the progressive motion of a bird; or other winged animal, in the air.

The parts of birds chiefly concerned in flying are the wings, by which they are sustained or wafted along. The tail, Messrs Willughby, Ray, and many others, imagine to be principally employed in steering and turning the body in the air, as a rudder; but Borelli has put it beyond all doubt, that this is the least use of it, which is chiefly to assist the bird in its ascent and descent in the air; and to obviate the vacillations of the body and wings; for, as to turning to this or that side, it is performed by the wings and inclinations of the body, and but very little by the help of the tail. The flying... Flying of a bird, in effect, is quite a different thing from the rowing of a vessel. Birds do not vibrate their wings towards the tail, as oars are struck towards the stern, but waft them downwards; nor does the tail of the bird cut the air at right angles, as the rudder does the water; but is disposed horizontally, and preserves the same situation what way ever the bird turns.

In effect, as a vessel is turned about on its centre of gravity to the right, by a brisk application of the oars to the left, so a bird in beating the air with its right wing alone, towards the tail, will turn its fore part to the left. Thus pigeons changing their course to the left, would labour it with their right wing, keeping the other almost at rest. Birds of a long neck alter their course by the inclinations of their head and neck, which altering the course of gravity, the bird will proceed in a new direction.

The manner of Flying is thus: the bird first bends his legs, and springs with a violent leap from the ground; then opens and expands the joints of his wings, so as to make a right line perpendicular to the sides of his body: thus the wings with all the feathers therein, constitute one continued lamina. Being now raised a little above the horizon, and vibrating the wings with great force and velocity perpendicularly against the subject air, that fluid resists those succussions, both from its natural inactivity and elasticity, by means of which the whole body of the bird is protruded. The resistance the air makes to the withdrawing of the wings, and consequently the progress of the bird, will be so much the greater, as the waft or stroke of the fan of the wing is longer: but as the force of the wing is continually diminished by this resistance, when the two forces continue to be in equilibrium, the bird will remain suspended in the same place; for the bird only ascends so long as the arch of air the wing describes makes a resistance equal to the excess of the specific gravity of the bird above the air. If the air, therefore, be so rare as to give way with the same velocity as it is struck withal, there will be no resistance, and consequently the bird can never mount. Birds never fly upwards in a perpendicular line, but always in a parabola. In a direct ascent, the natural and artificial tendency would oppose and destroy each other, so that the progress would be very slow. In a direct descent they would aid one another, so that the fall would be too precipitate.