(John Baptist du), a celebrated author and member of the French academy, was born at Beauvais in 1670, and finished his studies at the Sorbonne. In 1695, he was made one of the committee for foreign affairs under Mr Torez; and was afterwards charged with some important transactions in England, Germany, Holland, and Italy. At his return to Paris, he was handsomely preferred, made an abbe, and chosen perpetual secretary of the French academy. He was the author of several excellent works; the principal of which are, 1. Critical reflections upon poetry and painting, 3 vols 12mo. 2. The history of the four Gordians, confirmed and illustrated by medals. 3. A critical history of the establishment of the French monarchy among the Gauls, 2 vols 4to, 4 vols 12mo.

He died at Paris, on the 23rd of March 1742.

in zoology, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to the order of pecora. The characters of this genus are taken from the horns and teeth. The horns are hollow within; and turned forward, in the form of crescents: There are eight fore-teeth in the under jaw, and none in the upper, their place being supplied by a hard membrane; and there are no dog-teeth in either jaw. Linnaeus enumerates six species, viz.

1. The Taurus, including the bull and cow, has cylindrical horns bent outwards, and loose dewlaps. The bull, or male, is naturally a fierce and terrible animal. When the cows are in season, he is perfectly ungovernable, and often altogether furious. When chafed, he has an air of solemn majesty, and oft tears up the ground with his feet and horns. The principal use of the bull is to propagate the species; although he might be trained to labour, his obedience cannot be depended on. A bull, like a stallion, should be the most handsome of his species. He should be large, well-made, and in good heart; he should have a black eye, a fierce aspect, but an open front; a short head; thick, short, and blackish horns, and long shaggy ears; a short and straight nose, large and full breast and shoulders, thick and fleshy neck, firm reins, a straight back, thick fleshy legs, and a long tail well covered with hair. Castration remarkably softens the nature of this animal; it destroys all his fire and impetuosity, and renders him mild and tractable, without diminishing his strength; on the contrary, after this operation, his weight is increased, and he becomes fitter for the purposes of plowing, &c.

The best time for castrating bulls is at the age of puberty, or when they are 18 months or two years old; when performed sooner, they often die. However, it is not uncommon to castrate calves a few days after birth. But such as survive an operation so dangerous to their tender age, generally grow larger and fatter, and have more courage and activity than those who are castrated at the age of puberty. When the operation is delayed till the age of six, seven, or eight years, they lose but few of the qualities of bulls; are much more vigorous and untractable than other oxen; and when the cows are in season, they go in quest of them with their usual ardor.

The females of all those species of animals which we keep in flocks, and whose increase is the principal object, are much more useful than the males. The cow produces milk, butter, cheese, &c., which are principal articles in our food, and besides answer many useful purposes in various arts.

Cows are generally in season, and receive the bull, from the beginning of May to the middle of July. Their time of gestation is nine months, which naturally brings the veal or calves to our markets from the beginning of January to the end of April. However, luxury has fallen upon methods of interrupting this natural course, and veal may be had almost every month in the year.

Cows, when improperly managed, are very subject to abortion. In the time of gestation, therefore, they ought to be observed with more than ordinary care, lest they should leap ditches, &c. Neither should they be suffered to draw in the plough or other carriage, which is a practice in some countries. They should be put into the best pasture, and should not be milked for six weeks or two months before they bring forth their young. The calf should be allowed to suck and follow its mother during the first five or eight days. After this it begins to eat pretty well, and two or three sucks in a day will be sufficient. But if the object be to have it quickly fattened for the market, a few raw eggs every day, with boiled milk, and a little bread, will make it excellent veal in four or five weeks. This management of calves applies only to such as are designed for the butcher. When they are intended to be nourished and brought up, they ought to have at least two months' suck; because the longer they suck, they grow the stronger and larger. Those that are brought forth in April, May, or June, are the most proper for this purpose; when calved later in the season, they do not acquire sufficient strength to support them during the winter.

The cow comes to the age of puberty in 18 months, but the bull requires two years; but although they are capable of propagating at these ages, it is better to restrain them till they are full three years. From three to nine years those animals are in full vigour; but when older, they are fit for nothing but to be fed for the butcher. A milk-cow ought to be chosen young, fleshy, and with a brisk eye.

The heaviest and most bulky animals neither sleep profoundly, nor so long, as the smaller ones. The sleep of the ox is short and slight; he wakes at the least noise. He lies generally on the left side, and the kidney of that side is always larger than the other. There is great variety in the colour of oxen. A reddish or black colour is most esteemed. The hair should be glossy, thick, and soft; for, when otherwise, the animal is either not in health, or has a weakly constitution. The best time for inuring them to labour is at the age of two and a half or three years.

The ox eats very quick, and soon fills his first stomach; after which he lies down to ruminate, or chew the cud. The first and second stomachs are continuations of the same bag, and very capacious. After the grass has been chewed over again, it is reduced to a kind of mass, not unlike boiled spinnage; and under this form it is sent down to the third stomach, where it remains and digests for some time; but the digestion is not fully completed till it comes to the fourth stomach, from which it is thrown down to the guts. The contents of the first and second stomachs are a collection of grass and other vegetables roughly macerated; a fermentation however soon commences, which makes the grass swell. The communication between the second and third stomach is by an opening much smaller than the gullet, and not sufficient for the passage of the food in this state. Whenever, then, the two first stomachs are distended with food, they begin to contract, or rather perform a kind of re-action. This re-action compresses the food, and makes it endeavour to get out: now the gullet being larger than the passage between the second and third stomachs, the pressure of the stomach necessarily forces it up the gullet. The action of ruminating, however, appears to be in a great measure voluntary; as animals of this kind have a power of increasing the reaction of their stomachs. After the food undergoes a second mastication, it is then reduced into a thin pulp, which easily passes from the second to the third stomach, where it is still further macerated; from thence it passes to the fourth, where it is reduced to a perfect mucilage, every way prepared for being taken up by the lacteals, and converted into nourishment. What confirms this account of chewing the cud is, that as long as these animals suck or feed upon liquid aliment, they never ruminate; and in the winter, when they are obliged to feed upon hay and other dry victuals, they ruminate more than when they feed upon fresh grass.

Bulls, cows, and oxen, are fond of licking themselves, especially when lying at rest. But this practice should be prevented as much as possible; for as the hair is an indigestible substance, it lies in the stomach or guts, and is gradually coated by a glutinous substance, which in time hardens into round stones of a considerable bulk, which sometimes kills them, but always prevents their fattening, as the stomach is rendered incapable of digesting the food so well as it ought.

The age of these animals may be distinguished by the teeth and horns. The first fore-teeth fall out at the age of six months, and are succeeded by others of a darker colour, and broader. At the end of fifteen months, the next milk-teeth likewise fall out; and at the beginning of the fourth year all the fore-teeth are renewed, and then they are long, pretty white, and equal: However, as the animal advances in years, they become unequal and blackish. The horns of oxen four years of age are small pointed, neat, and smooth, but thickset near the head: This thick part next season is pushed further from the head by a horny cylinder, which is also terminated by another swelling part, and so on, (for as long as the ox lives, the horns continue to grow); and these swellings become so many annular knots by which the age may easily be reckoned: But, from the point to the first knot must be counted three years, and every succeeding knot only one year. The bull, cow, and ox, generally live about fourteen or fifteen years.

Ox-beef is very nourishing, and yields a strong aliment; the flesh of a cow, when well fatted and young, is not much inferior. Bull-beef is hard, tough, and dry; for which reason it is not much used for food. Veal is well tasted, easy of digestion, and rather keeps the body open than otherwise.

The northern countries of Europe produce the best cattle of this kind. In general, they bear cold better than heat; for this reason, they are not so plenty in the southern countries. There are but few in Asia to the south of Armenia, or in Africa beyond Egypt and Barbary. America produced none till they were carried there by the Europeans. But the largest are to be met with in Denmark, Podolia, the Ukraine, and among the Calmuck Tartars; likewise those of Ireland, England, Holland, and Hungary, are much larger than those of Persia, Turkey, Greece, Italy, and Spain; but those of Barbary are least of all. In all mountainous countries, as Wales, the Highlands of Scotland, &c., the black cattle are small; but hardy, and when fattened make excellent beef. In Lapland, they are mostly white, and many of them want horns.

The British breed of cattle, Mr Pennant observes, has in general been so much improved by foreign mixture, that it is difficult to point out the original kind of these islands. Those which may be supposed to have been originally British are far inferior in size to those on the northern part of the European continent: the cattle of the Highlands of Scotland are exceedingly small; and many of them, males as well as females, are hornless: the Welsh runts are much larger: the black cattle of Cornwall are of the same size with the last. The large species that is now cultivated through most parts of Great Britain, are either entirely of foreign extraction, or our own improved by a cross with the foreign kind. The Lincolnshire kind derive their size from the Holstein breed; and the large hornless cattle that are bred in some parts of England, come originally from Poland.

About 250 years ago, there was found in Scotland a wild race of cattle, which were of a pure white colour, and had, if we may believe Boethius, manes like lions. Mr Pennant says he cannot but give credit to the relation; having seen in the woods of Drumlanrig in North Britain, and in the park belonging to Chillingham cattle in Northumberland, herds of cattle probably derived from the savage breed. They have lost their manes, but retain their colour and fierceness: they were of a middle size, long legged; and had black muzzles and ears; their horns fine, and with a bold and elegant bend.—The keeper of those at Chillingham said, that the weight of the ox was 38 stones; of the cow, 28; that their hides were more esteemed by the tanners than those of the tame; and they would give sixpence per stone more for them. These cattle were wild as any deer: on being approached, they would instantly take to flight, and gallop away at full speed; never mix with the tame species; nor come near the house, unless constrained to it by hunger in very severe weather. When it is necessary to kill any, they are always shot: if the keeper only wounds the beast, he must take care to keep behind some tree, or his life would be in danger from the furious attacks of the animal, which will never desist till a period is put to its life.

Frequent mention is made of our savage cattle by historians. One relates that Robert Bruce was (in chasing these animals) preserved from the rage of a wild bull by the intrepidity of one of his courtiers, from which he and his lineage acquired the name of Turn-bull. Fitz-Stephen names these animals (uri Hist. of England) among those that harboured in the great forest that in his time lay adjacent to London. Another enumerates, among the provisions at the great feast of St. Leand, Nevil archbishop of York, five wild bulls; and Sibbald assures us, that in his days a wild and white species was found in the mountains of Scotland, but agreeing in form with the common sort. These were probably the same with the bisontes jubati of Pliny, found then in Germany, and might have been common to the continent and our island: the loss of their savage vigour by confinement might occasion some change in the external The ox is the only horned animal in these islands that will apply his strength to the service of mankind. It is now generally allowed, that, in the draught, oxen are in many cases more profitable than horses; their food, harness, and shoes, being cheaper; and should they be lamed or grow old, an old working beast will be as good meat, and fatten as well, as a young one.

There is scarce any part of this animal without its use. The blood, fat, marrow, hide, hair, horns, hoofs, milk, cream, butter, cheese, whey, urine, liver, gall, spleen, bones, and dung, have each their particular use in manufactures, commerce, and medicine.

The skin has been of great use in all ages. The ancient Britons, before they knew a better method, built their boats with oars, and covered them with the hides of bulls, which served them for short coasting voyages.

Primam cana salix modo facta venae parvi Tentor in puppim, eoque induit juvenes, Vestoris palus, tumidum fovea emicat amicum: Sic Venetar flagrantia Pado, foique Britannos Navigat occasus. Lucan, lib. iv. 131.

The bending willow into barks they twine; Then line the work with spoils of slaughter'd kine. Such are the floats Venetian fishers know; When in dull marbles stands the fetting Po; On feet so neighboring Gaul, allow'd by gain.

The bolder Britons cross the swelling main.

Vessels of this kind are still in use on the Irish lakes; and on the Dee and Severn: In Ireland they are called curach, in English coracles; from the British curragh, a word signifying a boat of that structure. At present, the hide, when tanned and curried, serves for boots, shoes, and numberless other conveniences of life.

Vellum is made of the thinnest calves-skins, and the skins of abortions. Of the horns are made combs, boxes, handles for knives, and drinking vessels; and when softened by water, obeying the manufacturer's hands, they form pellicle laminae for the sides of lanthorns. These last conveniences were invented by the great king Alfred, who first used them to preserve his candle time-measurers from the wind; or (as other writers will have it) the tapers that were set up before the reliques in the miserable tattered churches of that time. The very smallest fragments, and even the dust and filings, of horn, are found very serviceable in manuring cold lands. The matter lying within, on which the horn is formed, is called the stangle; and, when dry, is used in making walls or fences, in which, covered from wet, it will last a long time. It is also most admirable in mending roads, where the soil is soft and swampy; for, dissolving, it becomes a glutinous substance, that binds amazingly with gravel. As a manure, they allow between two and three quarter-sacks to an acre. Horn saw-dust with mould is an excellent compost for flowers. It is also of use in hardening, and giving what is called a proper temper, to metals. In medicine, horns were employed as alexipharmics, or antidotes against poison, the plague, or the smallpox; they have been dignified with the title of English bazaar, and are said to have been found to answer the end of the oriental kind.

The teguments, cartilages, and gristles, for the indifferent,—and, for the finer, all the cuttings, parings, and scraps of hides,—are boiled in water, till the gelatinous parts of them are thoroughly dissolved; and the mass, properly dried, becomes glue. See Glue.

The bones are used by mechanics where ivory is too expensive; by which the common people are served with many neat conveniences at an easy rate. From the tibia and carpus bones is procured an oil much used by coach-makers and others in dressing and cleaning harness, and all trappings belonging to a coach; and the bones calcined afford a fit matter for tests for the use of the refiner in the smelting trade.

The blood is used as an excellent manure for fruit-trees, and is the basis of that fine colour the Prussian blue.

The sinews are prepared so as to become a kind of thread or small cord, used in sewing saddles, in making racquets, and other things of a like nature.

The hair hath also its value, and is employed in many different ways. The long hair of the tail is frequently mixed with horse-hair spun into ropes, and sometimes wove. The short hair serves to stuff saddles, seats of several kinds, mattresses, and chairs. The refuse is a good manure, and operates more speedily than the horns.

The fat, tallow, and feces, furnish us with light; and are also used to precipitate the salt that is drawn from briny springs. The gall, liver, spleen, and urine, had also their place in the materia medica, though they have now resigned it to more efficacious and agreeable medicines.

The uses of butter, cheese, cream, and milk, in domestic economy; and the excellence of the latter in furnishing a palatable nutriment for most people whose organs of digestion are weakened, are too obvious to be insisted on.

2. The bonasus has a long mane; its horns are bent round towards the cheek, and are not above a span long. It is about the size of a large bull, and is a native of Africa and Asia. When enraged, he throws out his dung upon dogs or other animals that annoy him; the dung has a kind of caustic quality, which burns the hair off any animal it falls upon.

3. The elson has likewise a long thick mane, which covers the whole neck and breast on each side. The horns are turned upwards, and exceedingly large; there is a large protuberance or bunch on the back; his eyes are red and fiery, which gives him a furious aspect. He is fierce, cruel, and so bold that he fears nothing. It is unsafe to hunt him but where the trees are so large as to hide the hunters. He is a native of Mexico and Florida.

The musk-ox of Hudson's bay, a variety of this species, wants the hump between the shoulders. It is about the size of a Scotch bullock; has a thick body, and short legs. The horns are large, and very remarkable: they are united at their origin in the skull; but immediately after, they fall down on each side of the crown of the head, then taper away small, the points turning up. The hair is black, and grows to a great length; underneath which is a fine wool superior to Vignola wool. The male only has the curious scalp; the female is covered with hair. These animals frequent the country about 100 miles inwards to the north-west of Churchill river, in Hudson's bay, where they are very numerous. The Indians kill great numbers of them; but the flesh is coarse eating; and so musky tasted at certain seasons, as not to be eatable. From 2000 to 4000 weight of the flesh frozen, is brought to Prince of Wales's fort annually, and is served out as provisions to the Europeans.

A specimen of the head of this animal is now in Edinburgh, in the possession of Mr Graham from Hudson's bay. A figure of it is given in Plate LXV.

4. The Orunniens, or hog-cow, has cylindrical horns bent backwards. The body is so hairy, that the hair hangs down upon its knees like a goat. The colour of the body is black, but the front is white. It has bristles on its back, tail, and hind-legs, and it grunts like an hog. It is an inhabitant of the north of Asia.

A variety of this species is the Indian ox, with a vast hump on the shoulders. They differ much in size, and in the form of their horns. Some are very large, and of a reddish colour; with horns short, and bending close to the neck: others very small, with horns almost upright, bending a little forward. In Surat, is a minute kind not bigger than a great dog, which have a very fierce look, and are used to draw children in small carts. In Celebes is a small species not bigger than a middle-sized sheep, called Ausa, very fierce and wild, of a dark ash-colour, inhabiting the rocks. Mr Loten, when in India, put some of them into a paddock, and in one night's time they killed 14 or 15 of his deer by ripping up their bellies.

5. The Bubalis, or buffalo, has large black horns bent backward and inward, and plain before. The hair on the back is very hard, but thinly scattered over the body. It is a native of Asia. But they are tamed in Italy, and used for the same purpose as black cattle in other countries. They draw carriages, and are guided by a rope tied to a string thrust through their noses. The buffalo is larger than an ox, has a thicker body, and a very hard hide. His pace is slow; but he will carry a great burden. They feed in herds like cows; and yield plenty of milk, of which very good butter and cheese is made. Their flesh is pretty good, but not to be compared to beef. The wild buffalo is a very fierce and dangerous animal; he often attacks travellers, and tears them in pieces. However, they are not so much to be feared in woods as in the plains, because their horns, which are sometimes ten feet long, are apt to be entangled in the branches of trees, which gives those who are surprised by them time to escape. They are excellent swimmers, and will cross the largest rivers without any difficulty. They run wild in great troops on the coast of Malabar; for which reason strangers are allowed to hunt and kill them at pleasure.

6. The Indicus, or little Indian buffalo, has horns shorter than its ears, a bunch on its back, and no mane. It is about the size of a calf six months old, and used in the East Indies for drawing coaches.

in antiquity, was peculiarly used for an ancient Greek silver coin, which was didrachmus, or equivalent to two drachms. It was so called as having on it the impression of an ox, and chiefly obtained among the Athenians and Delians; being sometimes also struck of gold. From this arose the phrase Bos in lingua, applied to those who had taken bribes to hold their tongue.