Sect. V. Of the Sexes of Plants.

As many philosophers and botanists deny that such a thing as the distinction of sexes takes place in vegetables, it will be necessary to give a narration of the arguments employed by both parties on this subject. We shall begin with the arguments in favour of the sexes.

I. Linnaeus is at great pains in tracing the notion of sexes in plants to the remote periods of antiquity. He informs us, that Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and other ancient philosophers, not only attributed the distinction of sexes to plants, but maintained that they were capable of perceiving pleasure and pain.

Hippocrates and Theophrastus are next introduced as distinguishing the conyza, the abies, the flix, &c., into male and female. The latter of these writers affirms that the fruit of the male palm will not germinate, unless the pollen of the male be shaked over the spathe of the female previous to the ripening of the seed.

Dioscorides takes notice of a male and female mandragora, mercurialis, citrus, &c.

Pliny does not confine his views of sex to animals; but exclaims, that every thing this earth produces is characterized by the distinction of sex.

From the days of Pliny to those of Cesalpinus, who lived in the 16th century, the analogy between the vegetable and animal seems to have been entirely neglected. Cesalpinus tells us, that the males of the oxycedrus, taxus, mercurialis, urtica, and cannabis, are barren; and that the females of these plants only bear fruit.

After Cesalpinus, we find Dr Grew and Sir Thomas Millington engaged in a conversation concerning the utility of the flamina and styli of plants. The result of this conversation was the mutual agreement of these two eminent naturalists, that the flamina and styli of vegetables were analogous to the organs of generation in animals, and that they were adapted by nature to answer the same purposes. Dr Grew in his anatomy of plants, after enumerating the analogies between plants and animals, concludes, that the pollen probably emits certain visific effluvia, which may serve for the impregnation of the seeds.

Mr Ray gave a further sanction to the doctrine of sexes, by concurring with Grew, and adding some further illustrations from analogy.

In the year 1695, Camerarius attempted to prove the sexes of plants. But, as he trusted solely to the palm-tree, and withal seemed to be doubtful as to the authenticity of the fact, he cannot be considered as having done any thing in confirmation of the sexual hypothesis.

Mr Morland, in the year 1703, adopted the same hypothesis; but gave it a new modification, by supposing that the pollen contained the seminal plant in miniature, and consequently that one pollen at least behoved to be conveyed into every separate seed before it could be properly impregnated. Analogy and the structure of the parts are the only arguments he employs.

Some years after this, Mr Geoffry wrote a treatise on the sexes of plants; but as he advanced nothing new, we shall take no further notice of him.

Vaillant, in the year 1717, judiciously considering that the canal in the stylus of most plants was too narrow to admit the pollen itself, republished Dr Grew's theory of impregnation by means of a subtile seminal aura.

These are the sentiments of the principal botanists with regard to the generation of plants, till the celebrated Linnaeus made his appearance as a botanical writer, who has extended the idea so far as to compose a complete system upon it.

Although Linnaeus can have no claim to the supposed discovery of the sexual hypothesis, his being precisely the same with that of Dr Grew; yet, as he is the chief supporter and improver of this doctrine, we shall give a succinct narration of the arguments he makes use of in order to prove that vegetables propagate their species by a regular commerce of sexes.

In a treatise, intitled Spongia Plantarum, published as an inaugural dissertation by Wahlbom, in the first volume of the Annales Academici, all the arguments made use of by Linnaeus in his Fundamenta Botanica and other works, are collected and arranged in one view. But as Wahlbom honestly attributes all the merit fit of this dissertation to his great master, we shall here drop his name altogether, and give the arguments as the property of Linnæus, by whom they were originally employed.

Linnæus, then, first attempts to show, that vegetables are endowed with a certain degree of life; and, secondly, that they propagate their species in a manner similar to that of animals.

"That vegetables are really living beings, (says he), must be obvious at first sight; because they possess all the properties contained in that accurate definition of life laid down by the great Dr Harvey, namely, *Vita est spontanea propulsio humorum*. But universal experience teaches, that vegetables propel humours or juices; hence it is plain that vegetables must be endowed with a certain degree of life."

Not trifling solely to a syllogism founded on a definition, Linnæus proceeds to support the life of vegetables by arguments drawn from the following particulars in their economy; the first of which he intitles

"Nutrition.—The very idea of nutrition implies a propulsion of humours, and, of course, the idea of life. But vegetables derive their nourishment from the earth, air, &c. and consequently must be considered as living creatures.

"2. Vital.—Every animal must not only begin to exist, and have that existence dissolved by death, but must likewise pass through a number of intermediate changes in its appearance and affections. Infancy, youth, manhood, old age, are characterized by imbecility, beauty, fertility, dotage; are not all these vicissitudes conspicuous in the vegetable world? Weak and tender in infancy; beautiful, and salacious in youth; grave, robust, and fruitful, in manhood; and when old age approaches, the head droops, the springs of life dry up, and, in fine, the poor tottering vegetable returns to that dust from whence it sprung.

"3. Motus.—No inanimate body is capable of self-motion. Whatever moves spontaneously, is endowed with a living principle: for motion depends on the spontaneous propulsion of humours; and wherever there is a spontaneous propulsion of humours, there also is life. That vegetables are capable of motion, is evident from the following facts: plants, when confined within doors, always bend towards the light, and some of them even attempt to make their escape by the windows. The flowers of many plants, especially those of the syngenesia class, pursue the sun from east to west, rejoicing in his beams. Who then can deny that vegetables are possessed of living and self-moving powers?

"4. Morbus.—The term disease means nothing more than a certain corruption of life. It is well known, that vegetables are subject to diseases, as well as animals: when over-heated, they turn thirsty, languid, and fall to the ground; when too cold, they are tormented with the chillblain, and not unfrequently expire: they are sometimes afflicted with cancers; and every plant is infected with lice peculiar to its species.

"5. Mortis.—Death is opposed to life, the former being only a privation of the latter. Experience shows, that every living creature must die. But, as vegetables are daily cut off by internal diseases and external injuries; as they are subject to death from the attacks of hunger, thirst, heat, cold, &c. with what propriety could vegetables be thus said to die, unless we allow that they previously lived?

"6. Anatomia.—Under this article we are referred to Malpighius and Grew for the organic fibres, membranes, canals, vessels, &c. of plants, as additional proofs of their living powers.

"7. Organizatio.—Vegetables not only propel humours, but also prepare and secrete a number of different juices for the fruit, the nectar, &c. analogous to the various secretions in animal bodies."

From these facts and observations, Linnæus concludes, that plants are unquestionably endowed with life as well as animals; and then proceeds in the following manner to show how these animated vegetables propagate their species.

After discussing the long exploded doctrine of eminental generation, he lays hold of another maxim of Dr Harvey, viz. *Omne vivum ex ovo*—It being fully evident, (says he), from the foregoing chain of reasoning, that vegetables are endowed with life, it necessarily follows, agreeable to this maxim of Harvey's, that every vegetable must in like manner derive its existence from an egg. But as vegetables proceed from eggs, and as it is the distinguishing property of an egg to give birth to a being similar to that which produced it, the seeds must of course be the eggs of vegetables.

"Granting then that the seeds of vegetables are intended by nature to answer the same end as the eggs of animals, and considering at the same time that no egg can be fecundated without receiving an impregnation from the male, it follows, that the seed or eggs of vegetables cannot be fecundated by any other means. Hence also the necessity of vegetables being provided with organs of generation. But where are these organs situated? The answer is easy.—We have already found impregnated seeds within the flowers of plants; and it is natural to expect that the genitalia should not be at a greater distance. Now, as copulation always precedes birth, and every flower precedes the fruit, the generating faculty must be ascribed to the flower, and the birth to the fruit. Again, as the antheræ and stigma are the only essential parts of flowers, these parts must necessarily be the organs of generation."

Being thus far advanced, Linnæus affirms, that the antheræ are the teifers, and that the pollen performs the office of the male semen. These affirmations he attempts to establish by the following arguments; the first of which he terms,

"1. Precedentia.—The antheræ, or vegetable teifers, always precede the fruit; and as soon as the antheræ come to maturity, which constantly happens before the maturity of the fruit, they continue to throw out their pollen as long as the flower lasts; but decay and fall off whenever the fruit comes to perfection.

"2. Situs.—The antheræ of all plants are uniformly situate in such a manner that the pollen may with the greatest facility fall upon the stigma or female organ.

"3. Tempus.—The antheræ and stigmata always flourish at the same time, whether the flowers be of the hermaphrodite or dioicous kind.

"4. Localitatis.—When the antheræ are dissected, they discover as great a variety or structure as the pericarpia or seed capsules: for some of them have one cell, as the mercury; some two, as the heliobore, &c.

"5. Castration.—If all the antheræ be cut off from an hermaphrodite plant, just before the flowers begin to expand..." expand, taking care at the same time that no plant of the same species grows near it, the fruit will either prove entirely abortive, or produce barren seeds.

6. Figures.—When the pollen of different plants is examined by the microscope, it exhibits as great a variety of figures as is discoverable in the seeds them- selves.

The accumulated force of these arguments (con- cludes Linnæus) amounts to a full demonstration that the antheræ are the testes, and that the pollen is the femen or genitura, of vegetables.

The male organ being thus investigated, we hope, says Linnæus, that none will hesitate to pronounce the stigma to be the female organ, especially when the following observations are sufficiently attended to.

The pistillum is composed of the germen, stylus, and stigma. The germen, being only a kind of rudiment of the future fetus or seed, ceases to exist as soon as the flower comes to maturity. Neither is the stylus an essential part, as many flowers have no stylus. But no fruit ever comes to maturity without the affiance of the stigma. It follows, that the stigma must be the female organ adapted by nature for the reception of the pol- len or impregnating substance. This will appear still clearer from the following chain of reasoning.

1. Situs.—The stigmata are always situate so that the pollen may with most ease fall upon them. Be- sides, it is remarkable, that in most plants (though not in all) the number of the stigmata exactly corresponds with the loculae or cells of the pericarpium.

2. Tempus.—Here the observation, that the stig- mata and antheræ constantly flourish at the same time, is repeated.

3. Decidens.—The stigmata of most plants, like the antheræ, decay and fall off as soon as they have dis- charged their proper function; which evidently shows, that their office is not to ripen the fruit, but solely to answer the important purpose of impregnation.

4. Abscisæ.—The argument here is precisely the same with the calibration of the antheræ; and the re- sult is likewise the same, namely, the destruction of the fruit.

These arguments (concludes Linnæus) are suffi- cient to demonstrate, that the stigma is the female or- gan of generation, or that organ which is suited for the reception and conveyance of the semen to the vegetable eggs. Hence, plants may be said to be in utero venereis, when the antheræ, or testicles, spread their pollen over the stigma or female uterus.

To show how the coitus of vegetables is effected, is our author's next object of investigation. He affirms, that the pollen is conveyed, by means of the wind or insects, to the moist stigma, where it remains until it discharges a subtile fluid, which being absorbed by the vessels of the stigma, is carried to the seeds or ova, and impregnates them. His proofs are taken from the fol- lowing particulars.

1. Oculæ.—When the flowers are in full blow, and the pollen flying about, every one may then see the pollen adhering to the stigma. This he illustrates by mentioning as examples the viola tricolor, iris, campa- nula, &c.

2. Proporæ.—The stamens and pistils, in most plants, are of equal heights, that the pollen, by the in- tervention of the wind, may, with the greater facility,

fall upon the stigma.

3. Locus.—The stamens of most plants surround the pistilum, to give the pollen an opportunity of fall- ing upon the stigma at every breeze of wind. Even in the monocotyledons, the male flowers stand generally a- bove the female ones, to afford an easier conveyance of the pollen to the stigma.

4. Tempus.—It is remarkable that the stamens and pistils constantly appear at the same time, even in plants belonging to the monocotyledons.

5. Pluvia.—The flowers of most plants expand by the heat of the sun, and shut themselves up in the evening or in rainy weather. The final cause of this must be to keep the moisture from the pollen, lest it should be thereby congealed, and of course prevented from being blown upon the stigma.

6. Patriarca.—That the cultivators of palm-trees were in use to pull off the spadices from the males, and suspend them over the spathe of the females, is attested by Theophrastus, Pliny, Prosper Alpinus, Kempfer, and many others. If this operation happened to be ne- glected, the dates were four and quintuple of nuts. Kempfer adds this singular circumstance, that the male spadix, after being thoroughly dried and kept till next season, still retained its impregnating virtue.

7. Flores natantes.—As the pollen is specifically heavier than air, such flowers as have their pistillum longer than the stamens, hang down, or incline to one side, e.g. the fritillaria, campanula, &c. An easy ad- mission of the pollen to the stigma is the final cause of this appearance.

8. Submersæ.—Many plants that grow below wa- ter, emerge when their flowers begin to blow, and swim upon the surface till they receive their impregnation, and then sink down.

9. Omnium florum genuina consideratio.—Here a number of particulars are recited. We shall confine ourselves to those that are most striking and applicable to the subject.

When the flowers of the mule hemp are pulled off before those of the female are fully expanded, the fe- males do not produce fertile seeds. But as a male flower is sometimes found upon a female plant, this may be the reason why fertile seeds are sometimes produced even after this precaution has been observed.

The tulip affords another experiment to the same purpose.—Cut off all the antheræ of a red tulip before the pollen is emitted; then take the ripe antheræ of a white tulip, and throw the pollen of the white one upon the stigma of the red; the seeds of the red tulip being thus impregnated by one of a different complexion, will next season produce some red, some white, but most variegated flowers."

In the year 1744, Linnæus published a description of a new genus, which he called peloria, on the supposition of its being a hybrid or mule plant, i.e. a plant pro- duced by an unnatural commixture of two different ge- nera. The root, leaves, caulis, &c. of this plant are exceedingly similar to those of the antirrhinum linaire; but the flower and other parts of the fructification are totally different. On account of its similarity to the li- naire in every part but the flower, Linnæus imagined it to have been produced by a fortuitous commixture of the linaire with some other plant, although he has ne- ver yet been able to point out the father. This doctrine of the production of mule plants has since been greatly prized and carefully propagated by Linnæus and the other supporters of the sexual hypothesis. In the third volume of the *Annales Academici*, there is a complete dissertation, intitled *Plants Hybridae*, wherein the doctrine of vegetable mules is much improved and extended. This dissertation contains a list of 47 mules, with their supposed fathers and mothers. For example,

The *Veronica Spuria* is said to be a mule plant begot by the verbena officinalis upon the veronica maritima.

The delphinium hybridum, a mule begot by the aconitum napellus upon the delphinium elatum.

The arctotis calendula, a mule begot by the calendula pluvialis upon the arctotis tritis.

The aclepias nigra, a mule begot by the cynanchum acutum upon the aclepias vincentoxicum, &c.

From the examples given in this dissertation, Linnæus draws this conclusion, that only two species of each genus existed *ab origine*; and that all the variety of species which now appear have been produced by unnatural embraces betwixt species of different genera.

Under this head, Linnæus likewise quotes from Ray the story of Richard Baal gardener at Brentford. This Baal sold a large quantity of the seeds of the brassica florida to several gardeners in the suburbs of London. These gardeners, after sowing their seeds in the usual manner, were surprised to find them turn out to be plants of a different species from that which Baal made them believe they had purchased; for, instead of the brassica florida, the plants turned out to be the brassica longifolia. The gardeners, upon making the discovery, commenced a prosecution of fraud against Baal in Westminster-hall. The court found Baal guilty of fraud, and decreed him not only to restore the price of the seeds, but likewise to pay the gardeners for their lost time, and the use of their ground. "Had these judges (says Linnæus) been acquainted with the sexual hypothesis, they would not have found Baal guilty of any crime, but would have ascribed the accident to the fortuitous impregnation of the brassica florida by the pollen of the brassica longifolia."

Linnæus next proceeds to celebrate the utility of insects, because they convey the pollen of the male to the stigma of the female. "In this way, (says he), it is reasonable to think that many dioecious plants are impregnated. Nay, even the hermaphrodites themselves are greatly obliged to the different tribes of insects, which, by fluttering and treading in the corolla, are constantly scattering the pollen about the stigma.

"Upon the whole, then, (concludes Linnæus), the coitus of vegetables is evident to a demonstration. This coitus is nothing more than the conveyance of the pollen to the stigma, to which it adheres till it bursts and discharges a jubilant elastic fluid. This fluid or aura is absorbed by the vessels of the stylus, and carried directly to the ovarium or germen, where the mysterious work of impregnation is fully completed."

These are the arguments employed by Linnæus and other advocates for the sexual commerce of vegetables. —Let us next attend to those employed by the opposers of this hypothesis.

It is admitted by Pontedera, Dr Alston, &c. that some of the ancients applied the terms male and female to several plants. But then they deny that these terms conveyed the same ideas to the ancients that they do to the moderns. Male and female, when applied to plants, were to the ancients mere terms of distinction, serving only as trivial names to distinguish one species or variety from another. The ancients were ignorant of the very characters which constitute the difference between what is called a male and female plant among the moderns. Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Pliny, and, in a word, the whole ancient botanical writers, confound the very notion of the modern sexes: they call the real female, or seed-bearing plant, the males; and the male, or barren plant, the female. Nay, they have even applied the terms male and female to many plants which bear nothing but hermaphrodite flowers.

Such is the nature of this controversy, that it cannot be determined with any degree of certainty, but by experiments made upon dioecious plants. If a female plant can produce fertile seeds without having any communication with the pollen of the male, the use of this pollen with respect to the impregnation of seeds must of necessity be entirely superceded.

Now, both Camerarius and Dr Alston tried these experiments with the same success. Those two eminent botanists took female plants of the mercury, spinach, and hemp; transplanted them at a great distance from any males of the same genus, and besides had them inclosed by double rows of hedges. The result was, that each of these plants produced great quantities of fertile seeds. Tournefort made the same trial upon the lupulus, Miller upon the bryony, and Geoffroy upon the mays; and all of them declare that the seeds of these plants were as fertile as if they had been surrounded by a thousand males.

Linnæus, in his first argument for the coitus of plants, refers every man to the evidence of his senses.

"Do we not see (says he) the stigma of almost every hermaphrodite flower covered over with the pollen or impregnating substance? Do not we see the parietaria, the urtica, &c. by violent explosions, discharging their pollen in the open air, that it may be carried in that vehicle to the stigmata of their respective females?"—All this is admitted by the opposers of the sexes; but then they deny that these explosions, &c. are intended to create any intercourse between the male and the female; and further allege, that this ejection of the pollen is intended by nature to throw off something excrementitious, or at least something which, if retained, would prove noxious to the fructification.

Linnæus takes his second argument from the proportion which the stamina bear to the styli, alleging that they are generally of the same height.—This observation (says the anti-sexualists) is not only contrary to experience, but, allowing it to be universal, no conclusion can be drawn from it either for or against the sexual hypothesis.

The third argument is taken from the locus or situation of the stamina with respect to the styli: "and as the male flowers in the monoeia clasps stand always above the female flowers, it must be concluded (says Linnæus) that the intention of nature, in this disposition of the parts, is to allow a free and easy access of the pollen to the stigma.—But the stamina cannot be said to surround the pistillum in the monandria and diandra..." andria clasps; and the position of the male flowers in the monocoea clasps is a mere chimera; for in the rici- nus, one of the examples which Linnaeus mentions in confirmation of his doctrine, the female flowers stand uniformly some inches above the males.

That the stamina and pistilla generally come to per- fection at the same time, and that this happens even in the dioecious plants, is Linnaeus's fourth argument. But, as it is acknowledged by Linnaeus himself, that there are many exceptions with respect to this fact, the oppo- sers of the sexual hypothesis allege that it carries the best answer in its own bosom.

The fifth argument is founded on the circumstance of some flowers shutting up their petals in rainy or moist evenings.—But many flowers do not shut themselves up, either in the night or moist weather, as the passion- flower, &c. The lychnis noctiflora, mirabilis peruviana, &c. open their flowers in the night, and shut them at the approach of the sun. Hence this is another fi- nal cause (say the anti-sexualists) perverted to support a favourite hypothesis.

We come now to the culture of the palm-tree, which is the sixth and most plausible argument employed by the sexualists. Of this, the most authentic account we have is the following by Dr Hafelquill, in one of his letters to Linnaeus, dated Alexandria May 18th, 1750.

"The first thing I did after my arrival was to see the date-tree, the ornament and a great part of the riches of this country. It had already blossomed; but I had, nevertheless, the pleasure of seeing how the Arabs assist its fecundation, and by that means secure to themselves a plentiful harvest of a vegetable, which was so impor- tant to them, and known to them many centuries be- fore any botanist dreamed of the difference of sexes in vegetables. The gardener informed me of this before I had time to inquire; and would show me, as a very curious thing, the male and female of the date or palm- trees; nor could he conceive how I, a Frank, lately arrived, could know it before; for, says he, all who have yet come from Europe to see this country, have regarded this relation either as a fable or miracle. The Arab seeing me inclined to be further informed, accom- panied me and my French interpreter to a palm-tree, which was very full of young fruit, and had by him been wedded or fecundated with the male when both were in blossom. This the Arabs do in the following manner: When the spadix has female flowers, that come out of its spathe, they search on a tree that has male flowers, which they know by experience, for a spadix which has not yet budded out of its spathe: this they open, take out the spadix, and cut it lengthwise in sev- eral pieces, but take care not to hurt the flowers. A piece of this spadix with male flowers they put length- wise between the small branches of the spadix which hath female flowers, and then lay the leaf of a palm over the branches. In this situation I yet saw the greatest part of the spadices which bore their young fruit; but the male flowers which were put between were withered. The Arab besides gave me the follow- ing anecdotes: First, unless they, in this manner, wed and fecundate the date-tree, it bears no fruit. Sec- ondly, they always take the precaution to preserve some unopened spathe with male flowers from one year to another, to be applied for this purpose, in case the male flowers should miscarry or suffer damage. Third-

ly, if they permit the spadix of the male flowers to burst or come out, it becomes useless for fecundation: it must have its maidenhead, (these were the words of the Arab), which is lost in the same moment the blossoms burst out of their case. Therefore the person who cultivates date-trees must be careful to hit the right time of as- sisting their fecundation, which is almost the only ar- ticle in their cultivation. Fourthly, on opening the spa- tha, he finds all the male flowers full of a liquid which resembles the finest dew; it is of a sweet and pleasant taste, resembling much the taste of fresh dates, but much more refined and aromatic: this was likewise con- firmed by my interpreter, who hath lived 32 years in Egypt, and therefore had opportunities enough of tast- ing both the nectar of the blossoms, and the fresh dates."

Now, though this account seems fully to confirm the fact, viz. that such a practice obtains among the Ar- abs, and that they assert its efficacy in fecundating the trees, it is certain (say the opposers of this doctrine) that no intelligent person, who is not already wedded to an hypothesis, will attempt to found an argument upon the assertions of a people so full of ridiculous su- perstitions. Before Dr Hafelquill, or any other per- son, can draw any argument from the abovementioned account, he ought to see the experiment several times repeated, with his own eyes, and not take it upon the word of a people who, besides their superstition, may very probably find it their interest to impose upon trav- ellers.

Mr Milne, author of the Botanical Dictionary, how- ever, relates an experiment, near akin to the above- mentioned, which merits some attention: "In the garden of M. de la Serre, of the Rue S. Jacques at Paris, was a female turpentine tree, which flowered ev- ery year, without furnishing any fruit capable of ve- getation. This was a sensible mortification to the owner, who greatly desired to have the tree increased: Messieurs Dulamet and Jussieu very properly judged that they might procure him that pleasure by the afflit- ance of a male pistachio tree. They sent him one very much loaded with flowers. It was planted in the gar- den of M. de la Serre, very near the female turpentine tree, which the same year produced a great quantity of fruits, that were well-conditioned, and ripe with faci- lity. The male plant was then removed; the conse- quence of which was, that the turpentine-tree of M. de la Serre in none of the succeeding years bore any fruit that, upon examination, was found to germi- nate."

Upon this experiment it is observed by the antifex- ualists, that, though it were a thousand times repeated, it never could be decisive. The nature of the contro- versy, say they, is such, that one experiment is more decisive in favour of their opinion, than 10,000 can be against them. The reason is plain: If there is such a thing as a sexual intercourse in vegetables, it is as won- derful that any seeds should be perfected without that intercourse, as that a virgin should have a child; the last is not in the least more extraordinary than the first. One experiment, therefore, which shews that seeds may be perfected without such sexual intercourse, is either to be resolved into a miracle, or must prove absolutely decisive against the sexual system; while numberless ex- periments such as that abovementioned could prove no- thing; because we know not what effect vegetables may have by growing in each other's neighbourhood, independent of any sexual intercourse.

In Milne's Botanical Dictionary, under the article Sexus Plantarum, the author quotes Dr Allton's experiments partially. The facts recorded by Dr Allton are as follow. 1. Three sets of spinach, planted at a great distance from each other, proved all of them fertile, and ripened plenty of seeds, which were found to answer as well as other spinach seed. 2. A plant of hemp growing by itself, being taken care of, produced about 30 good seeds, though in a situation very much exposed, and plucked up too soon, on account of bad weather, in the autumn. 3. This experiment, which is the most remarkable of the three, we shall give in the Doctor's own words. "In the spring of 1741, I carried two young feeding plants of the French mercury, long before there was any in, from the city physic-garden, the only place where it was then to be found in this country, to the king's garden at the Abbey; which are more than 700 yards distant from one another, with many high houses, trees, hedges, and part of a high hill, between them: and planted one of them in one inclosure, where it was shaded from the sun the greatest part of the day; and the other in another, 25 yards distant, exposed to the south and west. Both plants ripened fertile seeds; and the last seed them to plentifully, that it proved a troublesome weed for several years, though none of the species was to be found in that garden for more than 20 years preceding."

This experiment Mr Milne hath thought proper not to take any notice of, though he quotes the other two, and on them has the following remark. "The result of these, and such like experiments, can be accounted for, on the principle of the sexes, in no other way than on the supposition that some male flowers have been intermixed with the female, and operated the fertilization in question. This appears the more probable, as only a part of the seeds in the above experiments attained to perfect maturity, so as to be capable of vegetation."

The seventh argument of Linnæus is taken from the flores nutantes.—The pistils of these flowers, according to Linnæus, are always longer than the stamens; and nature has assigned them this penile posture, that the pollen, which is specifically heavier than air, may the more conveniently fall upon the stigma.—But the pistils of the campanula, lilium, and many other flores nutantes, are not longer than the stamens. Besides, granting this were uniformly the case; yet, as the pollen is heavier than air, this posture must of necessity either make the pollen miss the pistillum altogether, or, at any rate, it can only fall upon the back part of the pistil in place of the stigma; and, of course, such a direction would rather tend to frustrate than promote the impregnation of the seed.

The eighth argument is taken from the plantæ submersæ, which are said to emerge as soon as their flowers begin to blow, lest the pollen should be coagulated or washed off by the water.—But many submarine and aquatic plants fructify entirely below water; and, supposing they did not, the same argument would equally prove it to be the intention of nature, that the pollen should be blown away by the winds, as that it should be subservient to the impregnation of the seed.

The ninth and last argument is intitled Omnium flororum genuina consideratio; which (say the antifexualists) is nothing more than a collection of vague observations upon the structure and economy of particular plants, some of them true, others false, but all of them evidently thrust in as supports to a favourite hypothesis.

Thus we have given a short view of the fundamental principles of the sexual system; of the arguments made use of, and the facts adduced to support it: to these we have subjoined the principal arguments brought against it; together with the most noted experiments made by its opposers; and shall now, according to our general plan, leave the reader to determine for himself. Only, before putting a period to this section, we shall beg leave to observe, that, in our humble opinion, the facts hitherto brought in support of the sexual system are, on the one hand, too few, and those not so fully authenticated as could be wished; and, on the other hand, that the experiments adduced by its opposers seem neither to have been made with sufficient accuracy, nor perhaps upon such plants as would have been most proper for determining the point in dispute. In the mean time, we make no doubt but the gentlemen on both sides will continue to make the most exact and careful inquiries and experiments in order to bring it to a final determination; though from the nature of the question itself, as well as the remoteness of place where some of the plants grow that may be thought necessary to be subjected to experiment, and the difficulty of getting access to perform those experiments in a proper manner, it is not improbable that many years may yet elapse before the world be favoured with that determination.

Sect. VI. Of the Natural Method of Classification.

Besides all the abovementioned methods of classing and distributing plants into their different orders, genera, &c. which are deduced from the fructification, and are therefore called artificial, Linnæus and most other botanists are of opinion that there is a natural method, or nature's system, which we should diligently endeavour to find out. That this system, say they, is no chimera, as some imagine, will appear particularly from hence. That all plants, of what order soever, show an affinity to some others; and thus, as formerly observed, not only the virtues of a great number of species may be ascertained, but we may know with certainty how to find a proper succedaneum for plants which cannot easily be had.—Linnæus divides vegetables into the 59 natural orders following.

1. Palmae. These are perennial, and mostly of the shrub and tree kind. The stem is in height from 2 to 100 feet and upwards. The roots form a mass of fibres which are commonly simple and without any ramifications. The stem is generally simple, without branches, cylindrical, and composed of strong longitudinal fibres. The leaves, which are a composition of a leaf and a branch, by Linnæus called frondes, are of different forms; being sometimes shaped like an umbrella or fan; sometimes singly or doubly winged; the small or partial leaves, which are often three feet in length, being ranged alternately. The branches, or principal leaves, are six, eight, ten, or twelve feet long; the length varying according to the age and size of the plant. They are are covered at first with a thick brown dust, like those of the ferns. The base of the leaves frequently embraces the greater part of the stem. The flowers are male and female upon the same or different roots; except in fratiotes, which bears hermaphrodite flowers only; and palmetto, in which the flowers are hermaphrodite and male upon distinct roots. The flowers are all disposed in a panicle or diffused spike, except in the hydrocharis, fratiotes, and valliflora; in which they proceed singly from the wings or angles of the leaves. The common calyx, in this order, is that termed a spathe or sheath, and has either one or two valves. The spadix, or head of flowers protruded from the sheath, is generally branched. Each flower is generally furnished with a perianthium or proper flower-cup, consisting of three leaves or divisions that are small and permanent. The petals are three in number, of a substance like leather, and permanent like the leaves of the calyx. The flowers of zania have no petals. The filaments are from 2 to 20 and upwards, cohering slightly at their base. The seed-buds are from one to three in number, placed in the middle of the flower, and supporting a like number of styles which are very short. The seed-vessel is generally a pulpy fruit of the berry or cherry kind, containing one cell filled with fibrous flesh, and covered with a skin which is of a substance like leather. The seeds are in number from one to three in each pulpy fruit, of a hard bony substance, round or oval, and attached by their base to the bottom of the fruit.—These plants, particularly the seeds, are astringent, and of efficacy in dysenteries.

2. Piperites. These plants are mostly herbaceous and perennial. The stalks of pothos creep along rocks and trees, into which they strike root at certain distances. The greatest height which any of them is known to attain, is 15 feet; the greater part do not exceed three or four. The fleshy roots of many of these plants are extremely acid when fresh. They lose this pungent quality, however, by being dried, and become of a foamy nature. The smell of many of them is extremely fetid, frequently resembling that of human excrements. The flowers, however, of an Ethiopian dracunculus or arum, and the cover in which they are involved, are said to emit a very fragrant odour. With regard to their virtues, these plants are commonly astringent.

3. Calamariae. In this class the base of the leaf, which embraces the stalk like a glove, has no longitudinal aperture, but is perfectly entire. The stalk is generally triangular, and without knots or joints. The roots of some are long and knotty; in others, they are composed of fleshy fibres which pierce deep into the ground; and in others, of a bulb. The flowers are either hermaphrodite, or male and female upon the same root. The mode of inflorescence in this order is generally a spike; sometimes a capitulum or head. The calyx is either a gluma or an amentum. The corolla is wanting. The filaments of the stamens are three in number, short, slender like a hair, and sometimes brittle. The anthers are generally long, slender, and erect. The seed-bud is very small, blunt, and sometimes three-cornered. The style is thread-shaped, and of the length of the scaly calyx. The stigmata are generally three in number; slender, hairy, and sometimes permanent. The virtues, uses, and sensible qualities, of this order of plants are the same with those of the following.

4. Graminae. Most of these plants are annual or perennial herbs; some of them creep upon the ground, others are erect. The roots, in the greatest number, are creeping, and emit fibres from each knot or joint; in others they are simply branching and fibrous. The stems and branches are round. The leaves are simple, alternate, entire, very long, and commonly narrow. They form below a sort of sheath, which embraces or surrounds the stem, and is generally cleft or divided on one side through its whole length. The flowers are either hermaphrodite, male and female on the same root, or hermaphrodite and male on the same root. They proceed either singly from the sheath of the leaves, or are formed into a panicle or loose spike. The calyx and corolla in this order are not sufficiently ascertained; in some a single scale or hulk, in others two, supply the place of both covers; some grasses have four husky scales, two of which serve for the calyx, and the other two for the corolla; some have five; others six, four of which constitute the calyx, and the other two are termed improperly enough the bulky petals. The corolla is sometimes composed of one petal with two divisions; and in general the husks of the calyx are always placed opposite to those of the corolla. The stamens are generally three in number, and placed irregularly with regard to the situation of the calyx and corolla. The anthers are long, furnished with two cells, and slightly attached to the filaments. The seed-bud is placed upon the same receptacle as the calyx, corolla, and stamens. The style is generally double, and crowned with a hairy stigma or summit. The seed-vessel is wanting. The seeds are single, oval, and attached below to the bottom of the flower.—The roots of the grasses are opening; such as have an aromatic smell are rhomachic; their seeds are mealy, mucilaginous, and nourishing. All the parts of these plants are wholesome.

5. Tripetalidae, (from tres, three; and petalum, a petal). These plants have no very striking characters, and are nearly allied to the grasses. All the genera of this order have not the circumstance expressed in the title.

6. Ensetae. This order, which is very nearly allied to the grasses and liliaceous plants, furnishes a very beautiful collection of perennial herbs, which are of different heights, from one inch to 15 feet. The roots are tuberous or fleshy, and garnished with fibres; the stalks are simple, and commonly flat or compressed on the sides. The leaves are simple, alternate, entire, sword-shaped, and, like the liliaceous plants, form at their origin a sheath or glove, which in the greatest number is cleft or divided through the whole length, except at the base, where it is entire, and embraces the stalk like a ring. The flowers are hermaphrodite, and generally proceed from the summit of the stalks either singly, in an umbel, a spike, or in a panicle. In pontederia they proceed from the wings or angles of the leaves either singly or in an umbel. Most of these plants want the perianthium or flower-cup; the flowers burst from a common cover or sheath, termed by Linnaeus spathe, which in this order is frequently permanent. The petals are in number from one to six. The stamens are generally three. The seed-bud is placed sometimes above the flower, sometimes below it. The style is generally single, and crowned with a triple stigma. The seed-vessel is a dry capsule, generally of an oblong shape, and opens at three valves, discovering the same number of cells, each including a quantity of roundish seeds.—These plants resemble the liliaceous in their powers and sensible qualities; very few of them, however, are used in medicine.

7. Orchideae. The roots of many of these plants are composed of one or more fleshy tubercles or knobs, attached to the lower part of the stem, and sending forth fibres from the top. Those of orchis bear an obvious resemblance to the scrotum in animals: from which circumstance the genus has derived its name. The leaves are of a moderate size, inscribed with a number of longitudinal nerves or ribs, and without any footstalk. At their origin they form, round the stalk, a kind of sheath, which is long, entire, cylindrical, but not furnished, like the grasses and some other plants, with a crown at top. The flowers are hermaphrodite, and placed at the summit of the stalk either in a spike or in a panicle. The calyx is that fort termed by Linnæus a spathe or sheath, that burling open protrudes a head or cluster of flowers, termed the spadix, which have no perianthium or flower-cup. The petals are five in number, and very irregular. The nectarium in this order is remarkably conspicuous; yet so different in the different genera, that Linnæus has employed it for his principal character, or mark of distinction, instead of the root, which had chiefly engaged the attention of former botanists. It has the appearance of a fifth petal. The filaments are always two in number, and placed upon the pistillum or female organ. The antheræ are erect, and generally covered by the upper lip of the nectarium. The seed-bud is either oblong or pillar-shaped, twisted like a screw, and universally placed below the receptacle of the flower. The style is single, very short, and forms one substance with the inner margin of the nectarium. The seed-vessel is generally a capsule with one cavity or cell, and three valves or openings, which are keel-shaped, and open on the angular sides, being jointed both at the bottom and top. The seeds are numerous; very small, like sawdust; and attached, without footstalks, to a slender receptacle or rib, which extends itself lengthwise in the middle of each inclosure or valve. The plants of this order are reckoned strong aphrodisiacs.

8. Scitamineae. This class consists of beautiful exotic plants, all natives of very warm countries. Some of them furnish exquisite fruits; but though the plants rise very high, they are perennial only by their roots. Those which have only one filament, have in all their parts an aromatic odour, and an acrid or poignant taste; qualities, however, possessed in a much greater degree by the roots, which are hot and resinous.

9. Spathaceae, so called because their flowers are protruded from a spathe or sheath. They are nearly allied in habit and structure to the liliaceous plants, from which they are chiefly distinguished by the spathe out of which their flowers are protruded.

10. Coronariae. These plants are herbaceous, perennial, and from one inch to 15 feet high. The roots are either bulbous, fibrous, or composed of small fleshy knots, which are jointed at top. The bulbs either consist of scales laid over each other like tiles, or are solid. The stem of the liliaceous bulbous plants is properly wanting; what supplies its place being nothing else than the base of the leaves, which, wrapping or enfolding each other, form at bottom a roundish fleshy bulb hitherto distinguished, though perhaps improperly, by the name of root. In the others the stem is simple, that is, has few branches, and is either furnished with leaves, or rises naked. The branches are alternate and cylindrical. The leaves are simple, alternate, and entire. Those next the root, termed radical leaves, generally form at their origin a sheath, which in a great number is entire; that is, goes all round; whilst in others, it is cleft or divided longitudinally on one side. The flowers are universally hermaphrodite, except in white heliobore, which has both male and hermaphrodite flowers mixed together on the same root. The flowers are sometimes single, and terminate the stem; sometimes they form an umbel, sometimes a spike, and sometimes a panicle. The calyx or flower-cup, in this order, according to Linnæus, is generally wanting. In strict propriety, however, the single cover that is present in most of these plants, though beautifully coloured, ought to be denominated a calyx; as its divisions, generally six in number, are placed opposite to the stamens. The petals, or, to speak more properly, the coloured leaves of the flower, are in number from one to six. Plants which have a single petal, have the limb or upper part split into six divisions or segments. The petals in some species are rolled or turned back. The nectarium is various; in the lily it is a longitudinal line which runs through each petal, and reaches from the base to the middle. In crown imperial, it is a small hollow or pore, formed at the base of each petal; in asphodel it consists of six very small valves, which, approaching, form a globe, and are inserted into the base of the petal; in hyacinth, it is composed of three melliferous pores, situated on the top of the seed-bud. In pineapple, it is a small scale lying within the substance of each petal above the base; and in albuca, or bastard star of Bethlehem, it consists of two sharp-pointed bodies proceeding from the furrows of the seed-bud, and covered by the broader base of the three fertile filaments. In some species of lily the nectarium is hairy; in others it is naked. The stamens are six in number; erect, and inserted into the common receptacle, if the flower consists of many petals; into the tube, or divisions of the corolla, if it consists of one. The antheræ are long, commonly divided below, and slightly attached by their sides to the filaments on which they turn like a vane or the needle of a compass. The seed-bud is single, and placed either within the flower-cup, or below it. The style is single, thread-shaped, and generally of the length of the petals. The stigma is generally single, of a conic form, and shaggy or hairy at the extremity. The seed-vessel is generally a capsule, divided externally into three valves, internally into three cells.—With respect to the powers of the plants of this order, it may be affirmed in general, that such as have little taste or smell, as the roots of tulip, and star of Bethlehem, are perfectly innocent; whilst those which have a heavy nauseous smell, as squill, hyacinth, crown imperial, and spider-wort, are at least suspicious, and frequently prove noxious.

11. Sarmentose, (from fermentum, a long shoot, like that of a vine). This order consists of plants which have climbing stems and branches, that, like the vine, attach themselves to the bodies in their neighbourhood for the purpose of support. These plants are far far from being a true natural assemblage; in fact they scarce agree in a single circumstance, except that expressed in the title, which is far from being peculiar to this order.

12. **Holleaceae**. This order consists of plants which are used for the table, and enter into the economy of domestic affairs: it contains trees, shrubs, perennial, and annual herbs. Some of the woody vegetables retain their green leaves during the winter. The roots are very long, and frequently spindle-shaped; from the knots on the stems and branches of such plants as creep on the ground, or float on the water, proceed fibrous and branching roots. The stems and young branches are cylindric; and in the greatest part of the aquatic plants of this order, the stalks are hollow within. The buds are of a conic form, and naked; that is, not accompanied with scales. The leaves are generally simple, entire, alternate, and attached to the branches by a cylindric foot-stalk, which is sometimes very long, but commonly very short. Some plants of this kind have two stipules or scales which are attached to the branches near the origin of the foot-stalk of each leaf. In many others, instead of stipules, each leaf bears on its foot-stalk a membranaceous sheath, which is cylindric, frequently fringed on the margin, and pierced or penetrated by the stem. The flowers are either hermaphrodite; male and female upon the same root; male and female upon different roots; hermaphrodite and male on the same root; or hermaphrodite and male on different roots.

13. **Succulentae**. This order consists of flat, fleshy, and juicy plants, most of them evergreens. They are astringent, refreshing, and very wholesome.

14. **Graunales**, from *grus* a crane. These consist of *geranium*, vulgarly called *cranes-bill*, and a few other genera which Linnaeus considers as allied to it in their habit and external structure. This order furnishes both herbaceous and woody plants. The roots are sometimes fibrous, sometimes tuberous. In some species of wood-sorrel they are jointed. The stems are cylindric; the young branches, in some, nearly square. The buds are of a conic form, and covered with scales. The leaves are either simple or compound. The flowers are hermaphrodite; they proceed from the wings of the leaves either singly or in clusters. The calyx or flower-cup consists of five distinct leaves, or of one leaf divided almost to the bottom into five parts. It generally accompanies the seed-bud to its maturity. The petals are five in number, spreading, and frequently funnel-shaped. The stamens are generally ten in number, awl-shaped, erect, and of the length of the petals. The stamens are generally oblong; and frequently attached to the filaments by the middle, so as to lie, and sometimes to veer about, upon them. The seed-bud is either oblong, or five-cornered. The number of styles is either one, or five. In *tribulus*, the style is wanting. The seed-vessel is generally a five-cornered capsule, with one, three, five, or ten cells. The seeds are generally equal in number to the internal divisions or the cells of the seed-vessel; one seed being placed in each cell.

15. **Inundatae**. The plants of this order are aquatic, of low stature, herbaceous, and mostly perennial. The roots are fibrous. The stem is generally wanting. In its place are an assemblage of leaves, which wrapping or enfolding each other mutually form a sheath; and from the middle of this sheath is produced the foot-stalk of the flower. The leaves are sometimes alternate, sometimes placed in whorls round the stem. In a great many genera the foot-stalk is extended at its origin into a membranaceous substance, which forms a sheath that is cleft through the whole length, on the side opposite to the leaf. The flowers are hermaphrodite, or male and female on the same root. The flower-cup is either wanting, or consists of three, four, or five divisions or leaves, which accompany the seed-bud to its maturity. The petals are generally wanting. The stamens are in number from one to 16 and upwards. The filaments in some genera are so short, that they seem wanting. The anthers are short, and generally marked with four longitudinal furrows. The seed-buds are in number from one to four, the style is frequently wanting. The seed-vessel is universally wanting, except in *Elatine*, which has a dry capsule, with four external openings, and the same number of cells. The seeds are generally four in number.

16. **Calyciflorae**, (from *calix* the flower-cup, and *flora* the flower); consisting of such plants as have the stamens (the flower inserted into the calyx). All the plants of this order are of the shrub and tree kind. Some of them rise to the height of 12 or 14 feet; others not above two or three. The roots are branching, fibrous, and woody. The stems are cylindric. The branches, when young, are cornered; the buds of a conic form, and without scales. The leaves are simple, alternate, and attached to the branches by a very short foot-stalk. The flowers are either male or female upon distinct roots, or hermaphrodite and male on the same root. The calyx is a perianthium composed of one leaf divided into two, three, or four segments. It is commonly placed upon the germen or seed-bud, which accompanies it to maturity. The corolla is universally wanting, except in *trophis*, the male plants of which, according to Linnaeus, have four obtuse and spreading petals. The stamens are generally four in number, slender like a hair, short, placed at a considerable distance from the style, and inserted into the tube of the calyx. The pistillum is composed of a roundish germen, crowned with the calyx; a single thread-shaped style; and a cylindric stigma. The seed-vessel is either an obtuse oval fruit of the cherry kind, or a globular berry with one cell, containing a roundish seed. The plants of this order are astringent.

17. **Calycanthinae**, (from *calix* the flower-cup, and *flora* the flower); consisting of plants, which, among other characters, have the corolla and stamens inserted in the calyx. This order furnishes trees, shrubs, and annual, biennial, and perennial herbs. The herbaceous annuals are by much the most numerous. The roots are branching and fibrous; the stems and branches cylindric, square, or four-cornered while young. The buds are of a conic form, and without scales. The leaves are generally either alternate, simple, and attached to the branches by a short foot-stalk, or opposite at the bottom of the stem; and in some, alternate towards the top. They are universally sejlie; that is, attached to the branches, without any footstalk. The calyx is universally a perianthium, and generally monophyllous, or composed of one leaf. The corolla consists of four, five, and and fix petals, which are attached to the tube of the calix, and are sometimes placed alternate, sometimes opposite to the divisions of the limb. The stamens, which are in number from 4 to 20 and upwards, are attached to the tube of the calix either on its margin, or lower down. When the number of stamens is double the divisions of the calix, the stamens which stand opposite to these divisions are a little longer than the rest. The anthers are generally of a hemispherical figure; frequently cleft or slit below; and by that aperture attached slightly to the filaments, on which they often veer about like a vane or needle. They are surrounded longitudinally, and open on the sides into two loculi or cells. The pollen, or male dust, consists of a number of minute particles, of an oval figure, yellow and transparent. The germen or seed-bud is placed either above or under the receptacle of the flower. The style is single, thread-shaped, and of the length of the stamens. The stigma is generally single and undivided. The seed-vessel is a capsule, which is generally divided internally into four loculi or cells. The seeds are numerous, minute, and frequently three-cornered. The plants of this order are reckoned astringent.

18. Bicornes, (from bis twice, and cornu a horn), plants whose anthers have the appearance of two horns. This appearance, however, is not very conspicuous, unless in a few genera. The plants of this order are all of the shrub and tree kind. The roots are branching and fibrous. The stems and branches are cylindric. The buds conic, sometimes covered with scales, and sometimes naked. The leaves are generally alternate. In most plants of this order they are either sessile, or supported by a very short foot-stalk, which is semi-cylindric, and flat above. The flowers are universally hermaphrodite, except in one genus, the Indian date-plum, where hermaphrodite and male flowers are produced in the same species upon distinct roots. They proceed either solitary, or in a corymbus from the angles formed by the leaves and branches; or hang down in spikes and clusters at the end of the branches; each flower having a small scale or floral leaf placed under it. In most plants of this order the calyx is placed around or below the germen. The calyx is universally a perianthium, and generally monophyllous or of one piece, deeply divided into four or five segments, which are permanent, that is, accompany the germen to its maturity. The segments are often acute, and sometimes coloured. The corolla is generally mono-petalous, and bell or funnel shaped; the figure, however, is not very constant, even in plants of the same genus. The limb, or upper part of the petal, is generally divided into four or five segments, which are sometimes rolled back, sometimes bent inwards. The limb too is sometimes slightly cut, sometimes divided almost to the bottom. The tube, or lower part of the petal, is cylindric, and generally of the same length with the calyx. The number of stamens is from 4 to 20. These are generally erect, and attached to the lower part of the tube of the corolla. The anthers are bifid or forked below, and, being slightly attached to the filaments, are frequently inverted in such a manner as to exhibit the appearance of two horns at top. The germen or seed-bud is generally roundish, and seated above the receptacle. The style is single, thread-shaped, of the same length with the corolla, and in a few genera permanent. The seed-vessel is either a capsule with five cells, a roundish berry, or an oblong four-cornered nut with two cells.—The plants of this order are astringent.

19. Hesperides, (from the Hesperides, whose orchards are said to have produced golden apples). The plants of this order are of the shrub and tree kind, and mostly evergreen. The bark of the stalks is slender, and comes off in thin plates. The leaves are generally opposite, and covered with small transparent points. In some, the leaves are placed opposite at the bottom of the stalks, and alternate above. The buds are of a conic form, the flowers generally hermaphrodite; they proceed from the wings of the leaves either singly, or in clusters like ivy-berrys. The calyx is placed above the seed-bud, and accompanies it to its maturity. The petals are three, four, or five in number, and stand upon the brims of the tube of the calyx. The seed-bud is large, oblong, and placed below the receptacle of the flower. The style is single, awl-shaped, of the length of the stamens, and terminated with a single stigma. The seed-vessel in some genera is a berry furnished with one or three cells; a capsule with four cells, or of the nature of a cherry, containing a stone. The seeds are generally numerous, small and oblong. The leaves and fruits are astringent, the berries edible.

20. Rosaceae, (from rota, a wheel), consisting of plants with one wheel-shaped petal without a tube. These resemble in quality those of the order of preciae, to which they are in all respects very nearly allied; but very few of them can be said in strict propriety to possess the character specified in the title.

21. Preciae, (from praecius early). These consist of primrose, an early flowering plant, and some others which agree with it in habit and structure, though not always in the character or circumstance expressed in the title. These plants, which possess no striking uniform characters, are, in general, innocent in their quality; yet the root of fox-bread is dangerous, if taken internally.

22. Caryophyllaceae. All the plants of this order are herbaceous, and mostly annual. Some of the creeping kinds do not rise above an inch, and the tallest exceed not seven or eight feet. The roots are branching, fibrous, and of a moderate length. The stems are cylindrical. The branches proceed from the wings or angles of the leaves, and are generally opposite, and as it were jointed at each knot. In some species of cerastrum the branches are square. The leaves are generally placed opposite in pairs, so as to resemble a cross; and are slightly united at the bottom by their foot-stalks, which form a sort of glove round the stem. The hairs are simple, like silk. The flowers are hermaphrodite; but some have male and female flowers upon distinct roots. They either stand single on their foot-stalks, and proceed from the wings or angles of the leaves and branches, or are disposed in a spike, corymbus, umbel, or panicle. The calyx is permanent, and composed either of one piece with five indentments, or of four or five distinct leaves. The corolla generally consists of five petals, which have claws of the length of the calyx; and a spreading limb, sometimes entire, but oftener cleft or divided in two. The stamens are in number from 3 to 15, and of a moderate length. When their number is double the divisions of the calyx, they are attached alternately to the claws of the petals, those so attached being shorter than the rest; the remaining flamina are inserted into the common receptacle, and stand opposite to the segments of the calyx. In some genera of this order the number of flamina is found to vary, even in the different flowers of the same plant. The anthers are short, hemispherical, marked with four longitudinal furrows, frequently divided or cleft below, most commonly erect; sometimes, however, incumbent, that is, fastened to the filaments by the sides. The pointal is composed of a single seed-bud, which is generally roundish, sometimes cornered. The styles are thread-shaped, of the length of the stamens, and crowned with a simple stigma, which is sleek or smooth externally, and slightly hollowed or vaulted within. The seed-vessel is a dry capsule, of an oval form, of the length of the calyx, and consists of one or three cells. The plants of this order are innocent in their quality; they abound in a watery sort of phlegm, and have bitter seeds. With respect to their virtues, they are reckoned astringent, attenuating, and detergent.

23. Tribilatae, (from tres three, and kilum an external mark on the seed); consisting of plants with three seeds, which are marked distinctly with an external cicatrix or scar, where they were fastened within the fruit.

24. Corydaliae, (from corona a helmet); consisting of plants which have irregular flowers, somewhat resembling a helmet or hood. These plants are mostly herbaceous and perennial. The roots are tuberous or knobby. The stems are generally branching. The leaves are alternate, sometimes simple, but most commonly winged. The foot-stalk of the leaves is straight or narrow, except in epimedium, where it is large, and has a membranaceous edge or border. The flowers are universally hermaphrodite. They proceed either singly from the wings or angles of the leaves, or are collected in clusters at the end of the branches. The calyx consists of two, four, five, or six leaves, which are frequently coloured, and commonly fall off immediately before or very soon after the expansion of the petals. The corolla is generally irregular; of one, or many pieces; gaping; and furnished with a nectarium, which is very different in the different genera. The stamens are in number from two to six, and of a proportionate length, except in honey-flower, which has two shorter than the rest. The filaments are distinct, except in two genera, fumitory and monnieri, which have two sets of stigmas or filaments united in a cylinder. The anthers are universally distinct, except in impatiens, where they are formed into a cylinder divided at the base. The seed-bud is generally roundish, but sometimes angular or cornered. The style is commonly single, extremely short, slender, or thread-shaped, and crowned with a simple stigma. The seed-vessel is either a hollow blown-up berry, a capsule of one cell, a length, or a roundish pod. The seeds are generally numerous and round.

25. Putaminaceae, (from putamen a shell); consisting of a few genera of plants allied in habit, whose fleshy seed-vessel or fruit is frequently covered with a hard woody shell. Most of these plants are acid and penetrating; and yield, by burning, a great quantity of fixed acids. With respect to their virtues, they are powerful aperients. The Indians pretend that the fruit of a species of caper-bush, which they call baducca, extinguishes the flames of love.

26. Multiflorae, (from multus many, and silique a pod); consisting of plants which have more seed-vessels than one. From the etymology of the term, one would naturally imagine that the seed-vessels in question were of that kind called by Linnæus silique, or pod; but the fact is, that not a single plant of this order bears pods; the greater part having many dry capsules, and the remainder being furnished properly with no seed-vessel, but bearing numerous distinct seeds. Plants of this order are mostly perennial herbs; the stems of some are erect; others creep upon the ground, and produce roots near the origin of each leaf; lastly, others climb, and attach themselves to the bodies in their neighbourhood, either by the footstalk of the leaves, or by tendrils and clasping which terminate the footstalk. The greatest height of those which rise erect, seldom exceeds eight feet. Those which climb rarely exceed 15 or 20 feet. The roots are generally fleshy. In some they are hand-shaped; in others finger-shaped, or cylindric. In some species of hellebore and ranunculus they are divided into spherical knobs. Lastly, in some plants of this order, the roots are fibrous. The stems and young branches are cylindric. The leaves, which are of different forms, being sometimes simple and entire, sometimes hand-shaped or winged, are generally alternate. The footstalk, which is sometimes cylindric, sometimes angular, is membranous, and very large at its origin, surrounding a great part of the stem from which it proceeds. The flowers are hermaphrodite. They proceed either singly from the wings of the leaves or termination of the branches, or terminate the branches in a spike, panicle, or head. The calyx in some is wanting; in others it is generally composed of five pieces, which fall off with the petals. The petals are in number from 4 to 15; generally equal, and sometimes disposed in two or three series; five is the prevailing number. The stamens are in number from 5 to 300; distinct, and attached generally in several rows or series to the receptacle. The seed-buds are generally numerous; the style is frequently wanting. In some the seed-vessel is wanting; in others it is composed of several dry capsules, each containing a single cell. The seeds are numerous, and frequently angular. Most of these plants are acid, and many of them poisonous. In general, plants that have a great number of flamina are noxious in their quality. When burnt, these plants furnish a fixed acid; by distillation there is drawn from them a kind of nitrous and alumious substance. With respect to their virtues, they are caustic and purgative.

27. Rheacea, consisting of poppy, and a few genera which resemble it in habit and structure. These plants, upon being cut, emit plentifully a juice, which is white in poppy, and yellow in the others. With respect to their virtues, they seem to operate principally upon the nerves. Their juice is soporific and narcotic, their seeds less so, their roots aperient. Applied externally, they are slightly corrosive.

28. Luridae, consisting of plants whose pale and ominous appearance seems to indicate something baleful and noxious in their nature and quality. Most of these plants are herbaceous and perennial. Many of them are of the maligned tribe of flowers; others resemble these in their general appearance, but differ from them essentially. essentially in the equality of their stamens. The roots are generally branched, sometimes tuberous. The stems and branches are cylindric. The leaves are generally simple, and placed alternate. The flowers are hermaphrodite. They proceed either singly or in clusters from the angle formed by the leaves and branches. In some species of lycium, they terminate the branches. The calyx is generally of one piece deeply divided into five parts. The corolla consists of one petal, which is either bell, funnel, or wheel shaped. The stamens are four or five in number; and those either of equal lengths, as in the greater, or unequal. The seed-bud is placed above the receptacle of the flower. The style is single; and is terminated by a summit which is hemispherical, and frequently channelled or furrowed. The seed-vessel, in such as have equal stamens, is a berry; in the rest, it is generally a capsule. The seeds are numerous, and frequently kidney-shaped.—These plants in general are poisonous. They have an insipid taste, and a nauseous disagreeable smell.

29. Campanaceae (from campana a bell); plants with bell-shaped flowers. The plants of this order are herbaceous and perennial. The roots are either spindle-shaped, or branching and fibrous. The stems are round. The branches are generally alternate. The leaves are simple, alternate, and commonly attached to the branches by a semi-cylindric foot-stalk, which is furrowed above. The indents are terminated by a small white tubercle or knob, which renders them conspicuous. The flowers are hermaphrodite; and proceed either solitary from the wings of the leaves, or are collected into a spike and head at the end of the flower-stalk. The calyx is universally a perianthium situated upon or round the germen, and generally composed of one leaf deeply divided into five segments. The corolla is monopetalous, and of the bell, funnel, or wheel shape. The tube, in flowers of the bell and wheel shape, is very short; in those of the funnel-shape, very long. In Greek valerian, the tube is shut with five valves, which are placed on its apex or top. The limb or upper part of the corolla is deeply divided into five segments, which spread, and are alternate with the divisions of the calyx. The corolla is generally permanent. The stamens are five in number, attached to the base of the tube of the corolla, alternate with its divisions, and opposite to those of the calyx. The filaments are distinct; very large at their origin; and frequently approach so as to form a sort of vault, which covers the summit of the germen. They are slender and awl-shaped above. The anthers are very long; oval; marked with four longitudinal furrows, either distinct, or united in a cylinder. The pollen is composed of very small, spherical, white, shining, and transparent particles. The germen is roundish, and situated either wholly or in part under the flower. The style is generally single, and of the length of the stamens or corolla. The stigma is commonly single, but deeply divided. The seed-vessel is a roundish capsule, generally divided into three cells, and furnished externally with the same number of valves. The seeds are small, numerous, attached to a receptacle in the centre of the fruit, generally rounded, and sometimes cornered.—This order furnishes many excellent medicines. The plants abound with a white milky juice, which, upon the stalk being cut, flows out in great quantities.

30. Confortae, (from con together, and torques to twist); consisting of plants which have a single petal that is twisted, or bent towards one side. This order furnishes trees, shrubs, and fat succulent plants, some of which retain their leaves during the winter. The herbaceous vegetables in this order are generally perennial. The roots are sometimes branching, but commonly fleshy, succulent, and furnished with fibres or strings like those of turnip. The stems are round, and in some genera pulpy and succulent. The branches are sometimes placed alternate, and sometimes opposite. The buds are of a conic form, and naked or without scales. The leaves are sometimes alternate, sometimes placed opposite in pairs, and not seldom surround the stem in whorls. They are attached to the branches by a cylindrical foot-stalk, which is short, and frequently united to the foot-stalk of the opposite leaf. The defensive and offensive weapons in this order are a downy sort of pubescence, and simple, or forked prickles, which, in some genera, issue from the wings of the leaves. The flowers are hermaphrodite; and stand either singly upon their foot-stalks, or are collected into umbels and clusters. These bunches or collections of flowers sometimes terminate the branches, sometimes proceed from the angles of the branches, and sometimes stand at the side of the wings without issuing from them. The flower-cup is composed of one leaf divided almost to the base in five unequal segments, which embrace each other, and are permanent, or accompany the seed-bud to its maturity. The corolla consists of one petal, which in the different genera is bell, salver, funnel, or wheel shaped. The limb, or upper spreading part of the petal, is generally divided into five equal parts, which are slightly bent or twisted to the left, and embrace or enfold each other like the petals of the mallow tribe. The tube is generally long and cylindrical; sometimes club-shaped, and often wanting. In several flowers of this order the petal is accompanied with that species of superfluity termed a nectarium. In the different genera, however, it assumes very different appearances. The stamens are five in number, short, equal, attached at the same height to the tube of the petal, alternate with its divisions, and opposite to those of the calyx. The anthers are generally erect, and frequently approach so as to form a compact body in the middle of the flower. The seed-bud is either single or double. In some the style is wanting. The stigma is frequently double. The seed-vessel in some genera is a pulpy fruit, of the berry and cherry kind; but most frequently that species termed by Linnaeus conceptaculum, and folliculus, which has one valve or external inclosure, opens lengthways on one side, and has not the seeds fastened to it. Two of these dry fruits, with a single cell, compose the seed-vessel of most plants of this order. The seeds are generally numerous, and in several genera crowned with a long pappus or downy wing like that of the compound flowers, by means of which they easily disperse and sow themselves. —The plants of this order being cut, emit a juice which is generally milky, and sometimes of a greenish white. From the circumstance of their abounding in this milky juice, the greater part are deemed poisonous; repeated observations having established this aphorism, That milky plants, except those of the plain compound flowers, are generally of a baneful destructive nature, and ought at least to be administered with caution. With respect to their sensible qualities, they are bitter; particularly the seeds, roots, and bark, in which resides their principal virtue.

31. *Veprecula* (from *vepres* a briar or bramble), consisting of plants resembling the daphne, dirca, guidia, &c., but which, however, do not constitute a true natural assemblage.

32. *Papilionaceae*, plants that have papilionaceous flowers, i.e., somewhat resembling a butterfly in shape; of which number are all the leguminous plants. The plants of this order are of very different duration; some of them being herbaceous, and those either annual or perennial; others woody vegetables of the shrub and tree kind, a few of which rise to the height of 70 feet and upwards. The herbaceous plants of this order generally climb; for, being weak and as it were helpless of themselves, they are provided by nature with tendrils, and even sharp-pointed hooks, at their extremities, to fasten upon the neighbouring trees or rocks; or the stalks are endowed with a faculty of twining themselves, for the purpose of support, around the bodies in their neighbourhood. The pea, vetch, and kidney-bean, afford familiar examples of this appearance. The shrubs and trees of this order are mostly armed with strong spines. The roots are very long, and furnished with fibres; but some genera have fleshy knobs or tubercles placed at proper intervals along the fibres. The stems are cylindric, as likewise the young branches, which are placed alternately: those which climb, twist themselves from right to left, in a direction opposite to the apparent motion of the sun. The bark of the large trees is extremely thick and wrinkled, so as to resemble a net with long meshes; the wood is very hard in the middle, and commonly coloured or veined. The buds are hemispherical, without scales, and proceed from the branches horizontally a little above the angle which they form with the leaves. The leaves are alternate, and of different forms, being either simple, finger-shaped, or winged. This last form is very common; the lobes or lesser leaves are entire, and sometimes placed in pairs, but most commonly the winged leaf is terminated by an odd lobe. The winged or pinnated leaves of this order have a daily or periodical motion, depending upon the progress of the sun in his diurnal course. The common footstalk of the winged and compound leaves is marked on the upper surface with a cavity or furrow which runs through its whole length. The flowers are hermaphrodite; and proceed either from the wings of the leaves, or from the extremity of the branches. The calyx is a perianthium of one leaf, bell-shaped, bunching out at the bottom, and cut on its brim or margin into five irregular divisions or teeth; the lowermost of which, being the odd one, is longer than the rest: the other four stand in pairs, of which the uppermost is shortest, and stands farthest afoul. The bottom of the calyx is moistened with a sweet liquor like honey, so may be deemed the nectarium of these plants. The petals are four or five in number, very irregular, and from their figure and position bear an obvious resemblance to a butterfly expanding its wings for flight. These petals have been characterized by distinct names: the upper one, which is commonly the largest, is termed the standard, (*vexillum*); the two side petals, the wings, (*ala*); and the lowermost, which is generally united at top, and divided at bottom, the keel, (*carina*). The stamens are generally ten: these are either totally distinct, or united by the filaments into one or two bundles involving the seed-bud. In the latter case, where there are two sets of united filaments, one of the sets is composed of 9 stamens, which are united into a crooked cylinder, that is cleft on one side thro' its whole length: along this cleft lies the tenth filament or stamen, which constitutes the second set, and is often so closely attached to the second bundle, that it cannot be separated without some difficulty. The antherae are small, round, marked with four longitudinal furrows, and slightly attached to the filaments. In lupine, the antherae are alternately round and oblong. The seed-bud is fingle, placed upon the receptacle of the flower, oblong, cylindrical, slightly compressed, of the length of the cylinder of the united stamens by which it is involved, and sometimes elevated by a slender footstalk which issues from the centre of the calyx. The style is fingle, slender, and generally crooked or bent. The stigma is commonly covered with a beautiful down, and placed immediately under the antherae. The seed-vessel is that fort of pod termed a legumen, which is of an oblong figure, more or less compressed, with two valves, and one, two, or more cavities. These cavities are often separated, when ripe, by a fort of joints. The seeds are generally few in number, round, smooth, and fleshy. Jointed pods have generally a fingle seed in each articulation. The seeds are all fastened along one future, and not alternately to both, as in the other species of pod termed *filique*.—The plants of this family are, in general, mucilaginous. From the inner bark of most of them flows, either naturally or by incision, a clammy liquor, which dries and hardens like gum; the juice of others is sweet like sugar; some taste bitter, and are purgative, emetic, or even mortal. A species of eastern fragalus, with goats-rue leaves, is said to be remarkably caustic, and to burn the tongue excessively when chewed. In general, however, these plants are soft and clammy. With respect to their virtues, the plants of this order are highly emollient; some of them are vulnerary and astringent; and the root of anonis, or reft-harrow, is diuretic.

33. *Lomentaceae* (from *lomentum*, a colour used by painters). Many of these plants furnish beautiful tinctures, and some of them are much used in dyeing. They very much resemble the last order, differing only in the following particulars. 1. In all plants of this order, except milk-wort, the stamens are distinct. The flower is not shaped like a butterfly, but is less irregular, and frequently consists but of one petal. The leaves are sometimes simple, but most commonly winged. The seeds are generally marked with a circular furrow on both sides. Like those of the leguminous tribe, the plants of this order are generally mucilaginous. From the inner bark of the greater number exudes, either naturally or by incision, a mucilaginous liquor, which sometimes dries upon the plant, and becomes a gummy substance.

34. *Cucurbitaceae* (from *cucurbita* a gourd); consisting of plants which resemble the gourd in external figure, habit, virtues, and sensible qualities.—The plants of this order, which generally climb, and have long distended branches, are mostly herbaceous and perennial. The roots in the perennial plants of this order... der are shaped like those of the turnip; in the annuals, they are branching and fibrous. The stems are cylindric and succulent. The young branches have generally five corners. In some species of passion-flower they are square. The leaves are alternate, angular, and sometimes hand-shaped. They are attached to the branches by a footstalk, which is pretty long and cylindrical, without any furrow. From the wing or angle of each of the upper leaves proceeds a tendril, which is either simple, or branching, and twists itself spirally round the different bodies in its neighbourhood, for the purpose of supporting and training of the branches. The lower leaves have no tendril. The flowers are either hermaphrodite, or male and female. In this last, the male flowers are generally separated from the female upon the same root; and that either in the same wing or angle of the leaves, or in different angles. The flower-cup, in the female flowers, is placed upon the seed-bud; and generally consists of one bell-shaped leaf, that is deeply divided into five unequal segments, and, unlike the other plants which have the calyx seated upon the fruit, falls off with the petals and the other parts of the flower. The corolla consists of one petal, with five equal divisions, which adhere to the tube of the calyx, as if glued to it. A species of passion-flower, termed by Linnæus *passiflora foetida*, wants the petals.

The stamens are in number from one to five, short, and generally inserted into the calyx. The filaments are distinct; the anthers of many genera are united in a cylinder. In the passion-flower they are slightly attached to the filaments, on which they turn like a vane or the needle of a compass. The seed-bud is single, and placed below the receptacle of the flower. The style is generally single, cylindrical, of the length of the calyx, and crowned with a triple stigma. The seed-vessel is generally pulpy, of the apple or berry kind, and consists of one, two, or three cells. The seeds are numerous, generally flat or compressed, and sometimes covered with that kind of proper coat called by Linnæus *arillus*.—The fruit of these plants is generally purgative and refreshing; that of some of them proves a very violent emetic when used too freely.

35. *Senticosae* (from *sentis* a briar or bramble); consisting of the rose, bramble, and other plants which resemble them in form and external structure. These plants are so nearly allied in form, habit, and structure, to those of the natural order *Pomaceae*, that they ought never to have been separated from it. The leaves have a pungent taste; the fruits are acid and cooling. With respect to their virtues, the leaves are vulnerary and astringent, the roots are diuretic. The acid fruits, as strawberry and raspberry, are used with success in putrid and bilious fevers, as likewise in contagious and epidemic dysenteries, which prevail in summer and autumn, and are occasioned by a sudden transition from a hot to a cold air, or by the acrid humour which flows into the intestines.

36. *Pomaceae* (from *pomum* an apple); consisting of those which have a pulpy succulent fruit, of the apple, berry, or cherry kind. The plants of this order, which furnishes many of our most esteemed fruits, are mostly of the shrub and tree kind. The roots are branched, fibrous, and in the greater part very long. The stems and branches are cylindric. These last are placed alternate; and when young, are, in some genera, angular. The bark is thick and wrinkled. The buds are of a conic form, placed in the angles of the leaves, and covered with scales which lie over each other like tiles. The leaves, which differ in form, being in some genera simple, in others winged, are, in the greater number, placed alternate. The footstalk of the leaves is furrowed above, and frequently accompanied by a number of knobs like glands. Most of these plants are furnished with two stipules at the origin of the young footstalks of the leaves. These, in some genera, are pretty large; in others, they are so small as scarcely to be perceived; and in cocoa-plumb in particular, they by their minuteness resemble hairs. The flowers are universally hermaphrodite, except in *spirea aruncus*, in which male and female flowers are produced on distinct plants. In the greater number of genera they are produced in clusters or heads at the end of the branches. The calyx is of one piece, with five segments or divisions, which are permanent, and placed above the seed-bud in some; in the rest, they either fall off with the flower, or wither upon the stalk. The petals are five in number, and are inserted into the tube of the calyx. The stamens are generally 20 and upwards, and attached like the petals to the margin of the tube of the calyx. The anthers are short, and slightly attached to the filaments. The seed-bud is single; and in those genera which have the calyx permanent, it is placed below the receptacle of the flower. The seed-vessel is a pulpy fruit of the apple, berry, or cherry kind. Those of the apple kind are divided internally into a number of cavities or cells. The seeds are numerous.—The pulpy fruits of this order are acid, succulent, and of great efficacy in putrid and bilious fevers.

37. *Columniferae*, (from *columna* a pillar, and *fero* to bear); consisting of plants whose stamens and pistil have the appearance of a column or pillar in the centre of the flower. This order furnishes a choice collection of herbs both annual and perennial, shrubs, and trees. These are very different in size and height, from the creeping mallows, and low shrubby tea-tree, to the fleshy limes, and the more lofty silk-cotton trees, which by some modern writers are affirmed to be so large as not to be fathomed by 16 men, and so tall that an arrow cannot reach their top. The shrubs and trees of this order are deciduous, pretty thick, of a beautiful appearance, with an erect stem, which is formed by its branches and foliage into a round head. The roots are extremely long, branch but little, and either run perpendicularly downwards, or extend themselves horizontally below the surface. The stems are cylindric. The young branches, though commonly of the same figure, are sometimes angular. The bark is thick and pliant. The wood, in general, very soft and light. The buds are of a conic form, naked, or without scales; and situated either at the extremity of the branches, or in the angle formed by the branch and leaf. The leaves are alternate, simple, divided into several lobes, and frequently hand or finger shaped. The ribs or nerves on the back of the leaf, in some genera of this order, are provided near their origin with a number of hollow furrows or glands, which, being filled with a clammy honey-like liquor, have been considered as so many vessels of secretion. The footstalk of the leaves is cylindric, swelled at its origin, and appears jointed at its junction with the branch. The flowers are universally hermaphrodite, phrodite, except in *biggeleria*, and a species of Virginia marshmallow, called by Linnæus *napaea dioica*; the former of which bears male and female, the latter male and hermaphrodite, flowers on different roots. In many plants of this order, the flowers generally open about nine in the morning, and remain expanded till one in the afternoon. The flowers either terminate the branches, proceed from the angles of the leaves, or are disposed either singly or in a corymbus along the branches or stem. In most of these genera the calyx is single, but in others frequently double. In these last the inner calyx is always of one piece, generally divided into five segments; the outer consists either of one leaf, of three distinct leaves, or of many. The calyx, when single, is sometimes composed of one leaf which is permanent, or of several distinct leaves which are generally coloured, and fall off with the petals. In plants that have a double calyx, both flower-cups are generally permanent. The petals in this order are from four to nine; five is the prevailing number. The stamens, which are in number from 5 to 20 and upwards, are generally inserted into the common receptacle of the calyx, or into the pistillum or seed-bud. The filaments are either distinct, or united in a cylinder, which, proceeding from the receptacle of the calyx, surrounds the seed-bud, and attaches itself to the base of the petals, with which it slightly unites. The anthers are frequently roundish, and placed erect on the filament; most commonly, however, they are oblong or kidney-shaped, and slightly attached by the middle, or sides, to the filaments, on which they turn like a vane or needle. This tail is particularly the characteristic of all the mallow tribe. The seed-bud is generally roundish or conic; and sometimes, as in the tea-tree, angular. The seed-vessel is generally a capsule; sometimes a pulpy fruit of the berry or cherry kind. In some, it is a woody or membranous capsule, divided into as many cells internally as there were partitions in the seed-bud. The seeds are generally solitary, sometimes angular, and sometimes kidney-shaped.—These plants are mucilaginous and lubricating.

38. *Tricoccæ*, (from *tricus* three, and *œc* a grain); consisting of plants with a single three-cornered capsule, having three cells or internal divisions, each containing a single seed. The single seed-vessel of these plants is of a singular form, and resembles three capsules, which adhere to one common footstalk as a centre, but are divided externally into three pretty deep partitions. This family is not completely natural. It must be observed, however, that the character expressed in the title is a striking one; and that tho' the plants which possess it are not connected by such numerous relations as to form a true natural assemblage, yet they are by that circumstance distinguished from all other plants with as great, nay greater facility, than by any artificial character yet known. But all the genera of this order have not the striking character just mentioned.

39. *Siliqueæ*, (from *silique* a pod), consisting of plants which have a pod for their seed-vessel. This order chiefly furnishes biennial and perennial herbs of an irregular figure. The roots are long, branched, crooked, and fibrous. In some they are succulent and fleshy, in others jointed. The stems and young branches are cylindric. The leaves, which differ in point of form, being sometimes simple, sometimes winged, are generally placed alternate. The flowers are hermaphrodite, and in the greater number disposed in a spike at the extremity of the branches. The flower-cup is composed of four leaves, which are oblong, hollow, blunt, bunched at the base, and fall with the flower. These leaves are sometimes erect, and sometimes spread horizontally. The petals, which are four in number, spread at top, and are disposed like a cross: the claws or lower part of the petals are erect, flat, awl-shaped, and somewhat longer than the calyx. The upper part widens outwards. The stamens are fix in number; two of which are of the length of the calyx, and the remaining four somewhat longer, but shorter than the petals. The antherae are of an oblong figure, pointed, thicker at the base, and erect. Between the stamens, in plants of this order, are generally lodged one, two, or four, round greenish knots, which in some genera are so small as to elude the sight. These glands, called by Linnæus *glandulae nectariferæ*, and used very improperly by that author as an essential character in discriminating the genera, seem to be prominences of the receptacle of the flower, occasioned by the stamens being deeply lodged in its substance. The seed-bud is single, and stands upon the receptacle of the flower. The style, which is either cylindric or flat like a scale, is of the length of the four longer stamens in some genera; in others it is very short, or even wanting. It accompanies the seed-bud to its maturity. The stigma is blunt, and sometimes deeply divided into two parts. The seed-vessel is either a long pod, or a short and round one. Either sort has two valves or external openings, and in a great many genera the same number of internal cavities or cells, the partition of which projects at the top beyond the valves. The seeds are roundish, small, and attached alternately by a slender thread to both futures or joinings of the valves. These plants have a watery, sharp, laxial taste; and are charged with a fixed alkaline salt, which is drawn from them by burning, and being distilled without any addition produces a volatile alkali. Most of them have a stinking smell. With respect to their virtues, they are diuretic, attenuating, detergent, and antifurcorbic. These qualities, however, are most eminently possessed by the live plants; when dried, they either entirely disappear, or are greatly diminished. Applied externally, these plants are useful in diseases of the skin, as the itch, leprosy, &c.

40. *Peronaceæ*, (from *persona*, a masque); consisting of a number of plants whose flowers are furnished with an irregular, gaping, or grinning petal, in figure somewhat resembling the mouth of an animal. This order furnishes both herbaceous and woody vegetables of the shrub and tree kind. The roots are generally fibrous and branched. The stems and branches are cylindric when young, except in some species of figwort, in which they are square. The leaves are simple, generally placed opposite in pairs at the bottom of the branches, but in many genera stand alternate towards the top. The flowers are universally hermaphrodite; they proceed either singly or in clusters from the wings of the leaves, or terminate the branches in a spike, panicle, or head. The calyx is of one leaf, which is cut into two, three, four, or five segments, or divisions, that are permanent. The corolla is composed of one irregular petal, with two lips resembling, as was already observed, the head or snout of an animal. In some plants the stamens are two or four in number, and of an equal length; in others they are universally four in number, two of which are long, and two short. The seed-bud is single, and placed above the receptacle of the flower. The style is single; thread-shaped; bent in the direction of the stamens; and crowned with a stigma, which is generally blunt, and sometimes divided into two. The seed-vessel is a capsule, generally divided internally into two cavities or cells, and externally into the same number of valves or locules. The seeds are numerous, and affixed to a receptacle in the middle of the capsule.—These plants possess nearly the same qualities with the lip-flowers, though in a less degree. With respect to their virtues, many of them are aperient, anodyne, purgative, and even emetic. The internal use of many of them is extremely pernicious; applied externally, they are anodyne, and powerful resolvents.

41. Asperifolia, rough-leaved plants. The greatest part of these are herbaceous and perennial. The roots are branching and fibrous; the stems and branches rounded; the buds of a conic form, naked or without scales. The leaves are simple, alternate, commonly very rough to the touch, and in most of the herbaceous plants sessile or attached to the stem and branches without any foot-stalk. In the few trees, however, of this order, the leaves have a foot-stalk, the lower part of which, after the fall of the leaves, remains like a spine or thorn. The hairs are simple, and generally very rough to the touch. The flowers are in some genera solitary; but commonly collected into a spike or corymbus. They do not proceed from the angle formed by the stem or branch with the leaf, as in many plants; but from the side of the leaf, or from that part of the stem which is opposite to the leaf. They are almost universally hermaphrodite: in a few species of cordia, male and female flowers are produced upon different roots. The calyx is composed of one leaf, which is divided from three to ten equal or unequal parts. Those with four naked seeds have the calyx deeply divided into five parts which are permanent. The corolla is monopetalous, or composed of one petal, which in different plants is bell, funnel, salver, and wheel shaped. The divisions of the limb or upper part of the petal are generally five, alternate with those of the calyx; equal and regular, except in echium. The stamens are five in number, alternate with the divisions of the corolla. They are equal, attached to the tube of the corolla a little above its origin, and of the same height. The antherae are in some genera connivent; that is, approach, and form a compact body above the filaments. The pistillum is generally composed of a slender style of the same length with the stamens, and crowned with a simple stigma. It proceeds from a germen or seed-bud, which in some plants is undivided, but generally split into four. The seeds are generally four in number, and lodged in the bottom of the calyx.—Most of the rough-leaved plants are used in medicine: the flowers are esteemed cordial, the leaves and roots vulnerary and astringent; and the hard bony seeds are reckoned powerful promoters of urine. Externally, these plants are used for burnings and poisonous bites; they extirpate warts, and relieve disorders of the joints.

42. Verticillata, consisting of herbaceous vegetables, having four naked seeds, and the flowers placed in whorls round the stalk. The roots are branched and fibrous. The stems are round when old, but square when young; as are likewise the young branches, which stand opposite. The leaves are opposite, and in the greater number covered with transparent points. Those which are placed next the flower, generally differ from the stem-leaves. In the greater number of plants of this kind, the leaves are supported upon a long cylindrical foot-stalk that is furrowed above. The flowers are universally hermaphrodite, except in a species of thyme mentioned by Mr Adanson, which appears to have male or barren flowers on one root, and female or fertile flowers on the other. They are disposed round the stem in whorls or small heads with short foot-stalks. The calyx is of one piece, that is generally cut into five unequal divisions, whose disposition sometimes represents two lips; the uppermost of which has commonly a less number of divisions: it accompanies the seeds, which it nourishes in its bosom, to their maturity. The petal is of the gaping or lip kind, and in the different genera is more or less irregular or unequal, either in its tube, or in the divisions of the lips; the number of which varies from two to five. These divisions frequently form two lips; of which the uppermost, termed the crest and the helmet, is sometimes entire, sometimes more or less deeply cut into two; the lowermost, termed the beard, generally into three. The stamens are two or four in number. In the greater part there are four stamens of unequal length, two of them being long, and two short. These four unequal stamens are frequently dissimilar, and approach by pairs; they are inclined towards the back of the petal, and parallel; the two innermost being shortest, and attached somewhat lower than the two others to the tube of the flower. The seed-bud, which consists of four distinct ovaries, is placed upon the seat of the flower, and elevates from their centre a common style, which is slender, bent in the same manner as the filaments, which it somewhat exceeds in length, and terminated by a double stigma or summit, the divisions of which are unequal, and turned backwards. The seed-vessel in this order is wanting. The seeds are four in number, and lodged in the bottom of the calyx as in a matrix or seed-vessel. Each seed has two covers; the one external, of a cartilaginous or leathery substance; the other internal, membranaceous, of a very fine texture, and placed immediately above the radicle or embryo plant.—The plants of this order are fragrant, warm, penetrating, and accounted cordial and cephalic. Their chief virtue resides in the leaves.

43. Dumas, (from dumas a bush); consisting of a number of shrubby plants, which are thick set with irregular branches, and bushy. The plants of this order are all of the shrub and tree kind, thick and bushy, rising from 6 to 25, 30, and even 40 feet high. Many of them too, as bastard jalaternus, holly, iron-wood, New-Jersey-tea, star-apple, viburnum, winter-berry, and some others, retain their beautiful leaves during the whole year. The roots are branched and fibrous. The stems are cylindric; the young branches sometimes angular. The buds are naked, that is, without scales, in the evergreen shrubs of this order; covered with scales in most of the others. The leaves, which in some genera are simple, in others compound, are placed alternate. ternate in some, and opposite in others. The flowers are mostly hermaphrodite. They proceed from the wings of the leaves either singly or in clusters; or they terminate the stem in that fort of flowering head called a corymbus. The calyx is generally very small, placed below or around the seed-bud; and consists of one leaf, with four, five, or six divisions, which are permanent. The rhamnus has no calyx. The petals are in number from one to five. The stamens are either four, five, six, or ten. The seed-bud is generally roundish, and placed within the flower. The style is commonly single, and sometimes wanting. The stigma is either single or triple. The seed-vessel is generally a berry, sometimes a dry capsule; the seeds are generally single and egg-shaped. The berries, bark, and flowers of many of these plants are purgative, and act particularly on the lymph and bile.

44. Sepiaria, (from sepia a hedge), consisting of a beautiful collection of woody plants, some of which from their size, elegance, and other circumstances, are very proper furniture for hedges. This order furnishes woody plants both of the shrub and tree kind, most of which do not drop their leaves till nearly the time when the new leaves begin to appear.

45. Umbellata, (from umbella an umbel); consisting of plants whose flowers grow in umbels, with five petals that are often unequal, and two naked seeds that are joined at top and separated below. These plants are herbaceous, and chiefly perennial. The roots are either tuberous or spindle-shaped, and sometimes forked. The stems are cylindric, full of pitch, and frequently hollow. The branches are alternate. The leaves, which like the branches are put on alternately, are very different in point of form; being simple and entire in some; target-shaped, in a species of nettle-wort; finger or hand shaped, in some others; and winged or pinnated with numerous minute divisions, as in the greater number. They are supported by a foot-stalk, which is very broad and membranous at its origin, and commonly embraces the whole contour of the stem and branches. The flowers are in general hermaphrodite. There are, however, some that have male or barren flowers in the same umbel. This is particularly the case with those umbelliferous plants which have the petals in the flowers of the circumference large and unequal. In these plants the flowers in the circumference only prove fertile; those in the centre, orifice, proving abortive. Oenanthe and imperatoria, on the contrary, have the flowers in the circumference abortive. In ginseng, hermaphrodite and male flowers are produced upon distinct plants. The flowers are disposed in an umbel, which is either simple or compound. The common calyx in this order is that fort termed very improperly by Linnaeus involucrum, or the flower-cover; which in the greater number consists of one or more leaves placed under the partial or universal umbel, or both, for the purpose of support. The presence or absence of one or both of these covers affords excellent marks in discriminating the genera of this very similar order of plants. The proper calyx of each flower, in the aggregate, consists of five minute indentments placed upon the seed-bud, which it envelops, and accompanies to its maturity. The petals are five in number, and disposed upon the sides of the flower-cup in form of a rose. In the florets of the centre, the petals are generally pretty equal and small; in those of the circumference, they are frequently unequal and larger; in the greater number, they are heart-shaped, and cut almost to the middle in two. The stamens are five in number, placed opposite to the divisions of the flower-cup, and alternate with the petals. The seed-bud is universally placed under the seat of the flower, and supports two styles which are turned backwards, and crowned with simple summits which do not differ in appearance from the styles. The seed-vessel in this order is wanting. The seeds are two in number, which, when ripe, separate below, but remain closely attached at top. The plants of this order, which grow in dry places, are sudorific, stomachic, and warming. Their virtue resides chiefly in the seeds and leaves. Those which grow in marshy places are generally poisonous; but, notwithstanding the extremely warm and even caustic quality of most of these plants, many of them are employed in the kitchen, and in the economy of domestic affairs.

46. Hederaeae, (from hedera ivy), consisting of ivy and a few other genera that seem nearly allied to it. This order furnishes both herbaceous and shrubby plants; most of which, particularly ivy and vine, have creeping branches, which attach themselves by roots or tendrils to the bodies in their neighbourhood. The roots are long, with few branches. The stems and young branches are cylindric. In some species of vine they are square. The leaves are alternate; sometimes simple, sometimes winged, in which the surface of the leaves is covered with points. The foot-stalk of the leaves is cylindrical, and without any furrow. The buds are of a conic form, and without any scales. The flowers are either hermaphrodite, male and female upon different roots, or hermaphrodite and male upon different roots. In some, they terminate the branches in an umbel; in others, they proceed in clusters from the side opposite to the leaves; and in some, they are produced along the branches. The calyx consists of one leaf divided into five parts, which are small and generally permanent. The petals in this order are generally five. The stamens are in number five; awl-shaped, erect, and generally of the length of the petals. Cilus has only four filaments, which are inserted into the nectarium, a sort of border surrounding the seed-bud. The anthers are roundish, and sometimes, as in ivy, attached to the filaments by the sides. The seed-bud is sometimes round, sometimes shaped like a top or pear, and ends in one, two, or five awl-shaped styles, which are crowned with a simple stigma. The flowers of the vine have no style. The seed-vessel is of the berry kind, with one, two, or five styles. The seeds are from one to five in number; placed either in distinct cells, or dispersed through the pulp without any partition.

47. Stellatae, (from stella a star); consisting of plants with two naked seeds, and leaves disposed round the stem in form of a radiant star. This order contains herbs, shrubs, and trees. The herbs, which are most numerous, are chiefly annual, and creep along the surface of the ground. The shrubs and trees are mostly evergreens, which rise erect, and are of an agreeable conic form.—These plants are opening; some of their seeds, particularly those of coffee, are bitter and cordial; some of them are used in dyeing, and others in medicine. 48. Aggregata, (from aggregare, to assemble or collect); comprehending those plants which have aggregate flowers, consisting of a number of florets or small flowers, each of which have a proper and common calyx.

49. Compositae, consisting of plants with compound flowers. In this order Linnæus has constructed his first or primary divisions from the different sexes of the florets, which he terms polygamy; the subaltern divisions are constructed from the figure of the petals, the disposition of the flowers, the pappus or crown of the seed, the common receptacle, and other circumstances which characterize the subaltern divisions in other authors.

50. Amentaceæ, (from amentum a catkin), plants bearing catkins; as fælix, populus, platanus, &c.

51. Coniferae, (from conus a cone, and fere to bear); consisting of plants, whose female flowers, placed at a distance from the male, either on the same or distinct roots, are formed into a cone. In this character, the only one expressed in the title, the plants in question seem to be nearly allied to the family of mosses; from which, however, they are easily distinguished by their habit, as well as by the structure of the small flowers, in which the stamens are united below into a cylinder, and distinct at top. The plants of this order are mostly of the shrub and tree kind, and retain their leaves all the year. The form of these plants is generally conic, and extremely beautiful, from the disposition of the branches, which cover the stems even to the roots, extending themselves horizontally and circularly like so many rays. The height of some genera of this order does not exceed half a foot, that of others approaches to a hundred. The roots are short, branching, not very fibrous, and extend horizontally. The stems and branches are cylindric. The bark is thin, and split into slender scales. The wood, except that of the yew-tree, possesses little hardness. The buds are of a conic form, and naked, or without scales. The leaves are entire, small, and thick, frequently triangular, and generally pointed. Juniper has a prickly and thorny leaf. With respect to situation, they admit of great variety, being either alternate, opposite, placed in whorls round the stem, or collected into small bundles which proceed from a single point. They are placed on the branches without any sensible footstalk. The flowers in this order are universally male and female. In some genera, the male flowers are collected into a spike or cone at the end of the branches; in others, they proceed singly from the wings of the leaves, or termination of the branches. The female flowers are generally collected into a cone; but in yew-tree and shrubby horsetail they are single, and terminate the branches. The calyx of the male flowers is a catkin; of the female, a cone. The petals of this order are wanting; except in the female flowers of juniper, which have three sharp, rigid, and permanent petals. The stamens are in number from 3 to 20 and upwards; united by their filaments into a cylinder or pillar, which rises out of the centre of the calyx. The anthers are erect, distinct, of a roundish form, and divided into internal partitions or cells, which, in the different genera, are in number from two to ten. The seed-buds are generally numerous, and placed betwixt the scales of the cone, which serve for a calyx. From each seed-bud arises a very short cylindrical style, crowned with a simple stigma, of a conic form. These plants have probably no seed-vessel or fruit; the seeds being naked, and involved only by the scales of the calyx. In some genera, these scales are of a bony nature, and almost united; in others, they are of a substance like leather; in juniper, they are united, and become fleshy and succulent like a berry. The seeds in this order, being nourished, as in a seed-vessel, by the scales of the cone, or common calyx, differ in nothing from the germina or seed-buds.—Most of the cone-bearing plants are resinous, or gummy; and the gums proceeding from them have a bitter taste, but generally a very agreeable smell.

52. Coadunatae, (from coadunare, to join or gather together); so termed from the general appearance of the seed-vessels, which are numerous, and, being slightly attached below, form all together a single fruit in the shape of a sphere or cone; the parts of which, however, are easily separated from one another. This order, which consists of exotic plants, furnishes a beautiful and choice collection of shrubs and trees, both evergreen and deciduous. The trees are often 60 feet high, and garnished from the bottom to the top with spreading branches and leaves of a bright green colour, which assume a very agreeable conic form. The roots are branching and fibrous. The stems are cylindric, and the wood very hard. The buds are conic, flat, and generally without scales. The leaves are universally simple and alternate. The footstalk is cylindric, without furrows, frequently swelled at its origin, and appears jointed at its insertion into the branch. The flowers are hermaphrodite, and are generally produced either along or at the end of the branches. The calyx generally consists of three oblong plain leaves, like petals, which fall off with the flower. The petals are in number from 6 to 18, oblong, concave, and frequently disposed in two or three series or rows, the outermost of which are largest. The stamens are numerous, short, and inserted into the common receptacle in some, and into the seed-bud in others. The filaments are very short and slender, some genera having scarce any at all. The anthers are numerous, slender, and placed round the seed-bud. The pistillum generally consists of a number of seed-buds disposed in the form of a cone, and seated upon a receptacle which rises like a small pillar above the receptacle of the calyx. From each seed-bud generally arises a cylindric style, which is very short. The stigma is commonly blunt. The seed-vessel is commonly a berry; but in magnolia it is an oval cone, consisting of a number of roundish capsules laid over each other like tiles. The fruits, or seed-vessels, whether of the berry, capsule, or cherry kind, are equal in number to the seed-buds, and generally slightly attached below. The seeds are numerous, hard, roundish, and sometimes cornered. The plants of this order have a strong, agreeable, and aromatic smell; the fruits and seeds have a pungent taste like pepper; the bark and wood are bitter.

53. Scabridæ, (from scaber rough, rugged, or brilly), consisting of plants with rough leaves. There seems to be some impropriety in characterizing these plants by a name expressive of the roughness of their leaves, as that circumstance had previously furnished the classic character of the Asperfolia. The degree of roughness, however, is much greater in the plants which make the subject of the present article.—The plants of this order are in general of an astringent nature; their taste is is bitter and acrid.

54. Miscellaneous, miscellaneous plants. This order consists of such genera as are not connected together by very numerous relations. They are, datifera, poterium, refeda, sanguisorba, lenna, pittia, coriaria, empetrum, achyranthes, amaranthus, celosia, gomphrena, irifine, phytolacca, nymphea, farracenia, cedrela, swietenia, corrigiola, limeum, telephium.

55. Filices, ferns; consisting of plants which bear their flower and fruit on the back of the leaf or stalk. These plants, in figure, approach the more perfect vegetables; being furnished, like them, with roots and leaves. The roots creep, and extend themselves horizontally under the earth, throwing out a number of very slender fibres on all sides. The stem is not to be distinguished from the common footstalk, or rather middle rib of the leaves: so that in strict propriety the greater number of ferns may be said to be aculeata; that is, to want the stem altogether. In some of them, however, the middle rib, or a stalk proceeding from the root, overtops the leaves, and forms a stem upon which the flowers are supported. The leaves proceed either singly, or in greater numbers from the extremities of the branches of the main root. They are winged or hand-shaped in all the genera, except in adders-tongue, pepper-grass, and some species of spleen-wort. The flowers, whatever be their nature, are, in the greater number of genera, fastened, and as it were glued, to the back of the leaves; in others, they are supported upon a stem which rises above the leaves; but in some, are supported on a flower-stalk, as already mentioned. The stamens are placed apart from the seed-bud in a genus termed by Mr Adanson palma filix: in the other ferns, where we have been able to discover the stamens, they are found within the same covers with the seed-bud. Most of the ferns have a heavy disagreeable smell: as to their virtues, they are opening and attenuating.

56. Musci, mosses. These plants resemble the pines, firs, and other evergreens of that class, in the form and disposition of their leaves, and manner of growth of the female flowers, which are generally formed into a cone. They frequently creep, and extend themselves like a carpet upon the ground, trees, and stones, being generally collected into bunches and tufts; the smallest are only one third of an inch in height, and the largest do not exceed five or six. Few of the mosses are annual; small as they are, the greater number are perennial and evergreens. Their growth is remarkably slow, as may be judged by the time that the antherae take to ripen. This, reckoning from the first appearance of the antherae, to the dispersion of its powder or male dust, is generally four or six months. Although preferred dry for several years, these plants have the singular property of resuming their original verdure, upon being moistened. It would be worth while to determine whether they do not also resume their vegetative quality. The roots of plants of this order are fibrous, slender, branched, and short. The stems are cylindric and weak, as are also the branches; they creep upon the ground, and strike root on every side. The leaves are very small and undivided. They differ with respect to situation; being either alternate, opposite, or placed by fours round the stalk. They have no perceptible footstalk nor middle rib, and are seated immediately upon the stem. The flowers are universally male and female; in some, the male flowers are produced upon the same plants with the female, and stand before them; in others, they are produced sometimes on the same, and sometimes on distinct plants. The male flowers consist entirely of antherae, and their covering; proceed either singly, or in clusters, from the extremity of the branches, or angles of the leaves; and are either seated immediately upon the branches, or supported by a long footstalk. The female flowers, which generally resemble capsules or cones, are all placed immediately upon the stem or branches, without any footstalk; and proceed singly, either from the wings of the leaves, or summit of the branches; when produced upon the same plant with the male, they are always placed under them. The female cones of the mosses greatly resemble those of the pines, and evergreen trees of that class; the scales which form them are true leaves, each containing in its wing or angle a single seed. When the seeds are ripe, the cones probably open for their dispersion. When shut, they resemble buds, and have sometimes been ignorantly mistaken for such. The calyx, in this order, if it can be called such, is that appearance resembling a veil or monk's cowl, which in the male flowers covers or is suspended over the tops of the stamens like an extinguisher, and is termed by Linnæus calyptra. The petals are universally wanting. The mosses in general are almost tasteless, have few juices, and being once dried do not readily imbibe moisture from the air. Those which grow in water, being thrown into the fire, grow red, and are reduced to ashes without receiving or communicating any flame; on which account some superstitious people, the Siberians in particular, place water moss in their chimneys as a preservative against fire. Most of the mosses are purgative; some violently so, and even emetic. They are all of wonderful efficacy in preserving dry such bodies as are susceptible of moisture; and in retaining, for a long time, the humidity of young plants without exposing them to putrefaction. For this reason, such plants as are to be sent to any considerable distance, are generally wrapped up in them.

57. Algæ, flags; consisting of plants whose root, leaf, and stem, are all one. Under this description are comprehended all the sea-weeds, and some other aquatic plants.

58. Fungi, mushrooms. These plants are rarely branched, sometimes creeping, but most commonly erect. Such as are furnished with branches have them of a light spongy substance like cork. Mushrooms differ from the fuci, in that those which, like the fuci, have their seeds contained in capsules, are not branched, as that numerous class of sea-weeds are. The greatest part of mushrooms have no root; some, instead of roots, have a number of fibres, which, by their incrustations, frequently form a net with unequal meshes, some of which produce plants similar to their parent vegetable. The stamens in these plants are still undetermined. The seeds are spread over the surface of the plant, or placed in open holes or cavities, resembling the open capsules of some of the fuci. In mushrooms which are branched, the seeds are frequently visible by the naked eye, and always to be distinctly observed by the assistance of a good microscope. These plants are very astringent, and some of them are used for stopping violent hemorrhages. As a vegetable food, they are at best suspicious; some of them are rank poison.

59. Dubii ordinis. Under this name Linnæus classes all the other genera which cannot be reduced to any of the abovementioned orders, and which are near 120 in number.—In the following Table, the number placed at the end of each generic description points out the natural order to which the genus belongs.