in astronomy. See ASTRONOMY, p. 487.
the Horse, in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to the order of belluae. This genus comprehends the horse, the ass, and the zebra; they have six erect and parallel fore-teeth in the upper jaw, and six somewhat prominent ones in the under jaw; the dog-teeth are solitary, and at a considerable distance from the rest; and the feet consist of an undivided hoof. The horse is a domestic animal, and the figure and dimensions of his body are so well known, that a general description is altogether unnecessary. We shall therefore confine ourselves to the natural history of this noble animal.
The horse, in a domestic state, is a bold and fiery animal; equally intrepid as his master, he faces danger and death with ardour and magnanimity. He delights in the noise and tumult of arms, and seems to feel the glory of victory: he exults in the chase; his eyes sparkle with emulation in the course. But though bold and intrepid, he is docile and tractable: he knows how to govern and check the natural vivacity and fire of his temper. He not only yields to the hand, but seems to consult the inclination of his rider. Constantly obedient to the impressions he receives, his motions are entirely regulated by the will of his master. He in some measure resigns his very existence to the pleasure of man. He delivers up his whole powers; he reserves nothing; he will rather die than disobey. Who could endure to see a character so noble abused! Who could be guilty of such gross barbarity!
This character, though natural to the animal, is in some measure the effect of education. His education commences with the loss of liberty, and it is finished by constraint. The slavery of the horse is so ancient and so universal, that he is but rarely seen in a natural state. Several ancient writers talk of wild horses, and even mention the places where they were to be found. Herodotus takes notice of white savage horses in Scythia; Aristotle says, they are to be found in Syria; Pliny, in the northern regions; and Strabo, in Spain and the Alps. Among the moderns, Leardon says, that wild horses are to be found in the Highlands of Scotland, and the Orkney Isles; Olaus, in Muscovy; Dapper, in the island of Cyprus; Leo and Marmol, in Arabia and Africa, &c. But, as Europe is almost equally inhabited, wild horses are not to be met with in any part of it; and those of America were originally transported from Europe by the Spaniards; for this species of animals did not exist in the new world. The Spaniards carried over a great number of horses, left them in different islands, &c. with a view to propagate that useful animal in their colonies. These have multiplied incredibly in the vast deserts of those thinly peopled countries, where they roam at large, without any restraint. M. de Salle relates, that he saw, in the year 1685, horses feeding in the meadows of North America, near the bay of St Louis, which were so ferocious that nobody durst come near them. Oexmelin says, that he has seen large troops of them in St Domingo running in the valleys; that when any person approached, they all stood; and one of them would advance till within a certain distance, then snort with his nose, take to his heels, and the whole troop after him. Every author who takes notice of these horses of America, agree that they are smaller and less handsome than those of Europe. These relations sufficiently prove, that the horse, when at full liberty, though not a fierce or dangerous animal, has no inclination to associate with mankind; that all the softness and ductility of his temper proceeds entirely from the culture and polish he receives in his domestic education, which in some measure commences as soon as he is brought forth.
The motions of the horse are chiefly regulated by the bit and the spur; the bit informs him how to direct his course, and the spur quickens his pace. The mouth of the horse is endowed with an amazing sensibility: the slightest motion or pressure of the bit gives him warning, and instantly determines his course.
The horse has not only a grandeur in his general appearance, but there is the greatest symmetry and proportion in the different parts of his body. The regularity and proportion of the different parts of the head gives him an air of lightness, which is well supported by the strength and beauty of his chest. He erects his head, as if willing to exalt himself above the condition of other quadrupeds: his eyes are open and lively; his ears are handsome, and of a proper height; his main adorns his neck, and gives him the appearance of strength and boldness.
At the age of two years, or two years and a half, the horse is in a condition to propagate; and the mare, like most other females, is ready to receive him still sooner. But the foals produced by such early embraces are generally ill made and weakly. The horse should never be admitted to the mare till he is four or four and a half; this is only meant with regard to draught-horses. Fine horses should not be admitted to the mare before they be six years old; and Spanish stallions not till seven. The mares are generally in season from the beginning of April to the end of March; but their chief ardour for the horse lasts but about 15 or 20 days, and this critical season should always be embraced. The stallion ought to be sound, well made, vigorous, and of a good breed. For fine saddle horses, foreign stallions, as Arabians, Turks, Barbys, and Andalouans, are preferable to all others. Next to these, British stallions are the best; because they originally sprang from those above mentioned, and are very little degenerated. The stallions of Italy, and especially the Neapolitans, are very good. The best stallions for draught or carriage horses, are those of Naples. Denmark, Holstein, and Frieseland. The stallions for saddle-horses should be from 14 to 15 hands high, and for draught-horses at least 15 hands. Neither ought the colour of stallions to be overlooked; as a fine black, grey, bay, sorrel, &c. Besides these external qualities, a stallion ought to have courage, tractability, spirit, agility, a sensible mouth, sure limbs, &c. These precautions in the choice of a stallion are the more necessary, because he has been found by experience to communicate to his offspring almost all his good or bad qualities, whether natural or acquired.
The mare contributes less to the beauty of her offspring than the stallion; but she contributes perhaps more to their constitution and stature: for these reasons, it is necessary that the mares for breed be perfectly sound, and make good nurses. For elegant horses, the Spanish and Italian mares are best; but, for draught-horses, those of Britain and Normandy are preferable. However, when the stallions are good, the mares of any country will produce fine horses, provided they be well made and of a good breed.
Mares go with young eleven months and some days. They bring forth standing; contrary to the course of most other quadrupeds, who lie during this operation. They continue to bring forth till the age of 16 or 18 years; and both horses and mares live between 25 and 30 years. Horses cast their hair once a year, generally in the spring, but sometimes in the autumn. At this time they are weak, and require to be better fed and taken care of than at any other season.
In Persia, Arabia, and most eastern countries, they never geld their horses, as is done in Europe and China. This operation greatly diminishes their strength, courage, and spirit; but it makes them good humoured, gentle, and tractable. With regard to the time of performing this operation, the practice of different countries is different: some geld their horses when a year old, and others at 18 months. But the best and most general practice is to delay the operation till they be two years old at least; because, when the gelding is delayed for two years or more, the animals retain more of the strength and other qualities which naturally belong to the male.
As the utility of horses surpasses that of all other domestic animals, it may be of use to subjoin some marks by which the age and other properties of horses may be distinguished.
The first teeth that appear are four, two above and two below, which are called foal-teeth, and may be easily distinguished from the others by their whiteness. The rest come out afterwards till they are twelve in number, six above and six below. When a colt is between two years and a half and three years old, he casts four of these teeth, two above and two below. These we call nippers or gatherers, and are much longer and larger than the fore teeth; with these he nips off the grass, and pulls the hay from the rack. When these are complete, the horse will be three years old, or somewhat more.
When he is about four, he casts again two above and two below, one on each side the nippers; so that now there are no fore teeth remaining but the corner-teeth; and hence it may be concluded that he is about four years old. The tusks appear next after these, and are a little crooked. Those below come out before those on the upper jaw, and at four years old they are very small. When all the colt-teeth are cast, and the corner-teeth begin to show themselves, then the horse comes five.
From five to five and a half the corner teeth remain hollow within, and are not quite filled up till the horse is six. At five and a-half they are about a quarter of an inch high, and when he is full six near half an inch. Everything that is to be examined at six years old, are the corner-teeth and the tusks. That part of the corner-teeth that had flesh in it first turns to a brownish spot, like the eye of a garden-bean. At seven the mark or spot becomes faint, and the tooth more even. At eight it quite disappears, though it possibly may remain in a very small degree for two or three years more, which has deceived many. The longer the corner-teeth are, the older is the horse; and they are apt to grow foul and turn yellow. When the mark is gone, if you touch the tusks on the upper jaw with your finger, and find it worn away and equal with the palate, you may certainly judge that the horse is ten years old at least. Lastly, when the flanks of a horse are much sunk, the feet broken and spoiled, the pace bad, and the eye-pits very yellow, you may certainly conclude the horse is considerably advanced in years.
When the horse is without blemish, the legs and thighs are clean, the knees straight, the skin and flank thin, and the back fine strong and well braced. The finesse and the bones should be so distinct, as to make the legs appear thin and lathy, not full and round. The pattern joints should never be large and round; nor must there be any swelling near the coronet. The hocks should be lean and dry, not puffed up with wind. With regard to the hoof, the coronet should be equally thick, and the horn shining and greyish. A white horn is a sign of a bad foot, for it will wear out in a short time; and likewise when the horn is thin, it is liable to be spoiled in shoeing, and by travelling hard on stony grounds. This is best known when the shoe is taken off; for then the verge all round the sole will appear thin, and the horse will wince at the least touch of the pincers.
A strong foot has the fibres of the hoof very distinct running in a direct line from the coronet to the toe, like the grain of wood. In this case care must be taken to keep the foot moist and pliable. The greatest inconvenience attending a hard strong foot, is its being subject to rifts and fissures, which cleave the hoof quite through sometimes from the coronet down to the bottom.
A narrow heel is likewise a defect; and when it is not above two fingers in breadth the foot is bad. A high heel causes a horse to trip and stumble often; and the low one, with long yielding patterns, is very apt to be worn quite away on a journey. Too large a foot in proportion to the rest of the body, renders a horse weak and heavy.
The head of a horse should be small, and rather lean than fleshy. The ears should be small, erect, thin, sprightly, and pointed. The forehead, or brow, should be neither too broad nor too flat, and should have a star or snip thereon. The nose should rise a little, and the nostrils should be wide that he may breathe more freely. The muzzle should be small, and the mouth neither too deep nor too shallow. The jaws should be thin, and not approach too near together at the throat, nor too high upwards towards the onset, that the horse may have sufficient room to carry his head in an easy graceful posture. The eyes should be of a middle size, bright, lively, and full of fire. The tongue should be small, that it may not be too much pressed by the bit; and it is a good sign when his mouth is full of white froth, for it shows that he will not soon be overheated.
The neck should be arched towards the middle, growing smaller by degrees from the breast and shoulders to the head. The hair of the main should be long, thick, and fine; and if it be a little frizzled, so much the better. The shoulders should be pretty long, the withers thin, and enlarge gradually from thence downwards; but so as to render his breast neither too narrow nor too gross. A thick-shouldered horse soon tires, and trips and stumbles every minute; especially if he has a thick large neck at the same time. When the breast is so narrow that the fore-thighs almost touch, they are never good for much. A horse of a middle size should have the distance of five or six inches between his fore-thighs, and there should be less distance between his feet than his thighs near the shoulders when he stands upright.
The body or carcase of a horse should be of a middling size in proportion to his bulk, and the back should sink a little below the withers; but the other parts should be strait, and no higher behind than before. He should also be home-ribbed; but the short ribs should not approach too near the haunches, and then he will have room to fetch his breath. When a horse's back is short in proportion to his bulk, and yet otherwise well limbed, he will hold out a journey tho' he will travel slow. When he is tall, at the same time with very long legs, he is but of little value.
The wind should never be overlooked in the choice of a horse; and it may easily be known by his flanks, if he is broken-winded, when he stands quiet in the stable; because he always pinches them in with a very slow motion, and drops them suddenly. A thick-winded horse fetches his breath often, and sometimes rattles and wheezes. This may be always discovered when he is put to brisk exercises.
The temper of a horse should always be observed; a vicious horse generally lays his ears close to his poll, shews the whites of his eyes, and looks sullen and dogged. An angry horse may be known by his frowning looks; and he generally seems to stand in a posture of defence. When he is very vicious, he pays no regard to the groom that feeds him: However, some horses that are ticklish will lay back their year ears, and yet be of a good disposition. A fearful horse is apt to start, and never leaves it off till he is old and useless. A fretful horse is very unfit for a journey; and you may discover his temper as soon as he gets out of the stable. A dull, heavy, sluggish horse may be easily known, whatever tricks are used to rouse his spirits.
With regard to the colour of a horse, the bright bay, and indeed all kinds of bays in general, are accounted a good colour. The chestnut horse is generally preferable to the sorrel, unless the former happens to be bald, or partly-coloured with white legs. Brown horses have generally black manes and tails, and their joints are of a rusty black. Those of this colour that are dappled are much handsomer than the rest. Horses of a shining black, and well-marked, without too much white, are in high esteem for their beauty. A star, or blaze, or white muzzle, or one or more feet tipped with white, are thought to be rather better than those that are quite black.
Of greys, the dappled are accounted best; though the silver grey makes a more beautiful appearance, and often prove good. The iron grey with white manes and tails are thought not to be so hardy. Greys of every kind will turn white sooner or later; but the nutmeg grey, when the dappled parts incline to bay or chestnut, are said to be good hardy horses. Roan horses have a diversity of colours mixed together; but the white is more predominant than the rest. They are all generally hardy, and fit for the road; and some are exceeding good. Those of a strawberry colour most resemble the sorrel, and they are often marked with white on the face and legs. When the bay is blended with it, he seems to be tinctured with claret; and some of these prove to be very good. Dun, fallow, and cream-coloured horses have a lift down their backs; and their manes and tales are black. Dun horses are seldom chosen by gentlemen, and yet they may be very useful to the country farmer. The fallow and cream-colored are better esteemed, both for beauty and use. Those horses that are finely spotted with gay colors like leopards are a great rarity, and for that reason are only in the hands of great men.
There is some difference in horses according to the different countries where they are bred. For instance, in France, those of Bretagne are pretty strong made, and have generally black hair, or brown bay; and they have good legs and feet, with a hardy mouth, and a head short and fleshy; but in general they are pretty clumsy. The horses of Franche Comté are said to have the legs of tigers, and the belly of a hind; but they are short and thick, and of a middle size; being much more proper for drawing than riding. The horses of Gascony are not unlike those of Spain; but they are not so handsome, nor so active, and therefore they are more proper to draw carriages. The Limofin horses are very vicious, and are good for little till they are six years old. Their color is generally bay, or a bay brown. The horses of Normandy are much like those of Bretagne; and those of Poitou have good bodies, legs, feet, and eyes; but they are far from being handsome.
The horses of Germany are much better and more handsome than those of the Low countries. They are of great use for carriages; but much more for the army, and for drawing the artillery. They have a great deal of hair, especially about the legs. They are not large, but they are well set; and yet they have tender feet. The Hungarian horses are excellent for the coach, as well as for riding; but they are large, though well proportioned, and they are of all colors, and in general very swift.
The British horses are of all kinds, they having been brought at first from different countries; but for racers no country can equal them, they having been bred from what are called barbs. The Danish horses are low, short, and square; but they have a fine head, and short hair. The horses of the Low countries are very fit for the coach, and they are best known by the name of Flanders-mares. The Polish horses are like the Danish; only they have not so fine a fore-hand: their color is generally a bright bay, and that of the outward peel of an onion; and they are fiery and vicious. The horses of Switzerland are pretty much like those of Germany; which is no wonder, since the Germans purchase a great number of them. The horses of Piedmont are fiery, of a middle size, and of all sorts of colors; their legs are good and handsome, their eyes fine, their ears small, and their mouths good; but they do not carry their heads well.
The horses of Naples and Italy are generally ill made, and lean; and yet they are good and useful, for they are light and proper for racing, though not for a long course; they never do well in a colder climate. The Spanish horses are very well made, and handsome, as well as very active and nimble; they have good eyes, handsome legs and heads, and are easily managed; they are also good for racing if they are well kept; however, they are not so good in northern climates as in their own country. The Turkish horses are of different shapes; but they are generally swift, though their mouths are bad. Most of them are white; tho' there are other colors; and they are large, hardy, strong, and fit for the road.
The horses of Barbary, commonly called barbs, have strong hoofs, and are more proper for racing than any others whatever: some have said they never grow old, because they preserve their vigour to the last. They are excellent stallions; and some of them are used as such in Britain; however, the Arabian horses are not quite so good as the Barbary, though some think they are both of the same kind; only those that are used to the deserts of Arabia are always in action. The horses of the gold-coast of Guinea are very few in number, and in other parts of that coast there are none at all; for many of the negroes, when they have been first brought over to our American plantations, have expressed great admiration at the sight of a horse, and even been afraid to come near one.
The horses of the Cape of Good Hope were originally brought from Persia; and they are generally small and of a chestnut color; for those that are natives of that country are all wild, and could never yet be tamed. The horses of China are good, and more particularly those in the province Yun Nan, for they are very vigorous, though a little low. The horses of the Eluth Tartars are good and full of fire; and their size is much the same as the Polish horses: 'they are afraid of nothing, not even of lions and tigers; but perhaps this may be owing to use. In the country of the Mogul they are very numerous, and of all colors: they are generally of the middle size, tho' there are some as large and as handsome as those in Europe. The wild horses of Tartary differ little from the tame; but they are so swift, that they avoid the arrows of the most skilful hunters. [Plate LXXV. fig. 1.]
For the method of training and managing horses, see Horsemanship; and for their diseases and cure, see Farriery.
2. The ass is likewise a domestic animal, and easily distinguished from the horse at first sight; we never confound these two animals, even though they should happen to be of the same color and stature; however, when we view the different parts of the ass, whether the external or internal, and compare them with the corresponding parts of the horse, the resemblance of these parts is so perfect, that we are surprised to find the individuals so different and so easily distinguishable by the eye. From this circumstance, some naturalists have considered the ass and the horse to be the same species of animals; and that the small differences between them are accidental, or owing to the influence of climate, culture, &c. Linnaeus's specific mark of the horse is, that the whole tail is covered with long hair; and his specific mark of the ass is, that the tail has long hair only towards the point, and a black cross over the shoulders. On the other hand, when we consider the differences in the temper, the manners and dispositions of these two animals, and, above all, the impossibility of mixing them so as to produce a common or intermediate species capable of propagating and transmitting in the same manner as other distinct species, the notion that the horse and the ass are the same species will appear to be without any solid foundation. Besides, the ass differs materially from the horse in the thickness of the head, the length of the ears, the hardness of the skin, and in the voice, the dispositions, the manner of drinking, &c. With regard to animals, there is perhaps but one permanent and uniform specific distinction in nature: a male and female of different species may copulate, may produce a third animal resembling both, but very different from either; but here nature has put a final stop to all further procreation: the third animal, although it be seemingly furnished with everything necessary for propagating, remains forever barren. Now, the horse may be made to copulate with the ass; a mule, or mixture of the two, is the fruit of the unnatural embrace: but the impregnation of a mule is found by experience to be altogether impossible.
The ass, therefore, is a distinct species, and his race as ancient as that of the horse. Why then should this useful, patient, sober animal be so much despised? We are apt to compare him, on every occasion, with the horse, and from this comparison are led to very false and unfavourable conclusions. The horse is educated with great care and expense; while the poor ass, abandoned to the abuse of the meanest servants or the cruelty of children, instead of deriving benefit from instruction, loses in effect his natural good qualities by the bad treatment he suffers. He is the sport and buffet-block of every rustic, who beat and overload him without mercy or discretion. They never consider, that the ass would be the most useful, the best made, and most distinguished of all animals, if there were no horses in the world.
The ass is as humble, patient, and tranquil, as the horse is bold, ardent, and impetuous. He submits with firmness, perhaps with magnanimity, to strokes and chastisement; he is temperate both as to the quantity and quality of his food; he contents himself with the rigid and disagreeable herbage which the horse and other animals leave to him, and disdain to eat; he is more delicate with regard to his drink, never using water, unless it be perfectly pure. As his master does not take the trouble of combing him, he often rolls himself on the turf among thistles, ferns, &c. Without regarding what he is carrying, he lies down to roll as often as he can, seeming to reproach his master for neglect and want of attention.
When very young, the ass is a gay, sprightly, nimble, and gentle animal. But he soon loses these qualities, probably by the bad usage he meets with; and becomes lazy, untractable, and stubborn. When under the influence of love, he becomes perfectly furious. The affection of the female for her young is strong: Pliny assures us, that when an experiment was made to discover the strength of maternal affection in a she-ass, she ran through the flames in order to come at her colt.
Although the ass be generally ill used, he discovers a great attachment to his master; he smells him at a distance, searches the places and roads he used to frequent, and easily distinguishes him from the rest of mankind. The ass has a very fine eye, an excellent scent, and a good ear. When overloaded, he hangs his head, and sinks his ears: when too much teased or tormented, he opens his mouth and retracts his lips in a disagreeable manner, which gives him an air of ridicule and derision. If you cover his eyes, he will not move another step; if you lay him on his side, and place his head so that one eye rests on the ground, and cover the other with a cloth, he will remain in this situation without making any attempt to get up. He walks, trots, and gallops in the same manner as the horse; but all his motions are slower. Whatever be the pace he is going at, if you push him, he instantly stops.
The cry of the horse is known by the name of neighing; that of the ass, by braying, which is a long, disagreeable noise, consisting of alternate discords from sharp to grave and from grave to sharp; he seldom cries but when pressed with hunger or love: the voice of the female is clearer and more piercing than that of the male.
The ass is less subject to vermin than other animals covered with hair; he is never troubled with lice, probably owing to the hardness and dryness of his skin; and it is probably for the same reason, that he is less sensible to the whip and spur than the horse.
The teeth of the ass fall out and grow at the same age and in the same manner as those of the horse; and he has nearly the same marks in his mouth.
Asses are capable of propagating when two years old. The females are in season during the months of May and June. The milk appears in the dugs ten months after impregnation; she brings forth in the twelfth month, and always one at a time. Seven days after the birth, the season of the female returns, and she is again in a condition to receive the male. The colt should be taken from her at the end of five or six months, that the growth and nourishment of the fetus may not be obstructed. The stallion or jack-ass should be the largest and strongest that can be found; he should be at least three years old, and never ought to exceed ten.
The ass, like the horse, takes three or four years in growing, and lives till he be 25 or 30; he sleeps less than the horse, and never lies down to sleep but when excessively fatigued. He is more robust, and less subject to diseases than the horse.
Travellers inform us that there are two sorts of asses in Persia; one of which is used for burdens, they being slow and heavy; and the other is kept like horses for the saddle, for they have smooth hair, carry their head well, and are much quicker in their motion; but when they ride them, they fit nearer their buttocks than when on a horse: they are dressed like horses, and are taught to amble like them; but they generally cleave their nostrils to give them more room for breathing. Dr Russell likewise tells us they have two sorts in Syria, one of which is like ours, and the other very large, with remarkable long ears; but they are both put to the same use, which is, to carry burdens. The onager, or wild ass, has, by some authors, been confounded with the zebra; but very improperly, for this last is a distinct species; for the onager is not streaked like this, nor is its shape so beautiful. Wild asses are said to be very swift of course; and when they see a man, they make a bound, and immediately fly away; insomuch, that there is no taking of them, but by traps and snares. They have much the same shape as common asses; but they are of a brighter colour, and there runs a white list from the head to the tail. Of the hide of these asses, and particularly of that part next the rump, they make that excellent leather which we call shagreen, and which is put to so many curious uses.
In America they have no asses at all, nor yet horses; but they have been carried thither long ago, at first by the Spaniards, and afterwards by other nations, where they have multiplied greatly; insomuch, that in some places, there are whole droves of them that run wild, and are very hard to be caught. Asses in general carry the heaviest burdens in proportion to their bulk; and, as their keeping costs little or nothing, it is a great wonder they are not put to more uses than they generally are among us.
The flesh of the common ass is never eaten in these parts of the world; though some pretend their colts are tender, and not disagreeable. [Plate LXXV. fig. 2.]
3. The zebra.—This animal has the figure and gracefulness of the horse, joined to the swiftness of the stag. He is about 7 feet long, from the point of the muzzle to the origin of the tail, and about 4 feet high. The colour of his skin is beautiful and uniform, consisting of alternate parallel rings of black and white disposed in the most regular manner, as represented in the plate, [LXXV. fig. 3.] He is generally less than the horse, and larger than the ass.
The Zebra is found nowhere but in the eastern and southern provinces of Africa, from Ethiopia to the Cape of Good Hope, and from the Cape of Good Hope to Congo. The Dutch have been at great pains to tame and use them for domestic purposes, but with little success. He is hard-mouthed, and kicks when any person attempts to touch or come near him. He is restless and obstinate as a mule; but perhaps the wild horse is naturally as untractable as the Zebra; for, it is probable, if he were early accustomed to obedience and a domestic life, he would become as docile as the horse.