or the ENGLISH TONGUE, the language spoken by the people of England, and, with some variation, by those of Scotland, as well as part of Ireland, and the rest of the British dominions.

The ancient language of Britain is generally allowed to have been the same with the Gaulic, or French; this island, in all probability, having been first peopled from Gallia, as both Caesar and Tacitus affirm, and prove by many strong and conclusive arguments, as by their religion, manners, customs, and the nearness of their situation. But now we have very small remains of the ancient British tongue, except in Wales, Cornwall, the islands and highlands of Scotland, part of Ireland, and some provinces of France; which will not appear strange, when what follows is considered.

Julius Caesar, some time before the birth of our Saviour, made a descent upon Britain, though he may be said rather to have discovered than conquered it; but, about the year of Christ 45, in the time of Claudius, Aulus Plautius was sent over with some Roman forces, by whom two kings of the Britons, Cogidunus and Caratacus, were both overcome in battle: whereupon a Roman colony was planted at Maidon in Essex, and the southern parts of the island were reduced to the form of a Roman province: after that, the island was conquered as far north as the friths of Dumbarton and Edinburgh, by Agricola, in the time of Domitian; whereupon, a great number of the Britons, in the conquered part of the island, retired to the west part called Wales, carrying their language with them.

The greatest part of Britain being thus become a Roman province, the Roman legions, who resided in Britain for above two hundred years, undoubtedly dif- seminated the Latin tongue; and the people being afterwards governed by laws written in Latin, must necessarily make a mixture of languages. This seems to have been the first mutation the language of Britain suffered.

Thus the British tongue continued, for some time, mixed with the provincial Latin, till, the Roman legions being called home, the Scots and Picts took the opportunity to attack and harass England: upon which, K. Vortigen, about the year 440, called the Saxons to his assistance. who came over with several of their neighbours, and having repulsed the Scots and Picts, were rewarded for their services with the isle of Thanet, and the whole county of Kent; but growing too powerful, and not being contented with their allotment, dispossessed the inhabitants of all the country on this side of the Severn; thus the British tongue was in a great measure destroyed, and the Saxon introduced in its stead.

What the Saxon tongue was long before the conquest, about the year 700, we may observe in the most ancient manuscripts of that language, which is a glost on the Evangelists, by bishop Edfrid, in which the three first articles of the Lord's prayer runs thus:

"Uren fader this arth in heofnas, fic gehalgud thin "noma, so cymeth thin ric. Sic thin willa sue is "heofnas, and in eortho, &c."

In the beginning of the ninth century the Danes invaded England; and getting a footing in the northern and eastern part of the country, their power gradually increased, and they became sole masters of it in about two hundred years. By this means the ancient British obtained a tincture of the Danish language: but their government being of no long continuance, did not make so great an alteration in the Anglo-Saxon, as the next revolution, when the whole land, A.D. 1067, was subdued by William the Conqueror, duke of Normandy in France; for the Normans, as a monument of their conquest, endeavoured to make their language as generally received as their commands, and thereby rendered the British language an entire medley.

About the year 900, the Lord's prayer, in the ancient Anglo-Saxon, ran thus:

"Thule ur fader the eart on heofenum, si thin na "ma gehalgod; curse thin rice si thin willa on eorthan "swa, swa on heofenum, &c."

About the year 1160, under Henry II. it was rendered thus by pope Adrian, an Englishman, in rhyme:

"Ure fader in heaven riche, "Thy name be halved ever lich, "Thou bring us thy michell blisse: "Als hit in heaven y doe, "Evar in earth beene it also, &c."

Dr Hicks gives us an extraordinary specimen of the English, as spoken in the year 1385, upon the very subject of the English tongue.

"As it is knowe how meny maner peple beeth in "this lond; ther beeth also so many dyvers longages "and tonges Nothelefs Walfchemen and Scots that "beeth nought medled with other nation, holdeth wel

"nyh hir firste longage and speche; but yf the Scottes, "that were sometime confederate and woned with the "Pictes, drawe somewhat after hir speche; but the "Flemynge, that wooneth on the weite side of Wales, "haveth loft her strange spech, and speketh Sexon- "liche n.w. Also Englischemen, they had from the "bygynnynge thre maner speche: northerne, four- "therne, and middel speche in the middel of the "lond, as they come of thre maner of peple of Ger- "mania: nothelefs by commixtion and mellynge first "with Danes, and afterwards with Normans, in meny "the contrary longage is apayred (corrupted.)

"This apayrynge of the burth of the tunge is bycause "of tweie thinges; oon is for children in scole agent "the ufage and maner of all other nation, beeth "compelled for to leve hire own longage, and for to "contrue hir lessons and here thynges in French, and "so they haveth sethe Normans come first into Enge- "lond. Alf gentlemen children beeth taught to "speke Frenche from the ryme that they beeth rok- "ked in here cradel, and kunneith fp.ke and play "with a childe broche; and uplondisffe men will "lykne hymselfe to gentilmen, and fondeth wit: great "befynesse for to speak Frensche to be told of.—Hit "seemeth a greet wonder how Englischemen and her "own longage and tonge is so dyverse of sown in this "oon ilond: and the longage of Normandie is com- "lynge of another lond, and hath oon maner soun "amonge alle men that speketh hit arignt in Engeland.

"Also of the foreaid Saxon tonge that is deled (di- "vided) a three, and is abide scarceliche with fewe "uplondisffe men is greet wonder. For men of the "elf, with men of the weft, is, as it were, undir "the same partie of hevane acordeth more in lown- "yngge of speche, than men of the north, with men "of the south. Therefore it is that Mercii, that "beeth men of myddel Engeland, as it were, par- "teners of the endes, understandeth bettre the side "longages northerne and southerne than northerne or "southerne understandeth either other.—All the lon- "gage of the Northumbers and spechialliche at York, "is so scharp, slitting and frytynge, and unschape, that "we southerne men may that longage unnethe un- "derstonde," &c." Hicks's Thefaur liter sept.

In the year 1537, the Lord's prayer was printed as follows: "O oure Father which arte in heven, ha- "lowed be thy name: let thy kingdom come, thy "will be fulfilled as well in erth as it is in heven; "geve us this daye in dayly bred, &c." Where it may be observed that the diction is brought almost to the present standard, the chief variations being only in the orthography. By these instances, and many others that might be given, it appears, that the English Saxon language, of which the Normans deprived us in a great measure, had its beauties, was significant and emphatical, and preferable to what they imposed on us.

"Great, verily," says Camden, "was the glory of our "tongue before the Norman conquest, in this, that the "old English could express, most aptly, all the concep- "tions of the mind in their own tongue, without bor- "rowing from any." Of this he gives several examples. Having Having thus shewn how the ancient British language was in a manner extirpated by the Romans, Danes, and Saxons, and succeeded by the Saxon, and after that the Saxon blended with the Norman-French, we shall now mention two other causes of change in the language: the first of these is owing to the Britons having been a long time a trading nation, whereby offices, dignities, names of wares, and terms of traffic are introduced, which we take with the wares from the persons of whom we have them, and form them anew, according to the genius of our own tongue; and besides this change in the language, arising from commerce, Britain's having been a considerable time subject to the see of Rome, in ecclesiastical affairs, must unavoidably introduce some Italian words among us. Secondly, as to the particular properties of a language, our tongue has undergone no small mutation, or rather has received no small improvement upon that account: for, as to the Greek and Latin, the learned have, together with the arts and sciences now rendered familiar among us, introduced abundance; nay, almost all the terms of art in the mathematics, philosophy, physic, and anatomy; and we have entertained many more from the Latin, French, &c., for the sake of neatness and elegance: so that, at this day, our language, which about 1800 years ago, was the ancient British, or Welch, &c., is now a mixture of Saxon, Teutonic, Dutch, Danish, Norman, and modern French, embellished with the Greek and Latin. Yet this, in our opinion, is so far from being a disadvantage to the English tongue, as now spoke (for all languages have undergone changes, and do continually participate with each other) that it has so enriched it, as now to become the most copious, significant, fluent, courteous, and masculine language in Europe, if not in the world.

**Engrafting**, or **Grafting**, in gardening. See Gardening.

**Engrailed**, or **Ingrailed**, in heraldry, a term derived from the French *grely*, hail; and signifying a thing the hail has fallen upon and broke off the edges, leaving them ragged, or with half-rounds, or semicircles, struck out of their edges.

**Engraving**, the art of cutting metals and precious stones, and representing thereon figures, letters, or whatever device, or design, the artist fancies.

Engraving, properly a branch of sculpture, is divided into several other branches, according to the matter whereon it is employed, and the manner of performing it.

The original way of engraving on wood is denominated at present, with us, by cutting in wood; that on metals with aquafortis, is named etching; that by the knife, burnisher, punch, and scraper, is called mezzotinto; that on stones for tombs, &c., stone-cutting; and that performed with the graver on metals or precious stones, keeps alone the primitive name of engraving, being that which we shall at present attend to.

**Engraving on copper**, is employed in representing portraits, histories, landscapes, foliages, figures, buildings, &c., either after paintings, or designs for that purpose.

It is performed with the graver on a plate of copper, which, being well polished, is covered over thinly with virgin-wax, and then smoothed, while warm, with a feather, so that the wax be of an equal thickness on the plate; and on this the draught or design, done in black lead, red chalk, or ungummed ink, is laid with the face of the drawing on the wax: then they rub the backside, which will cause the whole design of the drawing to appear on the wax. The design, thus transferred, is traced through on the copper, with a point, or needle; then heating the plate, and taking off the wax, the strokes remain to be followed, heightened, &c., according to the tenor of the design, with the graver, which must be very sharp and well pointed.

In the conduct of the graver consists almost all the art, which depends not so much upon rules as upon practice, the habitude, disposition, and genius of the artist, the principles of engraving being the same with those of painting; for if an engraver be not a perfect master of design, he can never hope to arrive at a degree of perfection in this art. In conducting the strokes, or cuts, of the graver, he must observe the action of the fingers, and of all their parts, with their outlines; and remark how they advance towards, or fall back from his sight, and then conduct his graver according to the risings or cavities of the muscles, or folds, widening the strokes in the light, and contracting them in the shades; as also at the extremity of the outlines, to which he ought to conduct the cuts of the graver, that the figures or objects represented may not appear as if they gnawed; and lightening his hand, that the outlines may be perfectly found, without appearing cut or slit; and, although his strokes necessarily break off where a muscle begins, yet they ought always to have a certain connection with each other, so that the first stroke should often serve to make the second, because this will show the freedom of the graver.

If hair be the subject, let the engraver begin his work by making the outlines of the principal locks, and sketch them out in a careless manner, which may be finished, at leisure, with finer and thinner strokes to the very extremities.

The engraver must avoid making very acute angles, especially in representing flesh, when he crosses the first strokes with the second, because it will form a very disagreeable piece of tabby-like lattice-work, except in the representation of some clouds, in templets, the waves of the sea, and in representations of skins of hairy animals, and leaves of trees. So that the medium between square and acute seems to be the best and most agreeable to the eye. He that would represent sculpture, must remember, that as statues, &c., are most commonly made of white marble, or stone, whose colour does not produce such dark shades as other matters do, they have no black to their eyes, nor hair of the head and beard flying in the air. If the engraver would would preserve one quality and harmony in his works, he should always sketch out the principal objects of his piece before any part of them are finished.

The instruments necessary for this sort of engraving are, besides a graver, a cushion, or sand-bag, made of leather, to lay the plate on, in order to give it the necessary turns and motions; a burnisher made of iron, or steel, round at one end, and usually flatish at the other, to rub out slips and failures, soften the strokes, &c.; a scraper, to pare off the surface, on occasion; and a rubber, of a black hat, or cloth rolled up, to fill up the strokes that they may appear the more visible.

In Engraving precious stones, they use either the diamond, or the emery. The diamond, which is the hardest of all stones, is only cut by itself, or with its own matter. The first thing to be done in this branch of engraving, is to cement two rough diamonds to the ends of two sticks big enough to hold them steady in the hand, and to rub or grind them against each other till they be brought to the form desired. The dust or powder that is rubbed off serves afterwards to polish them, which is performed with a kind of mill that turns a wheel of soft iron. The diamond is fixed in a brass dish, and, thus applied to the wheel, is covered with diamond dust, mixed up with oil of olives; and when the diamond is to be cut facet-wise, they apply first one face, then another, to the wheel. Rubies, sapphires, and topazes, are cut and formed the same way on a copper wheel, and polished with tripoli diluted in water. As to agates, amethysts, emeralds, hyacinths, granates, rubies, and others of the softer stones, they are cut on a leaden wheel, moistened with emery and water, and polished with tripoli, on a pewter wheel. Lapis-lazuli, opal, &c., are polished on a wooden wheel. To fashion and engrave vases of agate, crystal, lapis-lazuli, or the like, they make use of a kind of lathe, like that used by pewterers to hold the vessels, which are to be wrought with proper tools; that of the engraver generally holds the tools, which are turned by a wheel; and the vessel is held to them to be cut and engraved, either in relief or otherwise; the tools being moistened, from time to time, with diamond dust and oil, or at least emery and water. To engrave figures or devices on any of these stones, when polished, such as medals, seals, &c., they use a little iron wheel, the ends of whose axis are received within two pieces of iron, placed upright, as in the turner's lathe; and to be brought closer, or set further apart, at pleasure: at one end of the axis are fitted the proper tools, being kept tight by a screw. Lastly, the wheel is turned by the foot, and the stone applied by the hand to the tool, and is shifted and conducted as occasion requires.

The tools are generally of iron, and sometimes of brass; their form is various, but it generally bears some resemblance to chisels, gouges, &c. Some have small round heads, like buttons, others like ferrets, to take the pieces out, and others flat, &c., when the stone has been engraved, it is polished on wheels of hair-brushes and tripoli.

Engraving on steel is chiefly employed in cutting seals, punches, matrices, and dyes proper for striking coins, medals, and counters. The method of engraving with the instruments, &c., is the same for coins as for medals and counters: All the difference consists in their greater or less relief, the relief of coins being much less considerable than that of medals, and that of counters still less than that of coins.

Engravers in steel commonly begin with punches, which are in relief, and serve for making the creux, or cavities, of the matrices and dyes: though sometimes they begin with the creux, or hollownesses, but then it is only when the intended work is to be cut very shallow. The first thing done, is that of designing the figures; the next is the moulding them in wax, of the size and depth they are to lie, and from this wax the punch is engraved. When the punch is finished, they give it a very high temper, that it may the better bear the blows of the hammer with which it is struck to give the impression to the matrix.

The steel is made hot to soften it, that it may the more readily take the impression of the punch; and after striking the punch on it, in this state, they proceed to touch up or finish the strokes and lines, where by reason of their fineness or the too great relief they are anything defective, with steel gravers of different kinds, chisels, flatters, &c., being the principal instruments used in graving on steel.

The figure being thus finished, they proceed to engrave the rest of the medal, as the mouldings of the border, the engrafted ring, letters, &c., with little steel punches, well tempered, and very sharp.

Enguiche', in heraldry, is said of the great mouth of a hunting horn, when its rim is of a different colour from that of the horn itself.

Engyscope, the same with microscope. See Microscope.