in moral philosophy, are certain motions of the soul, which make it pursue what appears to be good, and avoid whatever threatens evil.

By reflecting, says Mr Locke, on the various modifications or tempers of the mind, and the internal sensations which pleasure and pain, good and evil, produce in us, we may thence form to ourselves the ideas of our passions. Thus, by reflecting upon the thought we have of the delight which any thing is apt to produce in us, we form an idea which we call love. Desire is that uneasiness which a man finds in himself upon the absence of any thing, the present enjoyment of which causes delight. Joy is a delight of the mind, arising from the present, or assured approaching, possession of some good. Sorrow is an uneasiness of the mind, upon the thought of a good lost, or the sense of a present evil. Hope is a pleasure in the mind, upon the thought of a probable future enjoyment of a thing which is apt to delight. Fear is an uneasiness of the mind, upon the thought of a future evil likely to befall us. Anger is a discomposure of the mind, upon the receipt of injury, with a present purpose of revenge. Despair is the thought of the unattainableness of any good. Envy is an uneasiness of mind, caused by the consideration of a good we desire, obtained by one we think should not have had it before us.

On the just regulation and subordination of the passions, depends, in a great measure, the happiness of mankind. See Moral Philosophy.

**Passions**, in medicine, make one of the non-naturals, and produce very sensible effects. Joy, anger, and fear, are are the principal. In the two first, the spirits are hurried with too great vivacity; whereas, in fear or dread, they are it were curbed and concentrated: whence we may conclude, that they have a very bad effect upon health; and therefore it will be best to keep them within bounds as much as possible, and to preserve an inward serenity, calmness, and tranquillity.

**Passions**, in painting, are the external expressions of the different dispositions and affections of the mind; but particularly their different effects upon the several features of the face: for though the arms, and indeed every part of the body, serve likewise, by their quick, languid, and variously diversified motions, to express the passions of the soul; yet, in painting, this difference is most conspicuous in the face.

In sorrow, joy, love, shame, and compassion, the eyes swell all of a sudden, are covered with a superabundant moisture, and drop tears; and in grief especially, the corners of the mouth hang down, the eye-lids are half shut, and the pupil of the eye is elevated and half covered; and all the other muscles of the face are relaxed, so that the visage appears longer than ordinary.

In fear, terror, fright, and horror, the eye-brows are greatly elevated; the eye lids are expanded as wide as possible, so as to discover the white of the eye; and the pupil is depressed, and half covered by the lower eye-lid; the hair stands an end; the mouth is at the same time wide open; and the lips so far drawn back, that the teeth both of the upper and under jaw appear.

Contempt is expressed by raising one side of the upper lip, so as to discover the teeth; whilst the other side has a movement like that in laughter; the eye, on that side where the teeth appear, is half shut, whilst the other remains open; however, both the pupils are depressed.

In jealousy, envy, hatred, and malice, the eye-brows are knit; and, in laughter, all the parts agree, tending as it were towards the centre of the face.

**Passion**, or cross of the Passion, in heraldry, is so called, because resembling the shape of that on which our Saviour is thought to have suffered; that is, not crossed in the middle, but a little below the top, with arms short in proportion to the length of the shaft. See plate CXXXIV. fig. 12.

**Passion-flower**, in botany. See Passiflora.

**Passion-week**, the week immediately preceding the festival of Easter: so called, because in that week our Saviour's passion and death happened.

The Thursday of this week is called Maunday Thursday; the Friday, Good Friday; and the Saturday, the great Sabbath.

**Passive**, in general, denotes something that suffers the action of another called an agent or active power.

In grammar, the verb or word that expresses this passion, is termed a passive verb: which, in the learned languages, has a peculiar termination, as *amor*, *docor*, &c. in Latin.

**Passive title**, in Scots law. See Law, Tit. xxvii. 30.

**Passover**, a solemn festival of the Jews, celebrated on the fourteenth day of the month next after the vernal equinox, and instituted in commemoration of their coming out of Egypt; because on the night before their departure the destroying angel, who put to death the first born of the Egyptians, passed over the houses of the Hebrews, which were sprinkled with the blood of a lamb. The whole transaction is related in the twelfth chapter of Exodus.

**Pass parole**, a command given at the head of an army, and thence communicated to the rear by passing it from mouth to mouth.

**Pass-port**, or Pass, a licence or writing obtained from a prince or governor, granting liberty and safe conduct to pass through his territories without molestation.

**Pasteboard**, a kind of thick paper formed of several sheets of paper pasted together.

The chief use of pasteboard is in binding books, making letter-cases, &c.

**Pastern of a horse**, in the manege, is the distance between the joint next the foot, and the coronet of the hoof. This part should be short, especially in middle-sized horses, because long pasterns are weak, and cannot so well endure travelling.

**Pastern-joint**, the joint next a horse's foot.

**Pastil**, or Pastel, among painters, a kind of paste made of different colours, ground up with gum-water, in order to make crayons.

**Pastil**, in pharmacy, is a dry composition of sweet-smelling resins, aromatic woods, &c. sometimes burnt to clear and scent the air of a chamber.

**Pastinaca**, in botany, a genus of the pentandria digynia class. The fruit is elliptical, and compressed. There are two species, none of them natives of Britain; but the sativa, or parsnip, is cultivated in gardens for the sake of its root, which we use as food.

**Pastoral**, in general, something that relates to shepherds; hence we say, pastoral life, manners, poetry, &c.

The original of poetry is ascribed to that age which succeeded the creation of the world: and as the keeping of flocks seems to have been the first employment of mankind, the most ancient sort of poetry was, probably, pastoral. It is natural to imagine, that the leisure of those ancient shepherds admitting and inviting some diversion, none was so proper to that solitary and sedentary life as singing; and that in their songs they took occasion to celebrate their own felicity. From hence a poem was invented, and afterwards improved to a perfect image of that happy time; which, by giving us an esteem for the virtues of a former age, might recommend them to the present. And since the life of shepherds was attended with more tranquillity than any other rural employment, the poets chose to introduce their persons, from whom it received the name of Pastoral.

A pastoral is an imitation of the actions of a shepherd, or one considered under that character. The form of this imitation is dramatic, or narrative, or mixed with both; the fable simple; the manners not too polite, nor too rustic; the thoughts are plain, yet admit a little quickness and passion, but that short and flowing; the expression humble, yet as pure as the language will afford; neat, but not florid; easy, and yet lively. In short, the fable, manners, thoughts, and expressions, are full of the greatest simplicity in nature.

The complete character of this poem consists in simplicity, brevity, and delicacy; the two first of which render an eclogue natural, and the last delightful.

**Pastry**, that branch of cookery, which is chiefly taken up in making pies, pasties, cakes, &c.

**Pasture**, or **Pasture-land**, that reserved for feeding cattle. PAT

Pasture land is of such advantage to husbandry, that many prefer it even to corn-land, because of the small hazard and labour that attends it, and as it lays the foundation for most of the profit that is expected from the arable land, because of the manure the cattle afford which are fed upon it. Where dung is not to be bought, as is often the case in places distant from large towns, the farmer is forced to proportion his arable to his pasture-land, in such manner, that the cattle fed on the latter may be sufficient for a supply of dung, so necessary for producing the fruits of the former.