or THEOLOGY.

I. To know God, and to render him a reasonable service, are the two principal objects of religion. We know but little of the nature of bodies; we discover some of their properties, as motion, figure, colours, &c., but of their essence we are ignorant: we know still much less of the soul; but of the essence or nature of God, we know nothing: it is the prerogative of the Supreme Being alone to comprehend his own essence: all the efforts that we can make to attain that knowledge, are arrogant and ineffectual; it is foreign to the nature of a limited spirit: but our destiny is that of a man, and our desires are those of a God. In a word, man appears to be formed to adore, but not to comprehend, the Supreme Being.

II. We may say, however, with Virgil, *Jovis omnia plena*; God manifests his existence, not only to the internal sensations of our minds, but in every object that surrounds us in the whole frame of nature; and if we cannot comprehend the Supreme Being by our senses, we may discover his attributes by our reason, almost as clearly as we distinguish the properties of matter, and many other objects; and this knowledge is sufficient for us. The end of every other science is some temporal happiness; theology alone proposes an eternal felicity; its object therefore differs from all other sciences, as the age of three score and ten differs from eternity. We cannot wonder therefore, that all the inhabitants of the earth, from the time of the creation, have made it their principal study, and have exerted all their abilities in the cultivation of it: we ought much rather to be astonished that it does not yet more strongly engage the attention of mankind; and that while they labour so assiduously to acquire those sciences, whose utility extends to so short a space of time, they should so frequently neglect that object which can secure their felicity in a future, certain, and eternal existence.

III. From the first knowledge that we have of the world, that is to say, for about five thousand years past, men have blindly searched after the idea of the true God; and by the weakness of their discernment, they have fallen into a thousand errors. Paganism at first covered the whole earth, except that family alone which became the stock of the Jewish people: this paganism among different nations had different mixtures of idolatry. Moses first made known to the Hebrews the true God, and prescribed them his worship: his religion, however, was not adopted by any other people, not even by their neighbours. Jesus Christ appeared upon the earth, abolished a part of the Judaic law, reformed the religion of Moses, taught his divine doctrines, and offered himself as a sacrifice for the salvation of mankind. His gospel made a happy progress over all Europe, that is, over the then known part of the earth. Some time after, Mahomet arose in the east, and preached a religion that he had compounded of the Jewish and Christian, and of his own ideas. Lastly, came Luther and Calvin, who reformed the errors which, according to them, had been introduced into Christianity under the reigns of the popes; and gave the idea of what is called the Protestant Religion. Confucius had taught the Chinese, and Zoroaster the Indians, religions drawn partly from philosophy, and partly from paganism; but the extent of these was very confined. All these religions, and their different sects, have had their theology, their priests, their ceremonies, their triumphs, and even their martyrs.

IV. We shall not speak here of religions that are extinct, or that yet exist, but at a distance far from us: we shall treat only of the Christian theology, which teaches us to know God, by revelation and by the light of reason, so far as it is possible for the weakness of the human mind to comprehend that inscrutable Being. The knowledge of the true God is indeed of little utility to man, unless he can suppose that there is some connection or relation between that Supreme Being and himself. Now it is from these connections or relations that are derived the necessity of the knowledge of the true God, and of the true manner in which he is to be worshipped: and this it is that forms the Christian theology; of which we shall now give the analysis.

V. To ascend by a chain of reasoning from things visible to things invisible, from palpable to impalpable, from terrestrial to celestial, from the creature even up to the Creator, is the business of theology: it is not surprising, therefore, that the union of many doctrines is necessary completely to form such a science. To understand, and properly to interpret the scriptures or revelation, demands not less sagacity than fidelity. The gift of persuasion is also essential to the ministers of the gospel. And lastly, the civil government has committed to their care certain functions of society, which relate, or seem to relate, either to the doctrines or morality of the gospel. They assemble, for example, in bodies to form confederacies; they judge in matrimonial cases; they carry consolation and hope to the souls of the sick; they prepare for death those criminals which justice sacrifices to public safety; they take upon themselves the charge of Ephori, with the inspection of some pious foundations; they distribute alms; they administer the sacraments, &c.

VI. To discharge fully so many duties, the theologian has need, 1. Of several preparatory studies; 2. Of some theoretic sciences; and, 3. Of many doctrines which have for their object his ministerial office. The first are,

1. The languages; and among these, (a) His native language, in which he is to preach and exercise his ministry, and with which he ought to be perfectly acquainted. (b) The Latin language, which is the language of the learned world in general. (c) The Greek language, in order to understand the New Testament. (d) The Hebrew language, of which the Talmudian and Rabbinical idioms are a part. (e) The Arabic language. (f) The Syriac language. The French language. And (b) The English language. The two latter of which now appear necessary to every man of letters, and particularly to a theologian, on account of the ex- cellent works which are wrote in those languages.

2. The principal parts of Philosophy; as, (a) Logic. (b) Metaphysics. (c) Moral philosophy.

3. Rhetoric and eloquence, or the art of speaking cor- rectly, of writing with elegance, and of persuasion. To which may be added, 4. The elements of Chronology, and Universal History. 5. The study of the Jewish antiquities.

He who would devote himself to the important employ- ment of a theologian, and has the noble ambition to excel in it, should early impress on his mind these truths: that the years which are passed at an university are few; that they run rapidly away; that they are entirely engrossed by the theoretic sciences; and that he who does not carry with him to the university a fund of knowledge in the preparatory parts of learning, commonly brings very little away, when his age or his parents oblige him to quit it.

VII. The theoretic sciences of a theologian are, 1. The Dogmatic, or the theory of theology: which some Latin authors name also thetic, or systematica. 2. The Exegesis, or the science of attaining the true sense of the holy scriptures. 3. The Hermeneutic, or the art of interpreting and ex- plaining the scriptures to others. This differs in general but little from the exegesis, and in some respects is quite the same. 4. Polemic theology, or controversy. 5. Natural theology. 6. Moral theology. 7. Sacred criticism. 8. The history of the Church, under the Old and New Testaments.

VIII. The practical sciences of a theologian are, 1. Pastoral theology, which is divided into, (a) Homiletic. (b) Cathechetic. (c) Catechistic. 2. Consistorial theology, which comprehends (d) The Canon law. 3. The prudential exercise of the different functions of the ministry.

We do not here particularly name the patristic theology, (theologia patrum seu patristica,) because all Christian com- munications are not agreed in their opinions concerning the degree of authenticity and infallibility that is to be at- tributed to these ancients fathers of the church. The Protestants believe, that these primitive theologians were liable to error in their sentiments as well as those of our days; and, in all probability, that they were less skilful, less learned, less clear, and less accustomed to close reasoning, than the latter, as philosophy was then more imperfect. But as we find in the writings of these fa- thers, many elucidations of the doctrine of the primitive a- postles, and many irrefragable testimonies of the authenti- city of divers remarkable events, which serve to establish the truth of Christianity; and as we there see, moreover, the origin of errors, of arbitrary ceremonies, and of many doc- trines that have been introduced into the Christian church; the reading and the study of these fathers cannot but be of great utility to the theologian. To a virtuous citizen, who unites such various sciences, and employs them in pointing out to his fellow citizens the path that leads to temporal and eternal felicity, in a word, to a wise theologian, what ve- neration is not due?

Of the Dogmatic.

I. Under the general term of dogmatic, we comprehend that part which the different writers on theology have called sometimes theoric, sometimes systematic, and some- times thetic theology, &c. The term dogmatic appears to us the most general, and the most just, to express the sub- ject that we intend, as it comprehends an entire system of all the dogmas or tenets that each religion professes; whether it teach these dogmas by the way of thesis, as articles of faith; by public lecture; by catechising; or any other man- ner whatever.

II. Every positive religion must, naturally, have a system of certain points of doctrine to propose to its followers; oth- erwise, each one would form a particular system according to his own fancy. There would be as many different religions as there are individuals on the earth, and each society would consist of a confused mass of fantastic opinions; as the differ- ent modes of thinking, and the different degrees of discern- ment, are varied and compounded by mankind to infinity; but truth; on the contrary, is uniform and invariable.

III. The Christian religion is so compound in its dogmas, as it is simple in its moral principle. It includes, 1. The dogmas founded on the lights of reason; 2. Those drawn from the Old Testament, and the law of Moses; 3. Those taken from the New Testament, and the doctrine of Jesus Christ; 4. Those that the fathers of the church have drawn from the Holy Scriptures; 5. Those that the church, under the New Testament, has prescribed to Christians, by ecu- menical and other councils assembled in different ages: 6. The dogmas that the popes, in quality of heads of the church, have established by their bulls; and to these must be added, on the part of the protestants, 7. The dogmas that the reformers, especially Luther and Calvin, have taught: 8. The decisions of synods; and lastly, the tenets that are maintained by the different sects, as Socinians, Anabaptists, Quakers, &c. Each of these particular religions or sects pretend to support their dogmas both by reason and revela- tion; we do not here offer a work of controversy, and are very far from attempting to determine on which side truth and reason are to be found.

IV. Our zeal, however, for the Christian religion in gen- eral, which we regard as perfectly divine, and as the only religion adapted to promote the happiness of mankind in this world, and to secure it in the next, and the desire we have that it may endure to the end of time, compels us to make in this place one important reflection; which is, That sim- plicity is ever an essential attribute of perfection, as compli- cacy is of imperfection. Now, it cannot be denied, without doing violence to truth, that among the different dogmas of which we have been speaking, there are several that seem to be founded on speculations very arbitrary, on subtleties very intricate, and on interpretations very ambiguous. God certainly never intended that all mankind should be theolo- gians; he has not given them his divine word to be the cause of discord among men, nor that they should pass their lives lives in a painful search after objects of belief; and articles of faith; and that they should forego, in that pursuit, the necessary offices of life, and their duties as citizens. The dogmas, then, essentially necessary to the welfare of mankind, ought to consist of a small number, and to bear the marks of simplicity and perspicuity; without which they must be imperfect, and consequently the work of man. Our intention, in making this remark, is, to extend our voice, if it be possible, even to posterity, whom we would conjure not to injure our religion, so holy and so admirable, by a multiplicity of dogmas. It is necessary, however, that the divine, who makes it his study and his profession, should be thoroughly acquainted with the theory of this science, in order that he may be able to instruct the sincere Christian, and to explain the nature of each particular dogma, as well as the solidity of its proofs; and to this it is that the study of the dogmatic leads; of which we shall now continue the analysis.

V. The dogmatic is then nothing but a succinct exposition of all the dogmas of the Christian religion, in a natural and philosophical order. By the word philosophic, we do not here precisely mean the method of mathematicians, in the manner the late M. Wolff has applied it to philosophy; every subject is not capable of a demonstration to exact and rigid; but a regular order is required in the arrangement of the general system, and a connection is to be preserved in the several matters that form it: the definitions should be just; the divisions exact; the arguments solid; the proofs clear; the citations conclusive; the examples striking; and, in a word, every thing should be adduced that pertains to so important a discipline.

It is very essential, moreover, in the dogmatic, at the beginning of each thesis, to explain the several terms that are peculiar to it, and that use has established in treating of theology; to draw from each definition certain axioms, and from thence to form propositions, and to illustrate them by solid reasoning. Lastly, we should not neglect, in such a system, to make use of the expressions used in the symbolic books that have been received by the whole Christian church, and which cannot be rejected or altered, without causing confusion in our ideas, and in the general system of the Christian religion. But before we make the least advance in the study of Christian theology, it is indispensably necessary to examine the proofs by which the truth, the authenticity, and the divinity of the sacred and canonical books are established; for this is the foundation of all the dogmas and the axis on which its whole doctrine turns.

VI. The systematic part of the Christian religion, among the great number of its dogmas or theses, has three principal, from which all the rest are derived, and which form the basis of its whole doctrine:

1. The existence of one God in three persons. 2. The necessity of a Mediator or Redeemer. 3. The real appearance of the Mediator or Messiah on the earth.

Whoever writes, professes, or teaches the dogmatic, should be, above all things, careful well to establish these important truths; to evince them by the strongest and most evident proofs, drawn partly from the lights of reason, and partly from revelation; and he will then see, with what facility all other theses flow from, and how easy it will be to prove them by, these.

VII. The infinite variety that is found among mankind in their manner of thinking, and in their method of treating subjects; the frequent changes that have happened in the exterior form of philosophy, and in the method of treating it; the oppositions that have been raised at all times against divers doctrines of the Christian religion; all these have produced, among theologians, different systems of the dogmatic. Sometimes they have combined positive theology with morality; and have formed a system that they call theologia theoretico-practica, or theologia thetico-moralis, &c.; sometimes they have refused the arguments that others oppose to certain theses; and from thence has arose a system that they call theologia thetico, or dogmatico, or positivo-polemica: sometimes they have joined to natural theology that of revelation; and have formed a dogmatic, called philosophico-theologica: and so of the rest. But, besides that these distinctions and denominations are in themselves pedantic, it is at all times more eligible, in every science, to avoid confounding with each other the several branches of which it consists. The different dogmas; morality, philosophy, and controversy, are separate articles; and when each of these parts of theology are separately treated, they are disposed with more order in the mind, and a greater light is diffused over their several subjects.

VIII. It appears, moreover, from the simple enumeration that we have made, in the third section, of the different principles on which the dogmas of the Christian religion are founded, that, to be thoroughly acquainted with its whole theory, the theologian should also apply himself to the study of the symbolic books of its communion, and especially should be well versed in the Creed of the Apostles; that of Nice and St Athanasius; the book called Formula concordiae; the Theses of the council of Trent; the Catechism of Luther; the Confession of Augsburg; the Articles of Smalcalden; the Catechism of Heidelberg, &c. That he should be well acquainted with that part of Theology that is called patriarca: that is to say, that he should be well read in the fathers of the church; that he should not be ignorant even of scholastic theology; that he should at least know the frivolous subtleties and the complicated method of the ancient scholastic divines, which was derived from the philosophy of Aristotle and the schools; that he should make a serious study of the sacred history of all ages, the councils and synods; that he should, above all, never lose sight of natural theology; and, lastly, that it is indispensably necessary that he should procure a good library or treatise of ecclesiastical writers *, which he may consult occasionally, and learn from thence to know the best guides. The more a theologian applies himself to all these subjects, the more ability he will acquire in this science, and the more perfect he will be in the theory of that religion which it is his duty to teach to others.

IX. Revealed religion being founded (at least in great part) on natural religion, and philosophy being the source from whence the principles and the knowledge of the latter are derived, it is evident that philosophy is intimately connected with theology; nevertheless, the aid of the former is to be employed with precaution, and is not to be regarded as the foundation of the theological dogmas, but only as a mean by which they may be explained and enforced. The Holy Scriptures constitute, perpetually, the true basis of revealed theology: philosophy effectually concurs, however,

* Those of Du Pin and William Cave are most celebrated. to prove the existence and the attributes of the Supreme Being; the necessity of the creation of the universe by Almighty God, in opposition to every other possible manner of its being produced: it furnishes, moreover, plausible conjectures concerning the intention of the Almighty in creating this world; it proves the necessity of a perpetual power to preserve it; it supposes, that, as God could not produce anything that was not perfect in its kind, he could not have created man as he now is; it vindicates the conduct of the Supreme Being, in appointing chastisements for transgressions, by shewing that moral evil was not introduced into the world by absolute necessity, but by the abuse of liberty, the most noble prerogative of the human soul; it determines the necessity of a Mediator; it furnishes arguments for the belief of the immortality of the soul, and of a future state that has a relation to the moral actions of this life; and lastly, it inspires a love of God as a Being of sovereign perfection, a gratitude towards him as our creator and preserver, and a submission to his will as our supreme ruler and director, motives of all others the most powerfully conducive to a virtuous conduct.

X. It is this use which theology makes of philosophy, that has given occasion to divide the theses of the dogmatic into pure and mixed; that is, into theses that are founded entirely upon revelation; and, such as arise from an union of reason with revelation. Of the first sort are, 1. The article of the Holy Scripture itself; which treats of its divine origin, its authority, and its efficacy. 2. The dogma of the Trinity. 3. That of the origin of evil, or of original sin. 4. The whole article of Jesus Christ. 5. The dogma of the efficacy and operations of the Holy Ghost. 6. That of the sacraments. 7. That of repentance. 8. That of the belief in Jesus Christ. 9. That of good and bad angels. 10. That of the end of the world, and the last judgment. 11. That of the church, &c. The mixed dogmas or theses are, 1. The doctrine of a Supreme Being, in general; his being, his attributes, and his works. 2. That of the creation. 3. That of providence, or the conservation of the world. 4. Of sin, as a transgression of the laws of God. 5. Of rewards and punishments after death, &c. He that attentively studies, thoroughly comprehends, and well digests all these theses, will have reason to rest content with his knowledge of the dogmatic.

Of the Exegesis and the Hermeneutic.

I. The term Exegesis is derived from the Greek verb ἐξεγέρνω, which signifies to relate or explain; and that of Hermeneutic from ἐρμηνεύω, which means to search into, and, in a figurative sense, thoroughly to examine, and interpret. The learned, but especially the theologians, make use of these words, sometimes as synonyms, to express the same thing, and sometimes (as there are scarce any terms that are perfectly synonymous) to denote a small difference between two parts of learning of the same nature. By the word Exegesis they mean, that science which teaches clearly to investigate the true sense of the original text of the holy scriptures; and by the Hermeneutic, the art of interpreting and explaining the holy scriptures to others*. This distinction is so subtle, that it becomes almost frivolous. They are, in fact, the same science; the one is only an explication of the other, and for that reason we think we are authorised to treat of them together in this place.

II. In order to the true understanding of the sacred text of all the books contained in the Holy Bible, whether of the Old or New Testament, it is absolutely necessary that the theologian be thoroughly acquainted, not only with the languages in which these books were originally wrote, but likewise with the history and antiquities of those remote times in which their authors lived. With regard to researches into the history of the Jewish nation, their antiquities, their morals, and their customs, it will be found advantageous to pursue it as far as the nature of the subject will admit, without, however, engaging in critical subtleties, that lead to a labyrinth to which there is no end, and have spread more clouds over theology than even the scholastic controversies have formerly done.

III. He who would successfully interpret any work whatever, should first consider the spirit in which it is wrote: he should attentively reflect on the general design of that work, and the particular motives that induced the author to undertake it; his genius, his passions, his taste; the time, the place, and the people for whom it was written. These considerations are, above all, necessary, when we would undertake the explication of the Holy Scriptures. Independent of those reflections which the theologian will of himself naturally make on the subject, the excellent commentaries which we have on the Bible, in which the greatest men of every age have exercised their genius, may serve him as a guide in this course. The critical histories will likewise afford great aid, and throw admirable lights on this matter. Clear ideas, an acute discernment, and a solid judgment, will complete the work.

IV. With regard to the languages necessary for understanding the sacred text, the Hebrew language hold the first place. The student should have early recourse to the manner of accenting, and the Massoret of the Jews; to these he may add, with advantage, the reading of the Jewish interpreters or Rabbins. There are the grammars and dictionaries, Rabbinic and Talmudic, of Buxtorff, Cellarius, and others, which greatly facilitate his study. The Talmud is true is stuffed with a thousand fables and ridiculous stories; it contains, notwithstanding, some things useful and curious, which the learned theologian should not entirely pass over. For the well understanding of the explications and applications of the best Rabbins, he should likewise have recourse to their Cabbala, which they divide into real and liberal.

V. The Massoret is a kind of critic on the Hebrew text, that the ancient Jewish doctors invented, in order to prevent any alteration. They there count the verses, the words, and the letters of the text, and have marked all their diversities. The text of the sacred books was formerly wrote in close continuation, without any distinction of chapters, verses, or even words, after the manner of the ancients, as we still see in many manuscripts. As the sacred books have undergone an infinity of changes, which form various readings; and as the true original has been either lost or altered; the Jews have had recourse to this rule, which they have judged infallible, and which they call the Massora, to fix the reading of the Hebrew text.

VI. The ancient Rabbins, or Doctors of the Jewish law, have

* The Exegetis is a kind of rational grammar. The Hermeneutic is the art of interpreting entire passages. have wrote many superstitious traditions, which they observe as scrupulously as the law of Moses; and have also made many commentaries on the sacred text, among which there are some that are good and useful. The language they use is different from the common Hebrew, as is also the Rabbinic character.

VII. The Talmud is a book in which the Jews have comprised every thing that concerns the explication of their law, and the duties that are enjoined them by scripture, by tradition, or by authority of their doctors; by their particular customs, their civil government, their doctrine, their ceremonies, their moral theology, the decisions of cases of conscience, &c. The Talmud is composed; in general, of two parts; which are called, the Mishnah, and the Gemara. The Jews would not at first commit these things to writing; but after the destruction of Jerusalem, finding themselves dispersed in the world, they became obliged to do it. They had two celebrated schools, one at Babylon, and the other at Jerusalem; at these schools were made two different collections of traditions, each of which is called the Talmud. The commentary, called Gemara, contains the decisions of the Jewish doctors, and their explications of the text; it is filled with absurdities, reveries, and ignorance, and written in a vulgar style. On the contrary, the text, that is called Mishnah, consists of solid reasoning, written in a pure style. The Rabbi Moses, son of Maimon, has made an abridgment of it, which is of more value than even the Talmud itself.

VIII. The Cabbala or Kabala (a Hebrew word, which properly signifies tradition) contains the different interpretations of the laws of God by different Rabbins; their decisions on the obligations that they impose, and the manner of performing them. There are some of them that are occult and mysterious, and consist in singular and mystic significations which are given to a word, or even to each of the letters that compose it; and from these various combinations, they draw explications of the scripture very different from that which it seems naturally to import. This Cabbala is divided into three kinds: the first they call Gematria, and consists in taking the letters for the numbers of arithmetic, and explaining each word by the arithmetick value of the numbers that compose it; the second is called Notaricon, and consists in taking each letter for a word, or in composing a word of the first letters of several words; the third is called Tiwmura, and consists in changing a word, and the letters of which it is composed.

IX. The Chaldee seems to be indispensible, after the study of the Hebrew and Rabbinic; this is properly no more than a particular dialect of the Hebrew language. The Jews give to their commentaries, and to the Chaldaic paraphrase on the Scripture, the title of Targum. As, during their long captivity in Babylon, they had forgot the Hebrew, and only retained the Chaldaean language, it became necessary to explain the prophets in that language; and to this necessity is owing the first commencement of the Chaldaean paraphrase. The Rabbins have since collected together these divers interpretations of their doctors, which form the paraphrase that is called Targum.

X. The other oriental languages, as the Arabic, the Syriac, the Samaritan, and the Coptic, are also of great use to the learned theologian.

XI. All the books of the New Testament being wrote in Greek, the study of that language becomes necessary to the theologian. But it must not be imagined, that this Greek is that of Athens or Lacedemon; and that they who understand the New Testament, will fully comprehend Homer, Anacreon, or Thucydides. It is very necessary to observe, here, that during the Babylonish captivity, the Jews, as we have just said, having forgot the Hebrew, and having adopted, in process of time, several idioms, the Greek language was at last successfully diffused over almost all the east; and, at the time of the coming of Jesus Christ upon the earth, that language was in use in Palestine, not only among men of letters, but in the polite world: every thing was wrote, every thing was treated of, in Greek. The Jews no longer understood the Holy Scriptures in the Hebrew language, but made use of the version that the Septuagint had made of the Old Testament in the Greek language. The evangelists and the apostles, therefore, wrote their historic relations, as well as their epistles or letters in the same language: but their style is not pure, being strewed with hebraisms and barbarisms, and with theological terms and phrases. The four evangelists differ, moreover, among themselves, with regard to their style; and so do the apostles: St Matthew is not so elegant as St John; nor St Jude so elegant as St Paul, who was a man of letters, and an able writer. The diction of St Luke is the most elegant, and most correct, especially in his book of the acts of the apostles.

XII. The translations that have been made of the sacred books in the west, will also very frequently assist in clearing up many passages.

XIII. The Jewish antiquities are naturally connected with the study of the sacred history of the Old Testament. Josephus is the best author who has wrote on this subject. John Marpurg, Vossius, Lwiar, Giraldis, &c., are the moderns to whom we are indebted for learned researches in these matters. Hermannus Welfius, in his treatise de Egyptiacis, has thrown admirable lights on the Egyptian antiquities. The antiquities of the Chaldeans, Babylonians, Persians and Medes, has been excellently well explained by Barnabas Brisson, in his book de regno et rege Perseorum; and by Thomas Hyde, in his treatise de religione et sacris Perseorum. The writings of Meursius, and the Compendium Antiquitatum Graecarum of John Potter, are very useful to give theologians an idea of what they will find necessary to know of the Grecian antiquities; and lastly, the abridgment of Cantel will make them sufficiently acquainted with the Latin antiquities.

XIV. Spencer has given an excellent work on the ceremonies of the Jewish religion, de Legibus Hebraeorum ritibus, &c. We have likewise works that fully treat of their temples, their sacrifices, their priests and Levites, their passover and purim, of their tithes, their vestments and sacred habits, and of their manners and customs; but it would be too prolix to mention all these in this place.

XV. The modern commentaries on the Holy Scriptures may also serve to instruct the young theologian; but he should use them with caution and moderation. All that glitters is not gold, as well in this instance as in others; and a man of learning should not often make use of other people's eyes.

XVI. The Bibles called Polyglots are also of great assistance in interpreting the sacred texts. They are printed in several languages. The first is that of cardinal Ximenes, printed in the year 1515, and called the Bible of Complute; it contains the Hebrew text, the Chaldaean paraphrases, phrase, the Greek version of the Septuagint, and the ancient Latin edition. The second is that which is called the Royal Bible, printed at Antwerp in 1572. The third, that of le Jay, printed at Paris in 1645. The fourth is the English polyglot, printed at London in 1657, of which Walton is the editor. There are still several more that have been printed since, but they are neither so complete nor so celebrated as the former.

XVII. The Bibles that are called Biblia Graeca, are also here of very great use. The sacred text is there everywhere accompanied with explanations and observations. There are of these in each of the three principal communions of the Christian Religion, and in most of the modern languages of Europe. Lastly, as the interpretation of the sacred text depends in a great measure on the lights and the proofs drawn by comparing together different passages of scripture, there are several Bibles where the editors have placed, on the side of each verse of the text, what they call the Concordance, that is, a citation of other parallel passages, which are found dispersed in the Old and New Testament. These Concordances are of daily and indispensible use to the divine, in composing his sermons, and in many parts of his ministry. See Bible.

XVIII. These parallelisms are yet different from that which theologians call the real parallelism; by which they mean, the relation that the typical or parabolic sense of a passage has with what the expressions literally imply, or seem to imply; the mystic sense with the real sense; the figures and the images that the sacred authors have employed, with the things or the effects that they intended to describe. The greatest theologians have taken infinite pains in determining these points, explaining them, and producing their proofs: in many places they have succeeded; and we cannot but admire their sagacity, their zeal, and their success; it must be acknowledged, however, that they have not yet cleared up all the obscurities; that there are many dark passages still remaining in the prophets; in the Song of Songs; in the book of Job, and above all in the Apocalypse; on which have been hitherto thrown mere glimmerings, which are very far from affording a sufficient light. The explications that have been attempted of these passages are frequently so unjust, so unnatural, and improbable, and at the same time so futile, that they rebel against common sense, and only give us occasion to deplore the imbecility of the human understanding.

XIX. The last labour of him who would become acquainted with the Hermeneutic, is in what is called Lectio Acroamatica; by means of which, each book of the Holy Scripture is examined from one end to the other, with relation to geography ancient and modern; genealogy, chronology, history, and antiquities; from whence a rational system is formed, according to the rules of sound logic. This work is attended with so many difficulties and distractions, that it is almost impossible to accomplish it, without the assistance of a guide, an able professor, and a complete academical course.

XX. Furnished with these ideas, the theologian may venture to investigate the true sense of those passages of Holy Scripture that may appear to him obscure, contradictory, or difficult, and to interpret them to others: but he will be more wise, and less vain, than to attempt to impose his decisions on mankind, at all times, as authentic and infallible. The human discernment is ever confined and imper-

fect; and God has not granted to any man, to any theologian, or assembly of divines, an exclusive power of interpreting his divine word: he has moreover denounced his anathema against all those who shall add, or take away, a single word thereof. But to explore the true sense of any passage, and to explain it to others, cannot certainly be deemed either adding or retrenching.

Of Sacred Criticism.

I. As the authors and professors, who treat of the different parts of theology, make frequent mention of the sacred criticism, we must not omit to shew in what manner it is connected with the Exegesis and the Hermeneutic, and in what respect it forms a separate doctrine or science. Criticism, in general, is in fact no more than a superior part of grammar; a kind of rational grammar founded on reflection, and the rules of language; but which employs the aid of divers other sciences, as history, chronology, antiquities, &c., in order to search out and determine the true sense of an obscure or ambiguous passage. The sacred criticism is only distinguished by its object; it adopts the same rules, but it adds others which take their rise and principles from the peculiar language of the New Testament; and has regard to the Bible in general, an account of the nature, essence, and qualities of its divine Author. So far it has an intimate connection with the Exegesis.

II. But, if we would consider it as a separate study, we may say, that it is a science which is employed in examining the exterior circumstances of the Holy Scripture. For example: in what time each book was wrote; who was its author; the precision and fidelity of the text; the distinction between the canonical books and the apocryphal; and many other matters of like nature. In order still the better to show in what manner, and with how much precaution, the sacred criticism proceeds in its operations, we shall here recite some of those subjects that belong to its province.

III. It is commonly received, that it was Eldras who, after the return from the captivity of Babylon, collected and fixed the canon of the sacred books of the Old Testament. This at least is the opinion of the Jews, who all attribute to him that glorious work; and the assertion appears so much the more probable, as it was the same Eldras who reestablished their state, who brought the whole Jewish people into one body as a nation, and formed the Judaic republic, which was so intimately connected with their religion. The collecting of the canon of the books of the New Testament is attributed, with great appearance of probability, to St John; although historic and formal testimonies of it cannot be produced, unless it be what Eusebius relates of the four Evangelists. In process of time, each council has decided what books should thereafter be held by the Christian church as canonical; and we commonly find, at the end of the decrees of each council, a repertory or list of those books.

IV. The Old Testament was wrote in Hebrew, except a small number of passages where the dialect is Chaldaean. The form of the letters or characters, as we now have them, are also properly Chaldaean; whereas, before the Babylonish captivity, the Samaritan character was probably used. Buxtorff and Capell have had warm disputes upon the subject of the vowel-points: the former would retain these points, and the latter rejects them; each of them has had his adherents. As it is impossible to decide in this dispute but by historic Proofs;

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Proofs; and as these are not to be had, either for one side or the other; it is best to leave the affair undecided: not totally rejecting the points, however; as they are of infinite use in the study of the Hebrew language. They who love to introduce novelties into religion, (say the partisans of Buxtorff,) would doubtless be charmed to see the points totally abolished, because they then could make whatever they pleased of the sacred text. The adherents of Capell maintain, on the contrary, that by the ignorance or inadvertence of copyists, these points may have been transposed formerly, or may be easily confounded and wrong placed hereafter; which may occasion the most dangerous errors; may give rise to contrary meanings, and whimsical explanations of the scripture; whereas, by not admitting the points, an able theologian will prefer, at least, the liberty of explaining a passage according to analogy, and the rules of good sense.

V. The accents have given rise to full as many disputes. But this question is not decidable but by the same method as the preceding: for we clearly see, by all the ancient manuscripts, that even the Greeks and Romans have wrote without accents, but that both one and the other make use of vowels. In poetical works especially, it is almost impossible to omit them; and that language being now dead, without accents we can find no cadence, no measure. Father Montfaucon affirms, with great appearance of probability, that accentuation was not introduced till the seventh century.

VI. The language of the New Testament is the Greek; for all that is said of the gospel of St Matthew being wrote in Hebrew, and of that of St Mark being originally composed in Latin, is but weakly supported. The style, as we have already remarked, is not pure, whatever some zealots may improperly, and without reason, assert to the contrary. The language of the New Testament abounds with hebraisms.

VII. The precision, the truth, and correction of the text, is the result of repeated and judicious comparisons of the variations; of which there are, according to Dr Mill, more than twenty thousand. These variations have proceeded, partly from the negligence of the copyists, and partly from the ignorance of the revisors and correctors of the ancient manuscripts, who have frequently added and included the comments, which were wrote in the margin, with the text. The heretics of the first ages, and the impostors, have also made divers alterations in the text itself, in order to support their errors; and these alterations have slid into other copies. It is the common rule to follow the most ancient manuscripts; as it is supposed, with reason, that they are the most correct; and to these are also added the most ancient versions.

VIII. The first of these versions is that of the Septuagint, which has been at all times highly esteemed, as well by the Jews as the Christians. The Hebrew language being lost by the Jews during the captivity in Babylon, and the Greek dialect becoming the common language of the east, that version was made in Egypt by public authority, and for the use of the common people. The second is that called the Vulgate, which was formed from the translation of St Jerome, and from another that was called Versio antiqua. After these two translations come the Greek versions, among which are reckoned, 1. That of Aquila, who has translated the original Hebrew verbatim, by putting over each word of the Hebrew text, its corresponding Greek term. 2. That of Symmachus, who applied himself to write the Greek with purity and elegance. 3. That of Theodotion, who has very closely followed the text, notwithstanding the fine language he employs. Origen published these versions in six languages in his edition of the Old Testament, which he calls Hexapla. To all these versions may be added, 4. Those of Jericho and Nicopolis, which are much celebrated. We have not now any one of these versions entire. The fragments that remain of them have been collected and published by Dushus and F. Montfaucon. Lastly, The Syriac versions, of which one was made on the Hebrew text, and the other on the Greek.

IX. The sacred criticism is likewise employed in acquiring a knowledge of the principal and most celebrated manuscripts, as well of the sacred text itself, as of the translations; in learning to discern the hand-writing, and the essential characteristics which distinguish the real original from the counterfeits; and lastly, it is employed in knowing the best modern editions of the Holy Bible; as for example, the Polyglots, among which those of London, of the years 1653 and 1655, are the best. The introduction by Walton, which is at the beginning of these editions, is a model and a masterpiece of sacred criticism.

Of Moral Theology.

I. If it were allowable to compare the Saviour of the world to a weak mortal, we would say, that the conduct of Jesus Christ resembled that of Socrates, who has left us no part of his doctrine in writing, but whose whole instructions (as well as the particulars of his life) have been collected, digested, and published, by his disciples. The Evangelists are the only historians of the Messiah: it is to their labours that we owe the knowledge of his actions upon earth, and his divine doctrine. The four Evangelists, and the Acts of the Apostles wrote by St Luke, contain therefore alone the history of the life of Jesus Christ, and the doctrine that he taught. His apostles, and disciples began by paraphrasing his doctrine, as well by their evangelic sermons, as in the epistles they addressed to the faithful of several Christian Churches: they have given explications, and have added pastoral instructions, which are in effect admirable; but which, nevertheless, form not the original text of the discourses of our Saviour. The bishops of the apostolic century, the fathers of the church in all succeeding centuries, the other bishops and ecclesiastics, the councils, the synods, the doctors of theology, the popes, the consistories, the reformers likewise, and an infinity of theologians, have drawn from the Gospel, and sometimes also from the letters of the apostles, and from other commentaries on the Gospel, various tenets; which, united, form at this day the general system of the Christian Religion. The theologians who devote themselves to the service of the altar, study this system in the dogmatic: the laity learn it by means of catechisms; and after they have made confession of their faith, solemnly adopt it, when they are received into the bosom of the church.

II. It is not the same with regard to the morality of Jesus Christ, which every one may read in the Gospel; and to know which, it is not necessary to become learned, nor to study a complicated system. If the dogmatic were not armed with a thousand arguments to establish the Divinity of Jesus Christ, yet would the morality of his Gospel sufficiently prove it; seeing that it is perfectly holy, entirely simple. simple, strictly just, and most completely adapted to promote the felicity of the human race in this world, and in that which is to come. The Saviour of the world has not enjoined any part of mankind to engage in disputes, or abstract refinements; the sole command that he has given them is, to believe in his Gospel; and that is comprised in one word only, Love: the grand and only principle on which the whole of his sacred doctrine is founded.

III. To produce the greatest effects possible, by the least efforts, is the highest perfection in nature, and at the same time the true characteristic of Divinity. God has given to all the beings that compose the universe, one simple principle alone, by which the whole, and every part, is connected and perpetually supported; and that is Love. The attraction of the celestial bodies, as well as of those of which our globe is formed, is a species of love; a mutual tendency toward each other. The uniform generation, by which all beings are perpetuated, is founded in love. This is the true minimum, the true system of the least action, which includes something so divine. It appears to be the will of God to establish, by the mouth of the Messiah, the same simple principle in morality, that is, in the rule of human actions, by saying, Love: in a word, it was his will, that in the conduct of mankind, as in every other part of nature, there should be no other principle than that of Love.

IV. That in the different systems of ethics of the ancient Heathen Philosophers many maxims and precepts of admirable morality are to be found, cannot be denied; but, beside that these philosophers are almost continually contradicting each other in their maxims, no one of their systems is founded on the true principle. In searching after it, they have discovered some excellent truths; but it has been by chance, and they are at best imperfect. Jesus Christ has alone taught mankind perfect morals, by deducing them from this true principle. Every principle should be simple: the idea of a compound principle implies at once an imperfection. Every principle should be comprehensive, even universal in its effects. Every principle, whose effects are limited, is imperfect. God himself is uniform in his principle, and infinite in his effects. His doctrine, or his law, should be the same. Jesus Christ has made known to mankind this principle, simple and universal. He has therefore been, in this sense also, the true Saviour of the world. He has preached to mankind; and his only doctrine has been that of love.

V. By the word Love, with regard to Bodies in general, is meant a tendency, a mutual inclination that urges them to join and to coalesce; and with regard to men in particular, a lively, affecting pleasure, that possesses the mind on contemplating the perfections of any object. This pleasure is always accompanied with a desire, either to possess that object, or to render it propitious. By adopting therefore this principle, and this last definition of Love, it follows, that all the duties of man consist,

1. In the love of God in preference to all other objects. 2. In the love of himself. 3. In the love of his own species. 4. In the love of every other creature to a certain degree.

The doctrines of Jesus Christ are, in these respects, the most explicit.

VI. From this principle flows our duty towards God, towards ourselves, our neighbour, and to those beings that are subject to our power. The first rule is, to communicate to all those, whom it is our duty to love, all the good, and to preserve them from all the evil in our power. The second, to do to no one what we would not have done to ourselves in similar circumstances. The third, which is the simple effect of love, is to endeavour to please the object that we ought to love. The fourth, to endeavour to render the pleasures that we communicate to others, as lively as possible, and those inevitable evils, which we are sometimes constrained to do to them, as supportable as we can; and so of the rest. The whole evangelic doctrine of our Saviour is replete, from beginning to end, with admirable precepts for these purposes; and these precepts, with their applications, general and particular, we learn from that science which we call Moral Theology.

VII. This doctrine we distinguish from moral philosophy, or the simple doctrine of Ethics; because Jesus Christ has made known, in his divine morality, a far greater degree of perfection than is discoverable by the mere light of human reason. For the renouncing of self-interest, and private pleasure; the forgiveness of offences; the love of his enemies; the triumph over destructive passions; and many other like virtues, the Christian is alone indebted to the doctrine of Jesus Christ.

VIII. In order to shew, moreover, in a few words, of how easy, just, and natural an application all these precepts are susceptible, we shall here give a few instances. "It is our duty to love God." Now nothing is more natural than to feel a lively and penetrating pleasure in the contemplation of the united perfections of the Supreme Being; nothing more natural than a desire to please him, and to render him propitious to us: and as it is not possible for us, weak creatures, to do him either good or evil, all our power to please him consists in offering him an upright heart; a rational devotion; to be possessed with gratitude toward him, and to exert all possible efforts to accomplish the end of our creation. "It is our duty to love all mankind;" and yet we inflict pains and chastisements on some of them; we even put them to death: but we chastise them only to render them better, to prevent them from becoming pernicious to society in general: we retrench the number of the living, as we cut off a corrupted branch of a tree, in whose preservation we are interested: it is because we love mankind, that we endeavour to prevent the destruction of the good by the malignity of the wicked: but it must ever be an indispensible necessity alone that can compel us to chastisement. "It is our duty, likewise, to feel a kind of love for other creatures, even for mere animals." Nevertheless we harass, we oppose, we destroy them. If we harass them wantonly, to support a criminal luxury, or to satisfy a brutal pleasure; if we pursue a savage chase, or encourage combats between animals themselves, or other like horrible diversions, we act contrary both to the spirit and the letter of the Gospel. But if we destroy a part of these animals, to serve as an indispensible nourishment to man, observing at the same time to put them to the least misery possible, and taking all necessary care for the preservation of the species, we act in conformity to the laws of nature and of morality; we employ to our own preservation, and to that of the rest of mankind, what appears destined to that purpose by the Creator.

IX. Moral theology likewise differs from philosophy, inasmuch as it requires that our virtues be absolutely disinterested: it enjoins us to fly the evil, and to pursue the good, merely as our duty towards God: it admits indeed the precept of the love of ourselves, and the love of our neighbour; but but it regards this love only as a duty that results from our love towards God; and that from the principle, That God must love all his creatures as the work of his hands; and that we cannot therefore, from the very nature of love, please him, without entertaining sentiments of affection towards those to whom the Sovereign Lord of the Universe vouchsafes his benign regard. Now, as the Christian morality does not regard virtue, but as it is a duty towards God; and as it considers all our actions, that have any other motive, either as blameable, or at least imperfect, and as but little acceptable to the Supreme Being; it does not regard the advantages that result from them to society, but as useful consequences of the true Christian virtue; and from this principle it draws new arguments for the encouraging of mankind to the practice of it.

X. From what has been said, a second difference arises between Christianity and philosophy. The first adds to the second still new motives to the practice of virtue. That of redemption, and pardon, obtained by Jesus Christ, is not one of the least. Its argument is this: If God has so loved mankind, as to afford them the means by which the evil, caused by their own fault, may be abolished, it would be the greatest of all ingratitude and malice towards himself, if man should not endeavour to acknowledge this love, to merit it, and to embrace the means of pleasing God. A third motive, taken also from the merit of Jesus Christ, here offers itself as an auxiliary to the two former: According to the Christian doctrine, man has not by nature the power to practise all those virtues which are agreeable to God: but the same doctrine teaches, on the other hand, the conditions by which it is possible to please that most holy and perfect Being; and gives the Christian hope also, that he shall never labour in vain.

XI Lastly, the Christian morality is of far greater efficacy in adversity, than philosophy: it carries with it a wonderful consolation in misfortune, and even in the hour of death; for the Christian may say, with the Apostle, that godliness (or the practice of evangelic morals) is in all things profitable, having the promise of the present life, and that which is to come.

Of Polemic Theology, or Controversy.

I We cannot sufficiently lament, that the church of the God of peace should be a church militant; and that a doctrine so simple and clear as that of the Gospel should be the cause of discord, even among Christians themselves. Nevertheless, as the truth is so difficult to discover in all things, and especially in matters of religion; as it is so frequently covered with the clouds of interest and ambition; as the same object appears so different to different men; and as error, in the face of the world, constantly assumes the mask of truth; it is but just that the true religion be furnished with arms to combat error, and to pluck off that deceitful mask by which so many poor mortals are seduced.

II. The theologian, who has made the proper preparatory studies, who is thoroughly instructed in natural religion, in the dogmatic and the hermeneutic, and who joins to these found logic, is already well prepared for this spiritual combat: he is armed, but he is still to learn how to use these arms: he must also be made acquainted with the enemies he is to encounter, to know their force, and the arts they will use against him. It is plain enough, we suppose, that we here speak of spiritual arms; of those with which we are furnished by reason and the Holy Scripture: evil be to him that employs any other: force is ever an infallible proof of the want of argument. The propagation of a religion by the sword, after the manner of Mahomet; persecutions, either secret or open; constraint, violence, every sort of religious war, is so atrocious, so contrary to the spirit of the Gospel, in a word, so detestable, that every true Christian must avert his sight from such infamous horrors.

III. Controversy is conducted, either from the pulpit or chair, by way of harangue, by conversation, or by writing. The first quality that is necessary to a disputant is reason, and the next moderation; in what manner forever the contest is conducted, these two qualities should constantly be manifest, during the whole course of altercation.

IV. There are some errors that attack the system of religion, and there are others that attack even its morality. In order properly to oppose an error, we must begin by finding out its real meaning: we must therefore study the different systems of other religions, and the principal heresies, if we would successfully refute them. We don't mean by this, that the theologian should know all the errors that spring up in the brain of each individual; we speak only of those that are professed by whole sects.

V. They who attack our religion, found their opinions, either on the interpretation of the sacred text, or on philosophy, or history; and we should always oppose them with the same arms with which they pretend to defeat us. It is necessary to begin by divesting ourselves of all prejudice, in order the better to shew others those prejudices by which they are deluded. We should never make use, but especially when we oppose weak minds, of opprobrious terms in the course of the debate, nor contend about words or expressions, nor attack incidental circumstances that may attend erroneous principles; but bend our whole force against the root of the tree, the principal error; to uncover it, to dig it up, to destroy it.

VI Polemic theology is taught in universities by two methods, according to the views of the student. If he learns it merely in order hereafter to defend his parishioners against the most prevalent errors, he is only to examine the principal controversies according to the systematic order of theology; and may content himself with knowing their true meaning, together with the arguments of those that oppose them. But if it be his intention to teach this science to others, or to engage in controversy, either by conversation or writing: in short, if he aspire to renown in it, he should study the origin and history of each controversy, he should make himself a complete master of the arguments for and against it, the exceptions that it makes, its interests, its different revolutions and actual state, &c. These follow, in this study, either the order established in the dogmatic, or that which is used in symbolic books, that is, such as treat on articles of faith.

VII. In order the better to elucidate the method to be observed in this sort of study, we shall say, that to acquire a complete knowledge of theological disputes, the student should, 1. Make the examen of each religion, and even of each controversy. 2. He should thoroughly examine his system in the symbolic books, and likewise the sources of his religion. 3. He should precisely determine the principal and capital error of each religion, sect, or individual; that which is the source from whence all the other errors flow. 4. Search into the political causes of each error, and

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each controversy, from history. 5. Examine the natural order according to which all the errors have taken their rise, the one from the other; and lastly, 6. Confront the respective arguments, the answers, and exceptions, that each party has made to defend its cause. To all this is to be added, 7. What they call Collegium disputatorium; an exercise, by which all that is learned in the closet and in the schools is called forth and animated, under the inspection of a professor; and the mind is accustomed to think, and the tongue to speak, with facility and efficacy.

VIII. The principal contests in which the theologian may be engaged, are, 1. Against those who admit of no revealed religion; as the atheist and deist. 2. Against those who admit of a revealed religion, but adopt not the true Revelation; as the Heathens, the Mahometans, &c. 3. Against those who believe only a part of the true Revelation; as the Jews. 4. Against those who add to the true Revelation matter foreign to it; as traditions, &c. 5. Against those who make a false interpretation of the sacred text, and draw from it erroneous systems; as the heretics and the schismatics, &c. And lastly, 6. Against those who make a wrong use of certain expressions of Revelation, and build, on whimsical notions, ridiculous systems; as the Fanatics, Quakers, &c.

IX. According to this division, the theologian will have to combat principally with,

1. The Atheists, with Spinosa at their head. 2. The Deists. 3. The Heathens and Idolaters. 4. The Mahometans. 5. The modern Jews. 6. The Arians and Manicheans, or rather those who in these days follow their ancient errors. 7. The Socinians. 8. The Catholics, opposed to the Protestants. 9. The Protestants, opposed to the Catholics. 10. The Molinists, opposed to the Jansenists. 11. The Jansenists, opposed to the Molinists. 12. The Reformed, opposed to the Lutherans. 13. The Lutherans, opposed to the Reformed. 14. The Arminians. 15. The Anabaptists. 16. The Wesleyans. 17. The Quakers or Tremblers. 18. The Fanatics, at the head of whom is Jacob Bohm. 19. The pretended new Prophets. 20. The Indifferentists. 21. The Pietists. 22. The Moravian Brethren, or the Herenhetters, &c.

X. Now, as each of the religions, communions, or heresies above mentioned, have not scrupled to publish to the world their dogmas and creeds, the theologian ought carefully to instruct himself in those symbolic books, in which each of them have comprised its system; to study and to make a good analysis of them; and to prepare such arguments as are the most just, the most weighty, and proper to confute them.

XI. Before we quit this subject, there is one remark to be made, or rather one caution that is very essential, which we would offer to the young theologian; which is, that the polemic is useful, and even necessary in the study of theology in general; but that it is a discipline which ought to be treated with great prudence and moderation. Disputation in general is a dangerous art; and religious disputation is a deceitful art, and of infinite peril. The student will do right well to remember, that there is no fact, no communion on earth, that is perfectly true in all its dogmas without exception; that there are some small errors in all religions; that infallibility never was, nor ever will be, the portion of humanity. He should likewise remember, that the masters who teach him, or the books that he reads, are constantly partial to the religion they profess; and that when he has supported a thesis, and confuted his adversaries in a collegial dispute (where his adversaries, as well as his preceptors, are of the same side of the question, and will not fail to adjudge him the victory,) he should be persuaded, that the victory would not have been so easily obtained had he contended with able adversaries of the opposite religion; he should remember, that we triumph without glory when we combat without danger; and let him not be vain of his laurels, nor imagine himself some wonderful scholar; seeing that it is very possible, that he may go off victorious from such a dispute, that he may receive vast applause from his professors and his colleagues, and at the same time have reasoned like a dolt.

XII. On the other hand, the most able theologians, and the most consummate professors in this science, ought to be constantly on their guard against the abuse of polemic theology; which frequently serves less to clear and confirm the truth of the dogmas of a communion, than to establish perpetual discord and hatred among Christians. Every theologian should also remember, that by the nature of the subject, it is not possible to produce demonstration in support of his theses and opinions; but that his arguments will be only valid, and preponderate in proportion to their degree of evidence; and lastly, that it is a ridiculous and infufferable vanity to imagine, that every man, who does not think precisely as we do, is guilty of palpable error.

PASTORAL THEOLOGY.

I. Having described the theoretic sciences of theology, we now come to those which regard the practice. It would be to bury the talents that God has given him, and the studies that he has made, if the theologian did not employ them to the edification of his neighbour, and the prosperity of the Church. His office in society is attended with constant and anxious labours. He is charged with the cure of souls, with the instruction of youth, with preaching of the Gospel, the conduct of his flock, and the administration of the Sacraments, with visitations to the sick and the dying, with calming the terrors of weak minds, with administering comforts to afflicted souls, and many other functions equally difficult and important. The practical sciences that we shall here describe, will serve him as guides in this unbounded field.

II. Pastoral theology is usually divided into three parts; which are,

1. Homiletic Theology. 2. Catechetic Theology. 3. Casuistic Theology.

To which are added,

4. The Consistorial Prudence. 5. The prudential Exercise of the different functions of the ministry. As the homily makes a part of eloquence, it is unnecessary to say anything of it in this place, but treat the others in their order.

III. It is in vain that a son of the church possesses all the sciences that belong to his profession, that he is an agreeable and even a renowned preacher, if he do not give a life, an efficacious spirit, to his ministry, by a good example; for that is the first precept in pastoral theology. He is at the head of a flock, and ought to be their guide: but how absurd, if his words and his actions be at continual variance with each other! How scandalous, if he be not the first to practise these lessons of wisdom that he preaches! How indecent, if, while he edifies by his discourses, he disgusts by his morals! What baseness, if he should even glory in his irregularities! It is less shameful for a soldier to relate that he has tamely suffered an affront, than for an ecclesiastic to boast of his debaucheries! Both the one and the other is a disgrace to his profession.

IV. But this exemplary conduct should be free from all affectation in the external behaviour. A singularity of dress, and an air of austerity; the head declined, the eyes turned up to heaven, the hands constantly clasped, a plaintive tone of voice, and a solemn gait; a scrupulousity in things indifferent, and a dogmatical and clerical manner of deciding in the common affairs of life; a ridiculous inclination to discover iniquity in innocent actions; to confound pleasure with vice, and to be an enemy to joy, the greatest boon that God has bestowed on man; and a hundred other like superstitions there are, with which the religious make a parade, that is shocking both to good sense and the evangelic morality, and which render their ministry, in the eyes of sensible people, more contemptible than respectable. There are rocks on which the young theologian is much too liable to run, and of which he cannot be sufficiently cautioned.

V. After this candid caution, and brief introduction, we pass to the examen of the different parts, the union of which composes the system of the pastoral, the most important article perhaps, in all theology. The design of Revelation was, without doubt, to conduct man by faith to a virtuous life. It is not the opinions or the learning of weak mortals that can determine their intrinsic merit; it is their wisdom, their regularity of conduct, that must stamp their value. Experience shows, that a man of great genius and learning may be also a great villain; one who is unable to please God, or his neighbour: the virtuous Christian, on the contrary, must be agreeable to both; it follows therefore, that the practical part of theology, which leads mankind to a virtuous conduct, is of all its parts the most important.

Catechetical Theology.

I. By Catechetical Theology is meant, The art of teaching youth, and ignorant persons, the principal points of the Evangelical Doctrine, as well with regard to belief as practice. This application of the theoretic sciences of theology ought to be conducted in the most simple manner possible. It is not every one who is possessed of the talent of properly composing and delivering catechetical instructions; and it is an art that is very necessary in the Christian church.

II. The greatest difficulty consists in separating the articles of faith that are absolutely essential and indispensable to the salvation of mankind, from those that are subtle and speculative, more liable to contradiction, and less necessary to such as do not make theology their profession. However, as children do not always remain children, and as the church is composed of persons of both sexes, and of all ages, it is necessary, that, in the explanations of the catechism, there should be employed different degrees of simplicity, proportioned to the age and capacity of those that are to be instructed. It is expedient for young people to retain in their minds the first principles of religion, such as are contained in good catechisms; and that they be explained to them in particular lectures; which is the most usual and most natural method of enabling youth to give an account of their faith. The sermons that are given in the catholic churches on controversy, and in protestant churches on the catechism, serve to instruct those who are of riper years and have their judgment more formed. These sermons compose, at the same time, a sort of course of the dogmatical and the polemic theology.

III. Both in private catechising, and in sermons that are purposely intended to explain the catechism, the theologian should avoid, as much as possible, the use of technical terms; or (which is still better) he ought to begin by explaining those terms, of which he should give such clear and determinate definitions, that no person of a moderate capacity can possibly mistake them. In a word, he should endeavour more to prove than to persuade; and as eloquence sometimes persuades at the expense of truth, he should cautiously avoid that sort of delusive persuasion, and in its room substitute clear and solid argument.

IV. The catechumen should not only be instructed in the tenets of his own religion, and the foundations on which they are built, but also in the dogmas of other religions, and the proofs that are brought to maintain them: for a subtle, deceitful and specious book may fall into his hands, or he may be drawn into a dispute with an able adversary. It is necessary, therefore, that he be provided with arms offensive and defensive, that he may be able successfully to defend himself; and, if it may be, to convert his antagonist, and by that mean promote the glory of truth and of religion. It is the part, therefore, of his preceptor, to teach him faithfully the principal tenets of other religions, and the arguments that are brought to defend them.

Of Casuistic Theology.

I. Happily for man, and for society, all are not so obstinate, or so insensible, as to ask, what sort of animal conscience is, or never to know what is remorse. Happily, the greatest part of mankind are sensible, that all their actions are not conformable to the laws of divine wisdom, nor to the rules of natural equity; are afflicted at their past conduct, and find a generous and earnest desire arise in their souls to avoid for the future those dangerous rocks. To calm the troubled mind; to appease the timorous conscience; to communicate the consolations of grace to the afflicted soul; to explain and decide in doubtful cases; to direct those that err, and to support their weakness; to convince such as persist in their errors; to pierce the hardened heart; to intimidate the wicked, and to rouse the indolent; to conduct the Christians, committed to the care of their pastor, in the way that leads to true felicity; are the important objects of casuistic theology, and for which it affords the proper instructions.

II. In a more confined sense, by casuistic theology is meant, the science that decides in doubtful cases of moral theology, and that calms the scruples of conscience which arise in the Christian's soul during his sojourn in this world.

III. The studies relative to these objects, which the theologian is supposed to have made, and the confidence that the common rank of Christians place in their pastors, afford them the means and the opportunities of rendering signal service to those of their fellow citizens who have need of their counsel and consolation: for where there is one man of a philosophic spirit, one Christian of a well-grounded knowledge in theology, there are in a society a thousand that are not, and who are yet desirous of being instructed, guided, comforted, established. It is therefore both just and important, that he who devotes himself to the service of the altar, should early study all those sciences that will enable him worthily to perform this important part of his ministry.

IV. God forbid, however, that we should countenance the abuse that is made, in some Christian countries, of the duties that we have here explained. To reduce these matters into a political system; to make the direction of consciences a profession, a regular trade; to provide each house with a spiritual director, as with a butcher or baker, a steward or porter, who by that mean may infuse himself into the confidence of families, and become the depository of all their secrets; may sometimes sow discord between husband and wife, or the nearest relations; who may avail himself of the confidence of his devotees, to direct them constantly in matters of a worldly, and sometimes even of a criminal nature; to efface the legitimate and sacred authority of the father of a family, and, in its place, to substitute a foreign power; to undermine the confidence, the union and concord of families, in order to confirm and render necessary this secondary authority; to captivate the spirit, and oftentimes the heart of a wife or daughter, and in general of weak minds; to enjoin them ridiculous mummeries that lead to fanaticism, and a thousand dangerous superstitions, or to religious exercises that divert them from their domestic duties; in a word, to assume an absolute authority over the consciences of mankind, is a pernicious invention, contrary to the evangelic moral, to the welfare of society, to the interest of the state, and to the sovereign authority; and well deserves an exemplary punishment.

V. But the cure of souls, faithfully intended, and properly limited, differs totally from this despotic power. He, who is charged with it by a lawful vocation, should remember that there are four classes of men with whom he will be engaged: 1. With those of weak minds; of little knowledge, and little ability. 2. With those whose spirits are afflicted by some great reverse of fortune. 3. With those of nice and timorous consciences, who suffer by their scruples, whether they be vain or rational. 4. And lastly, the wicked, the hardened and incorrigible sinner. The grand art here consists in representing to each of these classes of men, the truth, in a manner so clear, so strong and full, that they can no longer retain any doubts, that conviction must take place, and consolation or conversion be the consequence.

VI. Truth is in its nature highly problematic: each one, however, is persuaded that he knows it, that he possesses it, and is guided by it; every man thinks himself in the right. We should therefore begin by discovering the truth in the subject before us, and in placing it upon a solid foundation. This business of demonstrating the truth to others, is attended in the mean time with infinite difficulty. Every mind is not capable of discovering it at the first glance; nor can all discern it from the same point of view. Sometimes men require conviction by abstract or philosophical arguments, and sometimes by the express decisions of the Holy Scripture. Sometimes by authority, sometimes by gentle remonstrance, and sometimes by dreadful menaces. Sometimes they are to be reclaimed by properly exposing the necessary and fatal consequences that result from their conduct; and at others, by the alluring promises of the Gospel. Now vice is to be boldly confronted; and now the transgressor is to be conducted into the right path by artful turnings: now the sinner's crimes are to be painted in the strongest colours; and now a veil is to be lightly cast over them; and sometimes we should even indulge a favourite inclination, in order to induce them to abandon a more pernicious passion: and so of the rest.

VII. As it is impossible that the books which have been wrote on this subject, though of an immense quantity, can contain every case that daily occurs in the ministry of the Gospel; and as these cases are not always justly decided by these authors; and, if they were, the consulting of such enormous works would take up too much of a theologian's time, and divert him from his other studies; and as these casuistic writers contain, moreover, a number of puerile subtleties, and wretched chimeras; it is highly proper that the minister of the altar, whom we suppose to have a masterly knowledge of the principles, the dogmas, and moral of the Christian religion, should endeavour to draw from the true source the means that he is to employ on each occurrence, and not have recourse to books for their decisions. For which purpose it is necessary, 1. That he accustom himself to reason according to the rules of sound logic. 2. That he learn to know the human heart, under its different disguises; the characters of men, their arts, and ruling passions. 3. That he do not attempt to gain or convince by little pious frauds, or by lucky sophisms artfully represented. 4. That he do not inflict what are called penances, which are the height of absurdity. 5. That he do not enjoin mummeries, pilgrimages, austerities, and a thousand like matters, which can never carry with them a real conviction, and only serve to divert men from their labours and the duties of society. But, 6. That he constantly present, as we have before said, and cannot too often repeat, the truth, in all its native force and purity.

VIII. This truth, however, is no enemy to sacred eloquence; on the contrary, the latter serves to introduce the former into the mind of the auditor, and there to give it such strong impressions, as neither time, the dilutions of the world, nor the distractions of fortune, are able easily to efface. The whole ministerial function consists in teaching, preaching, administering the sacraments of the church, visiting the sick and the dying, comforting the afflicted, and affording the spiritual aids to all those who have need of them. Eloquence is of the greatest efficacy in all these functions; and, without affecting it, the minister of the Gospel should never neglect it. There are some professors in universities who give their auditors a complete systematic course on pastoral theology, which may be attended with many advantages.

Consistorial Prudence, or General Economy of the Church.

I. Among the practical sciences of theology, we must not pass over in silence that which is called the Consistorial or Ecclesiastic Prudence; whose object is the exterior order or arrangement of the Christian church, on principles founded on the Holy Scriptures; and which are proper, not only to maintain religion in its purity and splendor, but to defend it against all schisms, divisions and separations whatever. This economy is necessary in the councils, the synods, the consistories, and in the faculties of theology. We must not, however, confound this with the ecclesiastic jurisprudence, which is the science of interpreting and applying the laws, instituted by the sovereign, relative to the persons, goods, and affairs of the church; whereas the object of consistorial prudence is the arrangement of the church itself, and the ecclesiastic state, on Christian and rational maxims. The one is a sort of legislation in itself; and the other, on the contrary, an application of the civil laws.

II. The theological prudence includes therefore, first, the whole plan of church-government, and the arrangement of the ecclesiastic state; secondly, the ordinances relative to exterior ceremonies, and divine worship; and lastly, the discipline of the church; the errors, the schisms, the heresies, and divisions that arise among Christians. The source of this prudence is a thorough knowledge of the essence of the Christian religion, and the method of drawing from it just consequences.

III. This discipline is likewise employed in deciding, wherein consists the difference between the clergy and the laity; or if there be, in fact, any real difference between them: if the church form a distinct state in the general system of government; and to whom belongs the right of deciding circa sacra; and what are the limits of the spiritual and temporal powers in this respect: wherein consists the hierarchy of the church, and what are its rights and privileges: to whom appertains the nomination of a priest, or other ecclesiastic, according to the divine ordinance: to whom is committed the right of preaching in public, of administering the sacraments, and of exercising the excommunicative power of expelling, or again admitting, any particular Christian, or even a whole country, into the pale of the church: the bans and interdicts; the exercise of sacred or theological studies; the schools, the seminaries, the universities and academies, the classes, the convents; and so of the rest: all subjects vigorously attacked and obstinately defended.

IV. The consistorial prudence examines likewise the liturgies, the ceremonies and religious customs; the breviaries, the rituals, the canticles, and other books of devotion adopted by the church; the formularies, the subjects of discipline, &c. &c.; the creeds, the confessions of faith, the catechisms, and many other like matters; and lastly, the doubts and objects of controversy, that occasion the holding of synods and councils; the question, if the Pope be above the councils, or the councils above the Pope; the practice of elenchic theology, or the public elenchy; the separation and reunion of the church, which the Syncretists and Irenians dispute; the divorces more or less allowable; matrimonial, and consistorial matters, &c. &c.

V. All these subjects, and an infinity of others, which arise from, or have an immediate connection with these, require to be thoroughly considered, reduced into a regular system, explained and fixed on solid principles, and confirmed by just and pertinent examples. From all this results what is called Ecclesiastic Prudence. This science has not yet been reduced into a system or formal discipline, and that principally because it has been constantly confounded with the ecclesiastic law; but that in reality differs as much from this, as political prudence differs from the common law.

Of Theologic Prudence in the Different Functions of the Ministry.

I. Independent of casuistical theology, and of the economy of the church in general, the theologian has, moreover, need of great sagacity in the particular exercise of his ministry; and many able divines have reduced this science into a system, and have given general precepts, and particular rules, for the conduct of the minister of the altar, in the different circumstances that may arise in this part of his duty. We shall decline the particular explanation of these different systems, as it would lead us into numberless minutiae. Conrad Porta has wrote a work on the subject, intitled Pastorale Lutheri; Stoltzelinus, Kortholt, Philip Hahn, Hartman, and many other theologians, have wrote large volumes concerning it; but, above all, the treatise of Dr. John Mayer, which is called Museum Ministrorum Ecclesiae, is to be consulted on this matter. We the more readily omit the names and titles of other works of this kind, as we have prescribed it to ourselves as a law, to avoid, as much as possible, these sorts of citations, seeing that the number of new books that are continually appearing frequently supersede their predecessors; and moreover, in this part of theology, each Christian communion has its particular authors, who treat it in conformity to the dogmas and principles which that communion adopts.

II. The humour of reducing every thing into system, has also taken place in this matter, which in fact appears to have no occasion for any peculiar discipline that could not be included under some other part of theology. But as this distinction is already made, it is our business to explain it, for the use of such as devote themselves to the altar. The prudential theology is, for them and their ministry, what political prudence is for a man of the world in the commerce of life. It is the art of attaining the end professed: and as each condition in life has its particular pursuits, the divines have also naturally theirs, and the precepts of theologic prudence serve to conduct them to it.

III. But as the dogmas, the ceremonies, the rites and objects that the ministers of the different Christian communions propose to themselves, are by no means the same, each communion, each sect, does not follow, in this respect, the same rules and precepts, nor even part of the same principles. All that we can therefore do amidst this diversity of opinions, and contrariety of maxims, is to point out, in a few words, the principal objects that one or other of them comprehend in this part of their pastoral theology.

IV. The Affective Theology, for instance, treats of the various particular exercises of piety; and the principles, that it proposes with this regard, serve as guides to the minister of the altar, in his recommendation of the practice of it; as well as in many parts of his ecclesiastic duty. Fasts, pilgrimages, and many other matters of the same kind, belong to the province of affective theology, and which we will not absolutely reject, because we write for readers of all sorts of communions. Truth, however, obliges us to remark, that the affective theology of every communion is the offspring of principles falsely attributed to the Gospel, and belongs belongs much more properly to superstition than religion. The monastic life, of which there is not the least trace to be found in the Holy Scriptures, and which is so contrary to the wisdom and goodness of God; the contemplative life which is employed merely in theoretic and barren speculations, and which is a continual impediment to the practice of the duties of a citizen, and of the social virtues; the corporal chastisements that the pious visionary inflicts on himself, and a thousand like absurdities, are the fruits of fanaticism, and the essence of ascetic theology.

V. Under this head may be also included, confession and absolution, which are modern inventions, and of which there is not the least vestige to be found in the Gospel, and which were unknown to Jesus Christ and his apostles; unless we would torture and disguise the text, and make a strange abuse of words, and of phrases the most simple: inventions, in short, that are more politic and lucrative than divine. Be that as it may, the ascetic theology prescribes general maxims relative to confession and absolution, and particular precepts for the priests of the confessional.

VI. The Paraclastic Theology, on the contrary, is totally employed in preparing consolations against plagues and other public calamities and adversities, and against the most considerable evils that befall individuals. It considers, examines, and directs these consolations, and points out the proper method of applying them. As it is the business of ascetic theology to humble and intimidate the Christian, and to subject him to all sorts of pious and painful bodily exercises, so it is that of paraclastic theology to reanimate his courage and his faith, and to administer consolation to his soul.

VII. The five doctrines of which we have here treated, to wit, the Homilistic, Catechetic, and Causistic Theology, and the Consistorial and Theologic Prudence in the ordinary exercise of the ministry, form therefore what is called, in a collective sense, Pastoral Theology; a science on which many authors, of all communions, have wrote vast treatises; in which complete courses are made at universities, by the faculties of theology; which is reduced into a regular system; and which, in fact, forms not one of the least parts of that science which is necessary to an able and faithful theologian who undertakes the cure of souls.

VIII. We think we have said enough to give an idea of those sciences that compose the general system of theology. We are not ignorant, however, that there are theologies established in the schools, still different in their genus and species: that they distinguish, for example, 1. The Theology of God, (Theologia Dei), 2. That of Jesus Christ, 3. That of the Holy Ghost, 4. That of Angels, and 5. That of Men: that they again sub-divide the Theology of God, 1. Into Theologia Dei naturalis, or essentialis, by which is shewn, that God perceives simul et semel, once and for ever, all that is contained in his essence; and 2. Theologia Dei idealis or exemplaris, which considers those things that must be revealed to mankind to work their salvation: this last article is again divided into Archetypic Theology, which teaches what comes, in this respect, immediately from God himself; and Exotypic Theology, which considers the theologic notions that man, as the image of God, is able to acquire by his own nature, that is, by the ability he has received from the Supreme Being, to know and adore him, and by the preaching of his divine word. But we should never have done, were we to relate all the distinctions, divisions, and subdivisions, &c. that men, fond of systematic forms, have introduced into all the sciences: divisions whose whimsical denominations bury and embarrass the mind that ought to be more usefully employed in attending to realities; and which constantly favour of that pedantry which infatuates itself, more or less, into the study of every science.