notable definition a little further: What idea of life does a spontaneous propulsion of humours convey? If Harvey means to say, that men and other animals regulate the motion of their blood, and the secretions of their different humours, by certain exertions of the sentient principle, such a meaning is contradicted by universal experience; so far is this from being the case, that the most abstract attention cannot render us conscious of these motions. Again, if he means, that every body is endowed with life, whose organs are suited to propel humours, then the term *spontaneous* is absurd, because it attributes intellectual powers to the organs themselves, than which nothing can be more ridiculous. Besides, allowing the organs to enjoy an independent faculty of propulsion, what does this propulsion mean when applied to vegetables? Surely nothing more than a power of conveying certain liquors from the root to the superior parts of the plant. A wet cloth, with one end in contact with the water in any vessel, and the other hanging over its side, will do the same; so will a sponge, so will a bed of loose sand, so will a sugar loaf, &c.; but it is to be hoped, that mankind have more sense than to believe that a bit of cloth; or a sugar loaf, are animated beings.

As conscious of the lameness and futility of his reasoning on this subject, Linnæus endeavours further to corroborate the life of vegetables by analogies drawn from their nutrition, age, motions, diseases, death, anatomy, and organization. In these nothing new or remarkable occurs, excepting the uncommon method of reasoning, and the still more whimsical purposes to which this reasoning is applied. We shall take notice of his arguments under the articles of motion and death, which indeed are the chief of those which do not depend more or less upon the above definition.

Under the former of these, Linnæus informs us, that plants, when confined within doors, always bend towards the light; and that many flowers, particularly those of the *lyngena* class, pursue the course of the sun from east to west. This inclination of flowers towards the light, Linnæus would have us to believe are real instances of the living powers and spontaneous motion of plants.—This phenomenon, however, may be easily accounted for, independent of any idea of life. Every body knows, that a certain degree of heat relaxes the tone of the vegetable organs, and at the same time proportionally evaporates the fluids which these organs contain. Now, to whatever side of the plant that heat is principally applied, there of necessity must also be the greatest laxity of the fibres, and the greatest evaporation of the fluids; of course, from the law of gravitation, the flower, indeed the whole plant, must incline towards that side from whence the light or heat proceeds. The slightest observation is sufficient to convince us of the propriety of this method of accounting for the inclination of heavy flowers supported by weak stems, towards the rays of the sun. If a pot of flowers be put loosely into a glass, and allowed to remain a little time in an apartment where a fire is burning, as soon as the fibres begin to be enervated, they all, unless obstructed by some other cause, bend towards the fire. Hence the absurdity of ascribing this phenomenon to a sentient and living principle, which is more easily and with more certainty explained by the common laws of mechanism.

Let us next attend to Linnæus's argument under the article of death. After telling us, with much solemnity, that death is only a privation of life, and that vegetables die of many grievous distempers, he thus concludes; "With what propriety," says he, "could vegetables be thus said to die, unless it be allowed that they previously lived?" However, if the life of vegetables hath no other support than this trifling quibble, (for it merits not the name of argument), we are afraid that every man of common sense will conclude, that they never were endowed with life, and consequently cannot, with any more propriety than an ordinary figure of speech can bestow, be said to die.

Having in this manner attributed living powers to vegetables, Linnæus, in the next place, makes an effort to show Botany.

Now, that they enjoy the faculty of generation. But what process of argumentation does he employ? He lays hold of another maxim of Dr Harvey: "Omne vivum ex ovo," says Harvey. "Now," adds Linnaeus, "we have already proved that vegetables live; and therefore they must in like manner derive their origin from eggs. Again, no eggs can be fertilized without receiving an impregnation from the semen of the male: And hence the eggs or seeds of vegetables must likewise be impregnated by the male vegetable semen, in order to their fertilization. Further, it is an essential property of an egg to produce a creature of the same species with that from which itself was produced: Hence the seeds are the eggs of vegetables. Besides, as the antherae and stigmata are the only essential parts of a flower, it follows, that these parts are the organs of generation." In this way Linnaeus goes on till he finds the antherae to be the testes; the pollen, the semen; and the stigma, the female organ of generation.

But, as we have already shewn that Linnaeus has remarkably failed in the proof of his first point, namely, that vegetables are endowed with life, his subsequent reasoning, which rests solely on the supposition of the living powers of vegetables, must of course fall to the ground.

However, allowing a spontaneous propulsion of humours to be a perfect definition of life, philologists are far from being agreed with regard to the propriety of Harvey's second maxim. "Omne vivum ex ovo" may be be applied to a great variety of animals. But to this day it remains a very doubtful point, whether man and most quadrupeds derive their existence from the same source. Hence the impropriety of drawing an analogy from a property not universal even among the animal creation in order to support an imaginary one among the vegetable tribes.

When our author comes to explain the manner in which the coitus of vegetables is performed, he tells us, that the pollen may be seen lying upon the top of the stigma in most hermaphrodite flowers, where it is dissolved by the moisture which constantly adheres to that part; and after this dissolution, that the seminal aura contained in the pollen is absorbed by the stigma, and so conveyed directly to the seeds.

This account of the coitus lies open to two objections, 1st, Admitting that the pollen may be seen adhering to the stigmata of most hermaphrodite plants, and admitting likewise that moisture causes the pollen to burst and discharge a fluid, still a very natural question occurs with regard to the absorbing quality of the stigma. It is true, that the top of the stigma is generally covered with moisture. But does not this indicate that the proper office of the stigma is to secrete and propel rather than to absorb moisture? It will be the more readily admitted, that the vessels of the stigma are not suited to absorb, if it be considered that the moisture of the stigma is subjected to a constant evaporation, and of course must always stand in need of new supplies of this liquor, which can flow from no other source than the internal vessels of the stigma itself. It may indeed be alleged, that the stigma is furnished with two sets of vessels, one for absorbing the seminal fluid, another for secreting the dissolving.

No body, however, has ever pretended to show that the stigma is possessed of any peculiar vessels for absorbing; whereas every man's eyes will convince him that it is possessed of secreting vessels: Hence, until the absorbing quality of the stigma be sufficiently proved, the possibility of an impregnation in this way must at least remain problematical.

2dly, Linnaeus makes the appearance of the pollen adhering to the stigmata of hermaphrodite flowers an ocular demonstration of an actual coitus. Granting this to be an ocular demonstration of the coitus of vegetables, should not the pollen be likewise seen adhering to the stigmata of dioicous plants? But the appearance of pollen upon the stigmata of dioicous plants has never yet been discovered. We may, therefore, fairly conclude, that if the appearance of pollen upon the stigmata of hermaphrodite flowers be an ocular demonstration of the coitus or copulation of plants, the want of that appearance, or no pollen's being ever seen upon the stigmata of dioicous flowers, must likewise be an ocular demonstration of the contrary!

In supporting theoretical opinions, mankind are extremely apt to render the subject ridiculous by pushing them too far. No man ever blundered more remarkably in this respect than Linnaeus. He is not satisfied with attributing life and a generative faculty to plants: He must likewise attempt to prove, that this generative faculty is so strong and vigorous, as to enable them to produce hybrids or mules, by means of unnatural mixtures.

In support of this notion, he tells us, that, when the antherae of a red tulip are cut off, and the ripe antherae of a white one are placed over the stigma of the red one, the seeds of the red tulip, by this artificial impregnation, will produce flowers streaked with red and white. Of this fact no body who knows anything of the nature of tulips, and the changes to which the colour of their flowers are liable, will entertain any doubt. But this change of colour is evidently ascribed to a wrong cause; for the same change would unquestionably happen whether the antherae of the white tulip had been placed over the stigma of the red one or not. When tulips blow for the first time, their petals are generally of one uniform colour. For several succeeding seasons this original colour continues to vary, in so much that, by certain methods of culture, the colour of the flower may be varied without end. Linnaeus, in his systematic works, wisely cautions his readers not to found any distinctions upon the colour of plants, which, he observes, is subject to such numberless alterations from culture, soil, and other casual incidents, that it can never furnish the botanist with any permanent or uniform marks. With what propriety, then, Linnaeus attributes the change in the colour of this tulip to his artificial impregnation, is submitted to the consideration of his warmest admirers.

The first hint of mules was taken from a plant the figure and disposition of whose leaves, &c., resembled the antirrhinum linaria, or common yellow toad-flax; but attended with this peculiarity, that its parts of fructification were entirely dissimilar. Linnaeus, when the plant was first presented to him, imagined it to be some kind of deception. But, after a more accurate examination, the notion of a furious issue opportunely came to his aid. The thought pleased him on a double account: It had a direct tendency to corroborate his favourite hypothesis, and laid the foundation of another still more extravagant. Now, thinks he, by this ineffable discovery, we shall be enabled to take a dry and rigid plant from the mountain's top, make it copulate with a moist and spungy aquatic, and their offspring will participate of the rigidity and hardness of the former, together with the moisture and flaccidity of the latter; and hence mankind shall soon be blessed with an easy purchase of their united virtues when flourishing in the intermediate vale! More wonderful still, we shall cause the plants which dwell upon the frozen mountains of Greenland to intermarry with the more delicate and wayward inhabitants of the torrid zone; and the constitutions of their children shall be so moulded and attempered, that they will live most comfortably in every temperate clime!—Not contented with extracting two theories out of this single plant, Linnaeus forms a third still more wild and fantastic: "From this curious phenomenon," says he, "it is natural to think, that only two species of each genus existed ab origine, and that all the variety of species which now appear are only the span of fortuitous commixtures!"

If either the fortuitous or artificial copulation of two different species were capable of producing a third perfectly distinct from the other two, the number of species would be infinite. According to our author, every blast of wind, every butterfly, would daily produce hundreds of new species. Neither the gardener nor husbandman could practice seeds with safety, unless they could discover, from inspection, whether they had been impregnated by the semen of the same, or of a different species. Linnaeus would have us to believe, not only that different species of the same genus copulate together, but even that genera belonging to different classes engender, and beget mules. For example, he makes the poterium hybridum a mule, begot by the agrimonia eupatoria upon the poterium sanguiforba. The agrimonia belongs to the dodecandra digynia class, and the poterium to the monocca polyandria. Now, let any man seriously consider the unavoidable consequences that would follow on the supposition that this wanton profusion of sexes really existed among vegetables. In the first place, it would be impossible to reduce botany to any regular system; for every season would produce such a troop of new and strange plants, as would confound every scheme or method of classification that ever was, or ever will be invented. A botanist, for instance, carefully collects and preserves the seeds of the poterium, in order to raise that plant next season; but, after sowing the seeds, to his utter astonishment, not a single poterium appears, but every one of them is metamorphosed into a species of agrimonia, a plant so totally different that it cannot even be arranged under the same class. Sadly, Linnaeus is obliged to confess, that his vegetable mules, are not subjected to that perverse law of nature, which cruelly prevents animal mules from propagating their species. On the contrary, his vegetable mules enjoy all the sweets of mutual embraces, and all the comforts that arise from a numerous progeny! It is a happy circumstance that the economy of nature is not influenced by the whims and caprices of those very ingenious and learned gentlemen whose heads are constantly hunting after hypothetical phantoms.

There is hardly a general theory of the economy of animals, or vegetables, which, on the supposition of its truth, would not in a very short time extirpate both animals and vegetables from the face of the earth. In the theory under consideration, we have not only mules produced by different genera and species, but these very mules successfully propagating their kinds, and subject to be metamorphosed ad infinitum by subsequent impregnations. This would be strange work indeed! How unlike the economy of nature!—Let us take an example, and trace it through a few metamorphoses. A nettle receives an impregnation from an oak, the seed falls to the ground, a plant of a very uncouth aspect springs up; it is no longer a nettle, neither is it an oak; but then it makes an excellent mule! This mule next receives an impregnation from a turnip; the seed now brings forth neither a nettle, an oak, nor a common mule, but something so monstrous that no language can afford a name for it! These are a few of the consequences that would inevitably happen, if this theory of sexual embraces were really founded in nature.

It is natural to think, that no author would venture to publish a theory of this kind, without having previously made a great variety of successful experiments. If plants were really capable of unnatural commixtures, any person might make many hundred mules in the space of twelve months. But we can affirm with confidence, that Linnaeus never made a single vegetable mule in his life. He has indeed collected forty-seven plants which he calls mules. Why? not because they were produced by an artificial or fortuitous impregnation; but because the leaves, stem, or parts of fructification have a resemblance to some other genus or species; even of these forty-seven he acknowledges that thirteen cannot be depended upon. The only attempts he has made to produce mules, have been confined to a few hermaphrodite plants: When endeavouring to impregnate a plant, Linnaeus proceeds in this manner: He lays hold of a hermaphrodite plant just before the flowers begin to blow; unfolds the petals, cuts off all the stamens, and then with his own hands performs the office of a male plant, by shaking the pollen of a different species over its pistillum. This operation being finished, he sows the seeds next season:—Now, if Linnaeus's theory were just, these seeds should produce mules, or plants which cannot be referred to any of the two species upon which the experiment was made. But all the changes he has ever been able to produce by his manual impregnations are confined to the colour of the flower; a different streak or shade in the petals passes with him for a mule or mixture of the species, although, in other parts of his works, he positively declares, that generic or specific differences can never be taken from the colour of flowers, as it is constantly liable to a thousand changes from causes that are merely fortuitous.

But no experiment can be made with any degree of candor upon hermaphrodite flowers. No man can determine with certainty what changes the young seeds may undergo, what injury they may suffer, by prematurely forcing open their petals and cutting off the stamens. If a pregnant animal be wounded, and in a part too intimately connected with the fetus, what reason have we to hope for a beautiful or well-proportioned offspring? One thing however is certain, that if the office of the stamina, as is alleged by the opposers of the sexes, be to separate and carry off noxious or excrementitious matter from the fruit, the retention of this matter would of itself introduce a change into the colour of the future plant; because in that case the seeds would not be properly purged or rectified, being prematurely deprived of the veils destined for that purpose.

We shall now examine the famous story of Baal the gardener at Brentford, related above in the historical view of the controversy. Linnaeus accuses Baal's judges of ignorance, because they convicted him of fraud. But, would not any judge smile to hear himself branded with ignorance, or a partial administration of justice, merely because he paid no regard to the sexual commerce of plants in his decisions? It is happy for mankind that judges are obliged to decide according to law or equity, and not according to the hypothetical whims of the naturalist.—But, even supposing Baal's judges to have had a perfect knowledge of the sexual commerce of vegetables, and to have been at full liberty to determine the point of law upon that medium, if they had acquitted Baal of fraud, or at least of negligence, we should have been inclined to doubt both of their integrity and ingenuity.—It is acknowledged, that great quantities both of the brassica floridula and brassica longifolia were raised that season in Baal's garden. A seedman or gardener, in packing up many parcels of different seeds, by the simple error of putting a wrong mark upon any of the parcels, would produce a mistake similar to this of Baal's. But, whether the circumstance took its rise from negligence or fraud, belongs not to our present inquiry. Even upon Linnaeus's own principles, it is far from being clear of absurdity, how, by a casual impregnation, the species of a plant could be entirely changed. For, by the analogy of all animals, nay, taking our analogy from Linnaeus's vegetable mules, this fortuitous impregnation should have only produced a mule, or mixture of the two species, and not a perfect metamorphosis of either. Hence it may be fairly concluded, that this famous story, upon which the sexualists lay so much stress, instead of strengthening, tends to the final destruction of that hypothesis in support of which it was originally advanced.

Of a similar nature is the story contained in Mylius's letter to Dr Watson. This gentleman writes to his correspondent, "that a female palm tree grew many years in the garden belonging to the Royal Academy at Berlin, without producing any ripe or fertile fruit; that a male branch, with its flowers in full blow, was brought from Leipzig, which is about twenty German miles from Berlin, and suspended over the female; the result of this operation was, that the female, that very year, produced 100 ripe and fertile fruit. The same experiment being repeated the following year, 2000 ripe fruit were produced."—Not to call Mylius's veracity in question, we shall allow the fact to be as he has related it: Nevertheless it is far from being satisfactory. Berlin is not the native climate of palm-trees. Mylius informs us, that this palm bore flowers and fruit for thirty years before the experiment was tried; but the fruit never came to full maturity. Now it is well known, that many exotic plants, particularly those of the larger kinds, seldom produce ripe fruit in a climate which is not adapted by nature for their nourishment, unless they are assisted by artificial culture, and have grown in that climate for a great number of years. Mylius's palm-tree had carried unripe fruit for the space of thirty years. Now, according to the usual course of exotics, it is natural to think that, during all this time, the fruit was every season making gradual advances towards perfection: it might so fall out, then, that at the very season when the male branch was suspended over the female, the plant had arrived at the highest degree of perfection it could ever acquire in the climate of Berlin; and of course, the accidental circumstance of suspending the male branch over it, at this critical period, might give rise to the deception of attributing the perfection and fertilization of the fruit to the presence of the male branch. The circumstance of the tree's bringing forth only 100 ripe fruit the first year, and 2000 the second, remarkably favours this account of the matter.

However, be this as it will, the experiment is so very defective, that no conclusion can be drawn from it either for or against the sexual hypothesis. To convince any thinking person, that the fertility of this tree was solely owing to some impregnating virtue derived to it from the male branch, a branch should have been suspended over the female one year, omitted the next, and so on alternately for a course of years, or (as Linnaeus would express it), giving her a husband one year, and depriving her of that gratification the next. After treating the female in this manner for several years, if it had uniformly happened, that the fruit was fertile every year the male branch was suspended over it, and unfertile every year that the suspension of the male branch was omitted, then indeed there would have been a foundation for concluding, that there was some connection between the fertility of the fruit and the presence of the male branch. But as this necessary step has been neglected, the experiment is incomplete, and the conclusion drawn from it uncandid and precipitate.

We cannot conclude our remarks on this theory, without hazarding a few observations on the truly miraculous effects which Linnaeus ascribes to the wind. In accounting for the impregnation of all the dioecious and most of the hermaphrodite plants, recourse is constantly had to the wind, which is said to convey the pollen of the male to the stigma of the female. When the female again is at such a distance as to render the carriage of the pollen suspicious or impossible, our author is not discouraged by this circumstance, but confidently affirms, that some insect has been rummaging amongst the stamina of the male, carries off a quantity of the pollen adhering to its legs, and, unconscious of its precious load, flies from flower to flower till it arrives at the unmarried female, where where stopping to take another bait, it luckily deposits some of this adhering pollen directly upon the stigma of the female.

Here it is proper to observe, that generation is one of the capital, and indeed one of the most important laws of nature that we are acquainted with. The laws of nature are all fixed, steady, and uniform in their operation. None of the effects produced by them are subject to those uncertainties which always result from chance or any fortuitous train of circumstances. But is there anything in nature more unfettered, delusive, and capricious than the direction and motions of the wind? Can we form a conception of anything more casual and fortuitous than the wild and wayward paths of insects? The very supposition, therefore, that nature has left the generation of at least a tenth part of the whole vegetable tribes to these accidental causes, must be unphilosophical, whimsical, and absurd. We will be the more readily convinced of the absurdity of this doctrine, when it is considered that many of the monoecious and dioecious plants are of the utmost importance to the human race, and the consequent impropriety that the fructification of these should be subject to the sport of the winds.

After all, it requires the utmost stretch of fancy to conceive the possibility of a regular impregnation by means of the wind, even when the male and female are within 500 yards of each other, which is a much more favourable supposition than two, three, or according to some authors, a dozen of miles. Conceive then a male and female hemp, or any other dioecious plant, growing 500 yards asunder. Let the male and female flowers, which, by the by, is not always the case, blow at the same time. Well, the antherae are fully ripe; the pollen is discharged; and the stigma, as our author expresses it, gaping wide for its reception. Now, even this favourable supposition is subject to so many accidents, and pregnant with such a troop of improbabilities, that it is absolutely impossible, upon any principles of belief hitherto invented, to be fully persuaded that the pollen, in such circumstances, can be thus conveyed on the wings of the wind, directly to the stigmas, a point in most plants just not invisible.—To accomplish a regular impregnation in this way, whenever the antherae are ripe, the wind must blow in a direct line from the male to the female; if the blast be too strong, it will overthrust the mark; if too weak, it will fall short of it; if any vegetable or other body higher than the plants themselves intervene, the progress of the pollen will be intercepted;—if it rains, the pollen will be beat to the ground;—the least tremor of the air, or smaller blast reflected from any other quarter, will infallibly alter the direction of this fluctuating pollen.—Nay, supposing Linnæus, or any other expert botanist, should take his station by the male plant, having his pockets loaded with pollen; suppose him further to take every advantage of wind and weather, and aiming at the female, let him, for hours together, throw at her repeated handfuls of this fructifying pollen, it is a thousand to one, if, at the distance of 500 yards, a single grain of pollen would touch any part of the female, and many millions to one against its falling directly upon the stigmas of her respective flowers. In a word, this theory of impregnation by the wind, is a palpable refuge of ignorance, invented with a view to account for the fructification of dioecious plants, which Linnæus knew to be a formidable barrier standing in opposition to the sexual hypothesis. How far that obstacle is removed by this vague subterfuge, is submitted to the judgment of every candid inquirer.

Upon the whole, we have endeavoured to show, that every fact or experiment Linnæus has employed to support his theory of the procreation of vegetables by means of sexual embraces, is either false, or accidental; and that the conclusions drawn from them are unnatural, and often strained to such a pitch of extravagance as renders them truly ridiculous.

The only argument that now remains to be examined, is drawn from the analogy between animals and vegetables. That many beautiful analogies may be traced between the animal and vegetable, is an undeniable truth. But, in reasoning upon a physical subject, which admits of a clear determination by experiment, to trust solely or chiefly to analogical deductions, is an evident mark either of a bad reasoner or an unstable hypothesis. The very nature of analogy presupposes some radical difference in the subjects between which the resemblance subsists. If the analogy be supported by facts and experiments, they mutually strengthen the evidence. But, if the analogy be not supported by facts and experiments, or, if the experiments contradict the analogy, which is the case with the theory under consideration; in either of these instances the analogy is carried beyond its proper limits, and affords no argument in favour of the hypothesis. Without the concurrence of facts, how can we be certain but that the very property we contend for constitutes the essential difference between the two subjects? Without facts, how can we be certain but that generation by the intercourse of sexes is the identical characteristic by which an animal and vegetable are distinguished? These principles are applicable even in the case of a perfect and uniform analogy, but acquire an accumulated force when the analogy is partial and incomplete, which is evidently the case with regard to the sexual commerce of vegetables.

For example, to complete the analogy in dioecious plants, a male should be uniformly found growing by the side of the female; and females, at the age of puberty, or as soon as the antherae come to maturity, the male flower should be situated in such a manner, that the pollen could not possibly miss the stigmas of the female flowers, from whatever quarter the wind might blow: the same thing should take place with regard to the monoecious flowers. But this is not the analogy presented to us by nature. On the contrary, the males and females seldom grow in the neighbourhood of each other. Nothing is more common than to meet with large beds of males growing in one place, and large beds of females at the distance of some miles from them, pointing out, as it were, that no necessary connection, no mutual affection, no natural dependence subsisted between these males and females; but rather that nature intended, for some purpose or other, that they should be kept at a distance.

Further, the sexualists, in support of their theory, are are obliged to have recourse to the unpardonable impropriety of employing a double analogy, the one betwixt the animal and vegetable, the other betwixt two different tribes of vegetables. In order to account for the propagation of the mufci, fungi, and, in a word, the whole cryptogamia clas, whose parts of generation are either wanting altogether, or invisible to our eye-sight, Linnaeus maintains, that, this circumstance notwithstanding, they propagate their species by a regular and uniform commerce of sexes. "As it has been proven (says he) that all those plants whose organs of generations are visible, propagate their species by male and female embraces; therefore all those whose organs are less subject to our observation, must likewise propagate in the same way." Before such reasoning as this can admit even of a decent apology, before the sexualists attempt to shew that such plants enjoy the faculty of generation, it is incumbent on them to prove that they are possessed of generating organs.

According to the doctrine of sexes in vegetables, another capital defect, or rather redundancy, occurs in the analogy between the animal and vegetable. It is one of the most benevolent and useful laws in nature, that mules, or such animals as are produced by the unnatural commixtures of two different kinds, are deprived of the capacity of propagating their monstrous species. It is true, Linnaeus's mules are not obliged to comply with this law; they are not animal but vegetable mules; and consequently may freely transmit their monstrous issue to posterity! As they are not objects of rewards or punishments, they cannot be answerable for the horrid consequences of turning the whole vegetable world into confusion, and covering the face of the earth with monsters horrible to behold!

It is a trite observation, that no fault is more common among bad writers than to render their arguments ridiculous by hunting down metaphors or analogies till every shadow of resemblance be lost. It is equally true, that this blunder occurs in almost every page of Linnaeus's works. But it is peculiarly unlucky when an analogy is of such a nature that it necessarily runs into obscenity when treated in this manner. In pursuing a sexual analogy, the utmost delicacy of expression is required. This however is exceedingly difficult, especially when the analogy is pushed beyond its natural limits. But, in perusing the Spongia Plantarum, one would be tempted to think, that the author had more reasons than one for relishing this analogy so highly. In many parts of this treatise, there is such a degree of indelicacy in the expression as cannot be exceeded by the most obscene romance-writer. For example, in p. 103, he says, "The calyx is the bride-chamber in which the stamens and pistillae solemnize their nuptials;" "Vel, si mavis CUNNUS, seu LABIA ejusdem, inter quae organa genitalia masculina & feminina, delicatissime illae partes, foventur & ab externis injuriis muniantur!"—Corolla est auleum, vel potius nymphæ!—Filamenta sunt vasa spermatica, quibus succus ex planta secretus in antheras transfertur!—Antheræ sunt TESTICULI.—Pollen, seu pulvis antherarum, genitura & verniculis seminalibus respondet.—Stigma est vulva, in qua agit genitura maris, quæque hanc excipit.—Stylus est vagina, vel potius pars illa quæ tube Fallopiæm respondet.—Germen est ovarium; continet etiam femina subvaginata seu non fecundata ante copulam.—Pericarpium est ovarium fecundatum."—In p. 90, &c., we meet with virginea vulva lascivie hiens—œstra veneræ agitata, pistillum stigmatis biat, RAPACIS INSTAR, DRACONIS, nil nisi masculinum pulverem affectant," &c. It is impossible to do justice to these expressions in any translation.

Besides the obscenity of these passages, it would be no difficult task to show that the analogies are entirely without foundation. The calyx is made to represent no less than three things of very opposite natures; first, it is analogous to the chamber of the bride, then to the female organ, and last of all to the LABIA. What analogy is there betwixt the corolla of a plant and the nymphæ of an animal? Where is the analogy between the pollen and the animalculæ in semine masculino? &c.

There is not any science which has so little connection with theory as botany. Theory may perplex and confound, but never can have the least tendency to assist the botanic student. A man would not naturally expect to meet with disfiguring strokes of obscenity in a system of botany. But it is a certain fact, that obscenity is the very basis of the Linnæan system. The names of his classes, orders, &c., convey often the vilest and most unnatural ideas. For example, diandra, the name of his second class, is thus explained by Linnaeus; "Mariti duo in eodem conjugio; seu stamina duo in flore hermaphrodito;" i.e. one female married to two males; or two stamens in a hermaphrodite flower. The number of males goes on increasing till the 13th clas, the plants belonging to which are said to have from 20 to 1000 husbands to one wife!—We might ask Linnaeus, where is the analogy in this supposition? The syngenesia clas is thus defined by Linnaeus: "Mariti genitalibus sedibus constituerunt; seu stamina antheris in cylindrum coacta; i.e. the males have made a covenant with their testes; or the stamens are united by the anthers in the form of a cylinder. The characters of the orders are still worse. Polygamia fructifera, the name of an order of the syngenesia clas, is thus defined: "Fructiferae dictæ, cum feminæ maritate, fertiles sunt, et speciem propagare sequunt; calcaræ, impregnari nequeunt." Men or philosophers can smile at the nonsensical absurdity of such obscene gibberish; but it is easy to guess what effects it may have upon the young and thoughtless.

But the bad tendency upon morals is not the only evil produced by the sexual theory. It has loaded the best system of botany that has hitherto been invented, with a profusion of foolish and often unintelligible terms, which throw an obscurity upon the science, obstruct the progress of the learner, and deter many from ever entering upon the study.

Upon the whole, we must conclude, that the distinction of sexes among vegetables has no foundation in nature; or, at least, that the facts and arguments employed in support of this doctrine, when examined with any degree of philosophical accuracy, are totally insufficient to establish it.