or Al-Koran, the scripture, or bible, of the Mahometans. The word is compounded of the Arabic particle al, and koran or kuran, derived from verb karaa or karana, to read. The word therefore properly signifies, the reading; or rather, that which ought to be read. By this name the Mahometans denote not only the entire book or volume of the Koran, but also any particular chapter or section of it; just as the Jews call either the whole scripture, or any part of it, by the name of Karab, or Mikra, words of the same origin and import.

Besides this peculiar name, the Koran is also honoured with several appellations common to other books of scripture: as, al Farkan, from the verb farka, to divide or distinguish; not, as the Mahometan doctors say, because those books are divided into chapters or sections, or distinguish between good and evil; but in the same notion that the Jews use the work Perek, or Pirka, from the same root, to denote a section or portion of scripture. It is also called al Meloof, the volume, and al Kitab, the book, by way of eminence, which answers to the Biblia of the Greeks; and al Dhikr, the admonition, which name is also given to the Pentateuch and Gospel.

The Koran is divided into 114 larger portions of very unequal length, which we call chapters; but the Arabians fawar, in the singular fura; a word rarely used on any other occasion, and properly signifying a row, order, or a regular series; as a course of bricks in building, or a rank of soldiers in an army; and is the name in use and import with the Sura, or Tora, of the Jews, who also call the fifty-three sections of the Pentateuch Sedurim, a word of the same signification.

These chapters are not, in the manuscript copies, distinguished by their numerical order, but by particular titles, which are taken sometimes from a particular matter treated of, or person mentioned therein; but usually from the first word of note, exactly in the same manner as the Jews have named their Sedurim; though the word from which some chapters are denominated be very far distant, towards the middle, or perhaps the end, of the chapter; which seems ridiculous. But the occasion of this appears to have been, that the verse or passage wherein such word occurs, was, in point of time, revealed and committed to writing before the other verses of the same chapter which precede it in order; and the title being given to the chapter before it was completed, or the passages reduced to their present order, the verse from whence such title was taken did not always happen to begin the chapter. Some chapters have two or more titles, occasioned by the difference of the copies.

Some of the chapters having been revealed at Mecca, and others at Medina, the noting this difference makes a part of the title: but the reader will observe, that several veral of the chapters are said to have been revealed partly at Mecca; and partly at Medina; and, as to others, it is yet a dispute among the commentators to which of the two places they belong.

Every chapter is subdivided into smaller portions, of very unequal length also, which we customarily call verses; but the Arabic word is ayat, the same with the Hebrew otot, and signifies signs or wonders; such as are the secrets of God, his attributes, works, judgments, and ordinances, delivered in those verses; many of which have their particular titles also, imposed in the same manner as those of the chapters.

Besides these unequal divisions of chapter and verse, the Mahometans have also divided their Koran into sixty equal portions, which they call Absab, in the singular Hish, each subdivided into four equal parts; which is also an imitation of the Jews, who have an ancient division of their Mishma into sixty portions called Mashtoth. But the Koran is more usually divided into thirty sections only, named Afsa, from the singular Fas, each of twice the length of the former, and in the like manner subdivided into four parts. These divisions are for the use of the readers of the Koran in the royal temples, or in the adjoining chapels where the emperors and great men are interred. There are thirty of these readers belonging to every chapel, and each reads his section every day, so that the whole Koran is read over once a day.

Next after the title, at the head of every chapter, except only the ninth, is prefixed the following solemn form, by the Mahometans called the Bismillah, In the name of the most merciful God; which form they constantly place at the beginning of all their books and writings in general, as a peculiar mark or distinguishing characteristic of their religion, it being counted a sort of impiety to omit it. The Jews, for the same purpose, make use of the form, In the name of the Lord, or, In the name of the great God; and the Eastern Christians that of, In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. But Mahomet probably took this form, as he did many other things, from the Persian Magi, who used to begin their books in these words, Benan Yazdan bakhsheshgheber dadar; that is, In the name of the most merciful just God.

There are twenty-nine chapters of the Koran, which have this peculiarity, that they begin with certain letters of the alphabet, some with a single one, others with more. These letters the Mahometans believe to be the peculiar marks of the Koran, and to conceal several profound mysteries, the certain understanding of which, the more intelligent confess, has not been communicated to any mortal, their prophet only excepted. Notwithstanding which, some will take the liberty of guessing at their meaning by that species of Cabala called by the Jews Notarikon, and suppose the letters to stand for as many words, expressing the names and attributes of God, his works, ordinances, and decrees; and therefore these mysterious letters, as well as the verses themselves, seem in the Koran to be called figures. Others explain the intent of these letters from their nature or organ, or else from their value in numbers, according to another species of the Jewish Cabala called Gematria; the uncertainty of which conjectures sufficiently appears from their disagreement. Thus, for example, five chapters, one of which is the second, begins with these letters, A. L. M. which some imagine to stand for Allah latif megid, "God is gracious and to be glorified;" or, Ana li minni, i.e. to me and from me, viz. belongs all perfection, and proceeds all good; or else for Ana Allah alam, "I am the most wise God," taking the first letter to mark the beginning of the first word, the second the middle of the second word, and the third the last of the third word; or for Allah, Gabriel, Mohammed, the author, revealer, and preacher of the Koran. Others say, that as the letter A belongs to the lower part of the throat, the first of the organs of speech; L to the palate, the middle organ; and M to the lips, which are the last organ; so these letters signify that God is the beginning, middle, and end, or ought to be praised in the beginning, middle, and end, of all our words and actions: or, as the total value of those three letters, in numbers, is seventy-one, they signify, that, in the space of so many years, the religion preached in the Koran should be fully established. The conjecture of a learned Christian is at least as certain as any of the former, who supposes those letters were set there by the amenuensis, for Amar li Mohammed, i.e. At the command of Mohammed, as the five letters prefixed to the nineteenth chapter seem to be there written by a Jewish scribe, for Cob yanta, i.e. Thus he commanded.

The Koran is universally allowed to be written with the utmost elegance and purity of language, in the dialect of the tribe of Koreish, the most noble and polite of all the Arabians, but with some mixture, though very rarely, of other dialects. It is confessedly the standard of the Arabic tongue, and, as the more orthodox believe, and are taught by the book itself, imitable by any human pen (though some sectaries have been of another opinion), and therefore insisted on as a permanent miracle, greater than that of raising the dead, and alone sufficient to convince the world of its divine original.

And to this miracle did Mahomet himself chiefly appeal for the confirmation of his mission, publicly challenging the most eloquent men in Arabia, which was at that time flooded with thousands whose sole study and ambition it was to excel in elegance of style and composition, to produce even a single chapter that might be compared with it (A).

To the pomp and harmony of expression some ascribe all the force and effect of the Alcoran; which they consider as a sort of music, equally fitted with other species of that art to ravish and amaze. In this Mahomet succeeded so well, and so strangely captivated the minds of his audience, that several of his opponents thought it the effect of witchcraft and enchantment, as he himself complains.—Others have attributed the effect of the Alcoran to the frequent mention of rewards and punishments; heaven and hell occurring almost in every page. Some suppose, that the sensual pleasures of paradise, so frequently set before the imaginations of the readers of the Alcoran, were what chiefly bewitched them. Tho', with

(A) As the composition and arrangement of words, however, admit of infinite varieties, it can never be absolutely said that any one is the best possible. In fact, Hamzah Benahmed wrote a book against the alcoran with at least equal elegance; and Mofelema another, which even surpassed it, and occasioned a defection of a great part of the Mussulmans. Journ. de Scav. tom. xiii. p. 280. Ouvr. de Scav. Nov. 1703. p. 49. with regard to these, there is great dispute whether they are to be understood literally or spiritually. Several have even allegorized the whole book.

The general design of the Koran was to unite the professors of the three different religions then followed in the populous country of Arabia, (who, for the most part, lived promiscuously, and wandered without guides, the far greater number being idolaters; and the rest Jews and Christians mostly of erroneous and heterodox belief) in the knowledge and worship of one God, under the sanction of certain laws, and the outward signs of ceremonies partly of ancient and partly of novel institution, enforced by the consideration of rewards and punishments both temporal and eternal; and to bring them all to the obedience of Mahomet, as the prophet and ambassador of God, who, after the repeated admonitions, promises, and threats, of former ages, was at last to establish and propagate God's religion on earth, and to be acknowledged chief pontiff in spiritual matters, as well as supreme prince in temporal.

The great doctrine then of the Koran, is the unity of God; to restore which point Mahomet pretended was the chief end of his mission; it being laid down by him as a fundamental truth, That there never was, nor ever can be, more than one true orthodox religion. For, though the particular laws or ceremonies are only temporary, and subject to alteration, according to the divine direction; yet, the substance of it being eternal truth, is not liable to change, but continues immutably the same. And he taught, that, whenever this religion became neglected, or corrupted in essentials, God had the goodness to re-inform and re-admonish mankind thereof, by several prophets, of whom Moses and Jesus were the most distinguished, till the appearance of Mahomet, who is their seal, and no other to be expected after him. The more effectually to engage people to hearken to him, great part of the Koran is employed in relating examples of dreadful punishments formerly inflicted by God on those who rejected and abused his messengers; several of which stories, or some circumstances of them, are taken from the Old and New Testaments, but many more from the apocryphal books and traditions of the Jews and Christians of those ages, set up in the Koran as truths in opposition to the scriptures, which the Jews and Christians are charged with having altered: and indeed, few or none of the relations or circumstances in the Koran were invented by Mahomet, as is generally supposed, it being easy to trace the greatest part of them much higher, as the rest might be, were more of those books extant, and was it worth while to make the inquiry.

The rest of the Alcoran is taken up in prescribing necessary laws and directions, frequent admonitions to moral and divine virtues, the worship and reverence of the supreme being, and resignation to his will. One of their most learned commentators distinguishes the contents of the Alcoran into allegorical and literal; under the former are comprehended all the obscure, parabolical, and enigmatical passages, with such as are repealed, or abrogated; the latter, such as are clear, and in full force.

The most excellent moral in the whole Alcoran interpreters say, is that in the chapter Al Alraf, viz. Shew mercy, do good to all, and dilute not with the ignorant; or, as Mr Sale renders it, Use indulgence, command that which is just, and withdraw far from the ignorant. Mahomet, according to the authors of the Kofchaf, having begged of the angel Gabriel a more ample explication of this passage, received it in the following terms: "Seek him who turns thee out, give to him who takes from thee, pardon him who injures thee; for God will have you plant in your souls the roots of his chief perfections." It is easy to see, that this commentary is copied from the Gospel.—In reality, the necessity of forgiving enemies, though frequently incultated in the Alcoran, is of a later date among the Mahometans than among the Christians; among those latter, than among the heathens; and to be traced originally among the Jews*. But it matters not so much who had it first, as who observes it best. The caliph xxiii. 4, 5. Haffan, son of Hali, being at table, a slave unfortunately let fall a dish of meat reeking hot, which scalded him severely. The slave fell on his knees, rehearsing these words of the Alcoran, "Paradise is for those who restrain their anger," I am not angry with thee, answered the caliph. "And for those who forgive offences against them," continues the slave. I forgive thee thine, replies the caliph. "But above all, for those who return good for evil," adds the slave. I set thee at liberty, rejoined the caliph, and I give thee ten dinars.

There are also a great number of occasional passages in the Alcoran, relating only to particular emergencies. For this advantage Mahomet had in the piecemeal method of receiving his revelation, that whenever he happened to be perplexed and gravelled with any thing, he had a certain resource in some new morsel of revelation. It was an admirable contrivance of his, to bring down the whole Alcoran at once, only to the lowest heaven, not to earth; since, had the whole been published at once, innumerable objections would have been made, which it would have been impossible for him to solve; but as he received it by parcels, as God saw fit they should be published for the conversion and instruction of the people, he had a sure way to answer all emergencies, and to extricate himself with honour from any difficulty which might occur.

That Mahomet was really the author and chief contriver of the Koran, is beyond dispute; though it is highly probable that he had no small affluence in his design from others, as his countrymen failed not to object to him; however, they differed so much in their conjectures as to the particular person who gave him such affluence, that they were not able, it seems, to prove the charge; Mohammed, it is to be presumed, having taken his measures too well to be discovered.

However it be, the Mahometans absolutely deny the Koran was composed by their prophet himself, or any other for him. It is their general and orthodox belief, that it is of divine original; nay, that it is eternal and uncreated, remaining, as some express it, in the very essence of God: that the first transcript has been from everlasting by God's throne, written on a table of vast bigness, called the preserved tablet, in which are also recorded the divine decrees past and future: that a copy from this table, in one volume on paper, was by the ministry of the angel Gabriel sent down to the lowest heaven, in the month of Ramadan, on the night of power: from whence Gabriel revealed it to Mahomet by parcels, some at Mecca, and some at Medina. at different times, during the space of twenty-three years, as the exigency of affairs required; giving him, however, the consolation to show him the whole (which they tell us was bound in silk, and adorned with gold and precious stones of paradise) once a-year; but in the last year of his life he had the favour to see it twice. They say, that few chapters were delivered entire, the most part being revealed piecemeal, and written down from time to time by the prophet's amanuensis in such a part of such or such a chapter, till they were completed, according to the directions of the angel. The first parcel that was revealed is generally agreed to have been the first five verses of the ninety-sixth chapter.

After the new-revealed passages had been from the prophet's mouth taken down in writing by his scribe, they were published to his followers, several of whom took copies for their private use, but the far greater number got them by heart. The originals, when returned, were put promiscuously into a chest, observing no order of time, for which reason it is uncertain when many passages were revealed.

When Mahomet died, he left his revelations in the same disorder, and not digested into the method, such as it is, in which we now find them. This was the work of his successor Abu Beer; who, considering that a great number of passages were committed to the memory of Mahomet's followers, many of whom were slain in their wars, ordered the whole to be collected, not only from the palm-leaves and skins on which they had been written, and which were kept between two boards or covers, but also from the mouths of such as had gotten them by heart. And this transcript, when completed, he committed to the custody of Hassa the daughter of Omar, one of the prophet's widows.

From this relation it is generally imagined that Abu Beer was really the compiler of the Koran; though, for aught appears to the contrary, Mahomet left the chapters complete as we now have them, excepting such passages as his successor might add or correct from those who had gotten them by heart; what Abu Beer did else, being perhaps no more than to range the chapters in their present order, which he seems to have done without any regard to time, having generally placed the longest first.

However, in the thirtieth year of the Hegira, Othman being then caliph, and observing the great disagreement in the copies of the Koran in the several provinces of the empire; those of Irak, for example, following the reading of Abu Musa al Ashari, and the Syrians that of Maadad Ebn Afwad; he, by the advice of the companions, ordered a great number of copies to be transcribed from that of Abu Beer, in Hassa's care, under the inspection of Zeid Ebn Thabet, Abd'allah Ebn Zohair, Said Ebn al Az, and Ad'alrahman Ebn al Harith the Makhzumite; whom he directed, that, wherever they disagreed about any word, they should write it in the dialect of the Koreish, in which it was at first delivered. These copies, when made, were dispersed in the several provinces of the empire, and the old ones burnt and suppressed. Though many things in Hassa's copy were corrected by the abovementioned revisers, yet some few various readings still occur.

In fine, the book of the Alcoran is held in the highest esteem and reverence among the Musselmans. They dare not so much as touch the Alcoran, without being first washed, or legally purified; to prevent which, an inscription is put on the cover or label, Let none touch but they who are clean. It is read with great care and respect; being never held below the girdle. They swear by it; take omens from it on all weighty occasions; carry it with them to war; write sentences of it in their banners; adorn it with gold and precious stones; and knowingly suffer it not to be in the possession of any of a different religion. Some say that it is punishable even with death, in a Christian, to touch it; others, that the veneration of the Musselmans leads them to condemn the translating it into any other language as a profanation: but these seem to be aggravations. The Mahometans have taken care to have their scripture translated into the Persian, the Javan, the Mahayan, and other languages; though, out of respect to the original, these versions are generally, if not always, interlined.

See further concerning the history of the Alcoran, Boulainvilliers, Vie de Mahom. p. 258. Act. Erudit. Lips. 1694, p. 382. & 1692, p. 337, seq.—Its excellency and use, Roland, Relig. Mahom. in Pref. Jour. Liter. T. 10. p. 29.—Its Characters and Confusion, Ouvr. des Scav. Sept. 1764, p. 419. Jour. des Scav. T. 37. p. 3948. p. 87. T. seq.—Its Obscurity and Difficulties, Mem. de Trev. 1714, p. 1147.—Its Doctrine of Christ, Phil. Trans. No. 154. p. 433. See also Pufellus on its conformity with the Gospel.—Contradictions in it, how solved, D'Herbel. p. 87.

Alcoran, is also figuratively applied to certain other books full of impieties and impostures.—In this sense we meet with the Alcoran of the Cordeliers, which has made a great noise; wherein St Francis is extravagantly magnified, and put on a level with Jesus Christ. The Alcoran of the Cordeliers is properly an extract of a very scarce book, entitled, The conformity of the life of the seraphic father St Francis with the life of Christ, published in 1510, 4to.; since, at Bologna, in folio. Erasmus Albertus, being by the elector of Brandenburg appointed to visit a monastery of Franciscans, found this book; and being struck with the extreme folly and absurdity of it, collected a number of curiosities out of it, and published them under the title of the Alcoran of the Franciscans, with a preface by Martin Luther.