the art of taking impressions from characters or figures, moveable or immoveable, on paper, linen, silk, etc. There are three kinds of printing; the one from moveable letters, for books; another from copper-plates, for pictures; and the last from blocks, in which the representation of birds, flowers, etc., are cut, for printing calicoes, linens, etc.: the first called common-press printing, the second rolling-press printing, and the last calico, etc., printing. The principal difference between the three consists in this, that the first is cast in relief, in distinct pieces; the second engraved in creux; and the third cut in relief, and generally stamped, by placing the block upon the materials to be printed, and striking upon the back of it.

Progress of Printing. Who the first inventors of the European method of printing books were, in what city and what year it was set on foot, are questions long disputed among the learned. In effect, as the Grecian cities contended for the birth of Homer, so do the German cities for that of printing. Mentz, Haerlem, and Straßburg, are the warmest on this point of honour. John Guttenburg, and John Fust of Mentz; John Mentel of Straßburg, and L. John Koester of Haerlem; are the persons to whom this honour is severally ascribed, by their respective countrymen; and they have all their advocates among the learned. However, their first essays were made on wooden blocks, after the Chinese manner. The book at Haerlem, the vocabulary called Catholicon, and the pieces in the Bodleian library, and that of Bennett college, are all performed in this way; and the impression appears to have been only given on one side of the leaves, after which the two blank sides were pasted together. But they soon found the inconveniences of this method; and therefore betook themselves of an improvement; which was by making single letters distinct from one another; and these being first done in wood, gave room for a second improvement, which was the making them of metal; and, in order to that, forming moulds, matrices, etc., for casting them.

From this ingenious contrivance we ought to date the origin of the present art of printing, contradistinguished from the method practised by the Chinese. And of this Schoeffer, or Scheffer, first servant, and afterwards partner and son-in-law of Fust, at Mentz, abovementioned, is pretty generally allowed to be the inventor, so that he may properly be reckoned the first printer, and the Bible which was printed with moveable letters in 1450, the first printed book; the next was Auguflne de civitate Dei, then Tully's offices, printed about the year 1461. In these books they left the places of the initial letters blank, and gave them to the illuminers to have them ornamented and painted in gold and azure, in order to render the work more beautiful, and, as some think, to make their books pass for manuscripts.

Some authors tell us, that Fust carrying a parcel of bibles with him to Paris, and offering them to sale as manuscripts; the French, upon considering the number of books, and their exact conformity to each other even to a point, and that it was impossible for the best book-writers to be so exact, concluded there was witchcraft in the case, and, by their actually indicting him as a conjurer, or threatening to do so, extorted from him the secret; and hence the origin of the popular story of Dr. Faustus.

From Mentz, the art of printing soon spread itself throughout a good part of Europe: Haerlem and Straßburg had it very early; which, as the current of authors represented it, occasioned their pretending to the honour of the invention. From Haerlem it passed to Rome in 1467; and into England in 1468, by means of Tho. Bourchier, archbishop of Canterbury, who sent W. Turner master of the robes, and W. Caxton merchant, to Haerlem to learn the art. These privately prevailing with Corseilles, an under-workman, to come over, a press was let up at Oxford and an edition of Ruffinus on the creed was printed the same year in octavo. From Oxford, Caxton brought it to London about the year 1470, and the same year it was carried to Paris. Hitherto there had been nothing printed but in Latin, and the vulgar tongues; and this first in Roman characters, then in Gothic, and at last in Italic: but in 1480, the Italians cast a set of Greek types; and they have also the honour of the first Hebrew editions, which were printed about the same time with the Greek. Towards the end of the sixteenth century there appeared various editions of books in Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Armenian, Coptic or Egyptian characters, some to gratify the curiosity of the learned, and others for the use of the Christians of the Levant. Out of Europe, the art of printing has been carried into the three other parts of the world: for Asia, we see impressions of books at Goa, and in the Philippines; at Morocco, for Africa; at Mexico, Lima, Philadelphia, New York, Bolton, etc., for America. The Turks, indeed, rigorously prohibit printing throughout their empire, as imagining that the too frequent communication with books might occasion some change in their religion and government; yet the Jews have several editions of their books printed at Theffalonia, and even at Constantinople.

Method of Printing. The workmen employed in the art of printing are of two kinds: compositors, who range and dispose the letters into words, lines, pages, etc., according to the copy delivered them by the author; and pressmen, who apply ink upon the same, and take off the impression. The types being cast, the compositor distributes each kind by itself among the divisions of two wooden frames, an upper and an under one, called cases; each of which is divided into little cells or boxes. Those of the upper case are in number ninety-eight: these are all of the same size; and in them are disposed the capitals, small capitals, accented letters, figures, etc., the capitals being placed in alphabetical order. In the cells of the lower case, which are fifty-four, are placed the small letters, with the points, spaces, etc. The boxes are here of different sizes, the largest being for the letters most used; and these boxes are not in alphabetical order, but the cells which contain the letter oftenest wanted are nearest the compositor's hand. Each case is placed a little askew, that the compositor may the more easily reach the upper boxes. The instrument in which the letter are set is called a composing-stick, (ibid. n° 2) which consists consists of a long and narrow plate of brass, or iron, &c., &c.; on the right-side of which arises a ledge bb, which runs the whole length of the plate, and serves to sustain the letters, the sides of which are to rest against it: along this ledge is a row of holes, which serve for introducing the screw f; in order to lengthen or shorten the extent of the line, by moving the sliders e d farther from or nearer to the shorter ledge at the end a. Where marginal notes are required in a work, the two sliding-pieces e d are opened to a proper distance from each other, in such a manner as that while the distance between d and c forms the length of the line in the text, the distance between the two sliding-pieces forms the length of the lines for the notes on the side of the page.

Before the compositor proceeds to compose, he puts a rule, or thin slip of brass-plate, cut to the length of the line, and of the same height as the letter, in the composing-stick, against the ledge, for the letter to bear against. Things thus prepared, the compositor having the copy lying before him, and his stick in his left-hand, his thumb being over the slider d; with the right, he takes up the letters, spaces, &c., one by one, and places them against the rule, while he supports them with his left thumb by pressing them to the end of the slider d, the other hand being constantly employed in setting in other letters: the whole being performed with a degree of expedition and address not easy to be imagined.

A little being thus composed, if it end with a word or syllable, and exactly fill the measure, there needs no further care; otherwise, more spaces are to be put in, or else the distances lessened between the several words, in order to make the measure quite full, so that every line may end even. The spaces here used are pieces of metal exactly shaped like the shanks of the letters: these are of various thicknesses, and serve to support the letters, and to preserve a proper distance between the words; but not reaching so high as the letters, they make no impression when the work is printed. The first line being thus finished, the compositor proceeds to the next; in order to which he moves the brass-rule from behind the former, and places it before it, and thus composes another line against it after the same manner as before; going on thus till his stick is full, when he empties all the lines contained in it into the gally.

The compositor then fills and empties his composing-stick as before, till a complete page be formed; when he ties it up with a cord or pack-thread, and setting it by; proceeds to the next, till the number of pages to be contained in a sheet is completed; which done, he carries them to the imposing-stone, there to be ranged in order, and fastened together in a frame called a chase, and this is termed imposing. The chase is a rectangular iron-frame, of different dimensions, according to the size of the paper to be printed, having two cross-pieces of the same metal, called a long and short cross, mortised at each end so as to be taken out occasionally. By the different situation of these crosses the chase is fitted for different volumes: for quartos and octavos, one traverses the middle lengthwise, the other broadwise, so as to intersect each other in the centre: for twelves and twenty-fours, the short cross is shifted nearer to one end of the chase: for folios, the long cross is left entirely out, and the short one left in the middle; and for broad-sides, both crosses are set aside. To dress the chase, or range and fix the pages therein, the compositor makes use of a set of furniture, consisting of slips of wood of different dimensions, and about half an inch high, that they may be lower than the letters: some of these are placed at the top of the pages, and called head-sticks; others between them, to form the inner margin; others on the sides of the crosses, to form the outer margin, where the paper is to be doubled; and others in the form of wedges to the sides and bottom of the pages. Thus all the pages being placed at their proper distances, and secured from being injured by the chase and furniture placed about them, they are all united, and fastened together by driving small pieces of wood called quoins, cut in the wedge-form, up between the slanting side of the foot and side sticks and the chase, by means of a piece of hard wood and a mallet; and all being thus bound fast together, so that none of the letters will fall out, it is ready to be committed to the pressman. In this condition the work is called a form; and as there are two of these forms required for every sheet, when both sides are to be printed, it is necessary the distances between the pages in each form should be placed with such exactness, that the impression of the pages in one form shall fall exactly on the back of the pages of the other, which is called register.

As it is impossible but that there must be some mistakes in the work, either through the oversight of the compositor, or by the casual transposition of letters in the cases; a sheet is printed off, which is called a proof, and given to the corrector; who reading it over, and rectifying it by the copy, by making the alterations in the margin, it is delivered back to the compositor to be corrected.

The compositor then unlocking the form upon the correcting-stone, by loosening the quoins or wedges which bound the letters together, rectifies the mistakes by picking out the faulty or wrong letters with a slender sharp-pointed steel-bodkin, and puts others into their places. After this another proof is made, sent to the author; and corrected as before; and lastly, there is another proof, called a revife, which is made in order to see whether all the mistakes marked in the last proof are corrected.

The pressman's business is to work off the forms thus prepared and corrected by the compositor; in doing which there are four things required; paper, ink, balls, and a press. To prepare the paper for use, it is to be first wetted by dipping several sheets together in water: these are afterwards laid in a heap over each other; and to make them take the water equally, they are all pressed close down with a weight at the top. The ink is made of oil and lamp-black; for the manner of preparing which, see Printing Ink. The balls, by which the ink is applied on the forms, are a kind of wooden funnels with handles, the cavities of which are filled with wool or hair, as is also a piece of alum-leather or pelt nailed over the cavity, and made extremely soft by soaking in urine, and by being well rubbed. One of these the pressman takes in each hand; and applying one of them to the ink-block, daubs and works them together to distribute the ink equally and then blackens the form which is placed on the press, by beating with the balls upon the face of the letter.

The printing-press represented in Plate CXLVII, fig. 1. no. 1. is a very curious, though complex machine. The body consists of two strong cheeks, \(a\), placed perpendicularly, and joined together by four crofs-pieces; the cap \(b\); the head \(c\), which is moveable, being partly sustained by two iron-pins, or long bolts, that pass the cap; the shelves \(d\), which serve to keep steady a part called the hose; and the winter \(e\), which bears the carriage, and sustains the effort of the press beneath. The spindle \(f\) is an upright piece of iron pointed with steel, having a male-screw which goes into the female one in the head about four inches. Through the eye \(g\) of this spindle is fastened the bar \(k\), by which the pressman makes the impression. Part of the spindle is inclosed in a square wooden frame called the hose \(h\), and its point works into a brass-pan supplied with oil, which is fixed to an iron plate let into the top of the platten. At each corner of the hose, there is an iron-hook fastened with pack-thread to those at each end of the platten \(i\), in such a manner as to keep it perfectly level. The carriage \(l\) is placed a foot below the platten, having its fore-part supported by a prop called the fore-lay, while the other rests on the winter. On this carriage, which sustains the plank, are nailed two long iron-bars or ribs, and on the plank are nailed short pieces of iron or steel called cramp-irons, equally tempered with the ribs, and which slide upon them when the plank is turned in or out. Under the carriage is fixed a long piece of iron called the spit, with a double wheel in the middle, round which leather-girts are fastened, nailed to each end of the plank; and to the outside of the spit is fixed a rounce \(m\), or handle to turn round the wheel. Upon the plank is a square frame or coffin, in which is inclosed a polished stone on which the form \(n\) is laid; at the end of the coffin are three frames, viz. the two tympans and frisket: the tympans \(o\) are square, and made of three slips of very thin wood, and at the top a piece of iron still thinner; that called the outer tympan is fastened with hinges to the coffin: they are both covered with parchment; and between the two are placed blankets, which are necessary to take off the impression of the letters upon the paper. The frisket \(p\) is a square frame of thin iron, fastened with hinges to the tympan; it is covered with paper cut in the necessary places, that the sheet, which is put between the frisket and the great or outward tympan, may receive the ink, and that nothing may hurt the margins. To regulate the margins, a sheet of paper is fastened upon this tympan, which is called the tympan-sheet; and on each side is fixed an iron point, which makes two holes in the sheet, which is to be placed on the same points, when the impression is to be made on the other side. In preparing the press for working, the parchment which covers the outer tympan is wetted till it is very soft, in order to render the impression more equable; the blankets are then put in, and secured from slipping by the inner tympan: then while one pressman is beating the letter with the balls \(q\), covered with ink taken from the ink-block, the other person places a sheet of white paper on the tympan-sheet, turns down the frisket upon it to keep the paper clean and prevent its slipping; then bringing the tympans upon the form, and turning the rounce, he brings the form with the stone, &c. weighing about 300 pounds weight, under the platten; pulls with the bar, by which means the platten presses the blankets and paper close upon the letter, whereby half the form is printed; then eating the bar, he draws the form still forward, gives a second pull; and letting go the bar, turns back the form, takes up the tympans and frisket, takes out the printed sheet, and lays on a fresh one; and this is repeated till he has taken off the impression upon the full number of sheets the edition is to consist of. One side of the sheet being thus printed, the form for the other is laid upon the press, and worked off in the same manner.

Chinese Printing, is performed from wooden planks or blocks, cut like those used in printing of calico, paper, cards &c.

Rolling press Printing, is employed in taking off prints or impressions from copper-plates engraven, etched, or scraped as in mezzotintos. See Engraving.

This art is said to have been as ancient as the year 1540, and to owe its origin to Finiguerra, a Florentine goldsmith, who pouring some melted brimstone on an engraved plate, found the exact impression of the engraving left in the cold brimstone, marked with black taken out of the strokes by the liquid sulphur: upon this he attempted to do the same on silver-plates with wet paper, by rolling it smoothly with a roller; and this succeeded; but this art was not used in England till the reign of king James I when it was brought from Antwerp by Speed. The form of the rolling-press, the composition of the ink used therein, and the manner of applying both in taking off prints, are as follow.

The rolling-press AL (Plate CXLVII. fig. 2) may be divided into two parts, the body and carriage: the body consists of two wooden cheeks PP placed perpendicularly on a stand or foot LM, which sustains the whole press. From the foot likewise are four other perpendicular pieces c,c,c,c, joined by other crofs or horizontal ones d,d,d, which serve to sustain a smooth even plank or table HIK, about four feet and a half long, two feet and a half broad, and an inch and a half thick. Into the cheeks go two wooden cylinders or rollers, DE, FG, about six inches in diameter, borne up at each end by the cheeks, whose ends, which are lessened to about two inches diameter, and called trunnions, turn in the cheeks about two pieces of wood in form of half-moons, lined with polished iron to facilitate the motion. Lastly, to one of the trunnions of the upper roller is fastened a crofs, consisting of two levers A,B, or pieces of wood, traversing each other, the arms of which crofs serve instead of the bar or handle of the letter-press, by turning the upper roller, and when the plank is between the two rollers, giving the same motion to the under one, by drawing the plank forward and backward.

The ink used for copper-plates, is a composition made of the stones of peaches and apricots, the bones of sheep, and ivory, all well burnt, and called Frankfort black, mixt with nut-oil that has been well boiled, and ground together on a marble, after the same manner as painters do their colours.

The method of printing from copper-plates is as follows. They take a small quantity of this ink on a rubber made of linen-rags, strongly bound about each other, and therewith smear the whole face of the plate as it lies on a grate over a charcoal-fire. The plate being sufficiently inked, they first wipe it over with a foul rag, then with the palm of their left hand, and then with that of the right; and to dry the hand and forward the wiping, they rub it from time in time in whiting. In wiping the plate perfectly clean, yet without taking the ink out of the engraving, the address of the workman consists. The plate thus prepared, is laid on the plank of the press; over the plate is laid the paper, first well moistened, to receive the impression, and over the paper two or three folds of flannel. Things thus disposed, the arms of the cross are pulled and by that means the plate with its furniture passed through between the rollers, which pinching very strongly, yet equally, presses the moistened paper into the strokes of the engraving, whence it picks out the ink.