or CRAW-FISH. See CANCER.

CRAYON-Painting.

PASTILS, or CRAYONS, are compositions of colours, which are reduced to the texture of chalk, and used dry in the form and manner of pencils, for painting on paper. Whether the painter works with oil-colours, watercolours, or crayons, the grand object of his pursuit is still the same: a just imitation of nature. But each species has its peculiar rules and methods.—Painting with crayons requires in many respects a treatment different from painting in oil-colours; because all colours used dry are, in their nature, of a much warmer complexion than when wet with oils, &c. For this reason, in order to produce a rich picture, a much greater portion of what painters term cooling teints must be applied in crayon-painting, than would be judicious to use in oils. Without any danger of a mistake, it is to be supposed, the not being acquainted with this observation is one great cause why so many oil-painters have no better success when they attempt crayon-painting. On the contrary, crayon-painters being so much used to those teints, which are of a cold nature when used wet, are apt to introduce them too much when they paint with oils, which is seldom productive of a good effect.

We shall now endeavour to give the student some directions towards the attainment of excellence in this art.

Sect. I. Of the Application of the Crayons, with some previous Dispositions.

The student must provide himself with some strong blue paper, the thicker the better, if the grain is not too coarse and knotty, though it is almost impossible to get any entirely free from knots. The knots should be levelled with a penknife or razor, otherwise they will prove exceedingly troublesome. After this is done, the paper must be pasted very smooth on a linen cloth, previously strained on a deal frame, the size according to the artist's pleasure: on this the picture is to be executed; but it is most eligible not to paste the paper on till the whole subject is first dead-coloured. The method of doing this is very easy, by laying the paper with the dead-colour on its face, upon a smooth board or table, when, by means of a brush, the backside of the paper must be covered with paste; the frame, with the strained cloth, must then be laid on the pasted side of the paper, after which turn the painted side uppermost, and lay a piece of clean paper upon it, to prevent smearing it; this being done, it may be stroked gently over with the hand; by which means all the air between the cloth and the paper will be forced out.

When the paste is perfectly dry, the student may proceed with the painting. The advantages arising from pasting the paper on the frame according to this method, after the picture is begun, are very great, as the crayons will adhere much better than any other way, which will enable the student to finish the picture with a firmer body of colour, and greater lustre.

When painters want to make a very correct copy of a picture, they generally make use of tiffany or black gauze, strained tight on a frame, which they lay flat on the subject to be imitated, and with a piece of sketching chalk, trace all the outlines on the tiffany. They then lay the canvas to be painted on, flat upon the floor, placing the tiffany with the chalked lines upon it, and with an handkerchief brush the whole over; this presents the exact outlines of the picture on the canvas. The crayon-painter may also make use of this method, when the subject of his imitation is in oils; but in copying a crayon-picture, he must have recourse to the following method, on account of the glaze.

The picture being placed upon the easel, let the outlines be drawn on the glaze with a small camel's hair pencil dipped in lake, ground thin with oils, which must be done with great exactness. After this is accomplished, take a sheet of paper of the same size and place it on the glaze, stroking over all the lines with the hand, by which means the colour will adhere to the paper, which must be pierced with pin-holes pretty close to each other. The paper intended to be used for the painting must next be laid upon a table, and the pierced paper placed upon it; then with some fine-powdered charcoal, tied up in a piece of lawn, rub over the pierced lines, which will give an exact outline; but great care must be taken not to brush this off till the whole is drawn over with sketching chalk, which is a composition made of whiting and tobacco-pipe clay, rolled like the crayons, and pointed at each end.

When a student paints immediately from the life, it will be most prudent to make a correct drawing of the outlines on another paper, the size of the picture he is going to paint, which he may trace by the preceding method, because erroneous strokes of the sketching chalk (which are not to be avoided without great expertness) will prevent the crayons from adhering to the paper, owing to a certain greasy quality in the composition.

The student will find the sitting posture, with the box of crayons in his lap, the most convenient method for him to paint. The part of the picture he is immediately painting should be rather below his face; for, if it is placed too high, the arm will be fatigued. Let the windows of the room where he paints be darkened, at least to the height of six feet from the ground; and the subject to be painted should be situated in such a manner, that the light may fall with every advantage on the face, avoiding too much shadow, which seldom has a good effect in portrait painting, especially if the face he paints from has any degree of delicacy.

Before he begins to paint, let him be attentive to his subject, and appropriate the action or attitude proper to the age of the subject: if a child, let it be childish; if a young lady, express more vivacity than in the majestic beauty of a middle-aged woman, who also should not be expressed with the same gravity as a person far advanced in years. Let the embellishments of the picture, and introduction of birds, animals, &c., be regulated by the rules of propriety and consistency.

The features of the face being correctly drawn with chalks, let the student take a crayon of pure carmine, and carefully draw the nostril and edge of the nose, next the shadow, then, with the faintest carmine teint, lay in the highest light upon the nose and forehead, which must be executed broad. He is then to proceed gradually with the second teint, and the succeeding ones, till he arrives at the shadows, which must be covered brilliant, enriched with much lake, carmine, and and deep green. This method will at first offensively strike the eye, from its crude appearance; but, in the finishing, it will be a good foundation to produce a pleasing effect, colours being much more easily filled when too bright, than when the first colouring is dull, to raise the picture into a brilliant state. The several pearly teints discernible in fine complections must be imitated with blue verditer and white, which answers to the ultramarine teints used in oils. But if the parts of the face where these teints appear are in shadow, the crayons composed of black and white must be substituted in their place.

Though all the face when first coloured should be laid as brilliant as possible, yet each part should be kept in its proper tone; by which means the roundness of the face will be preserved.

Let the student be careful when he begins the eyes to draw them with a crayon inclined to the carmine teint, of whatever colour the irises are of; he must lay them in brilliant, and at first not loaded with colour, but executed lightly: no notice is to be taken of the pupil yet. The student must let the light of the eye incline very much to the blue cast, cautiously avoiding a glaring white appearance, (which, when once introduced, is seldom overcome), preserving a broad shadow thrown on its upper part, by the eyelash. A black and heavy teint is also to be avoided in the eye-brows; it is therefore best to execute them like a broad glowing shadow at first, on which, in the finishing, the hairs of the brow are to be painted; by which method of proceeding, the former teints will flew themselves through, and produce the most pleasing effect.

The student should begin the lips with pure carmine and lake, and in the shadow use some carmine and black; the strong vermilion teints should be laid on afterwards. He must beware of executing them with stiff, harsh lines, gently intermixing each with the neighbouring colours, making the shadow beneath broad, and enriched with brilliant crayons. He must form the corner of the mouth with carmine, brown oker, and greens, variously intermixed. If the hair is dark, he should preserve much of the lake and deep carmine teints therein; this may easily be overpowering by the warmer hair teints, which, as observed in painting the eye-brows, will produce a richer effect when the picture is finished; on the contrary, if this method is unknown or neglected, a poverty of colouring will be discernible.

After the student has covered over, or as artists term it, has dead-coloured the head, he is to sweeten the whole together, by rubbing it over with his finger, beginning at the strongest light upon the forehead, passing his finger very lightly, and uniting it with the next teint, which he must continue till the whole is sweetened together, often wiping his finger on a towel to prevent the colours being filled. He must be cautious not to smooth or sweeten his picture too often, because it will give rise to a thin and scanty effect, and have more the appearance of a drawing than a solid painting; as nothing but a body of rich colours can constitute a rich effect. To avoid this, (as the student finds it necessary to sweeten with the finger), he must continually replenish the picture with more crayon.

When the head is brought to some degree of forwardness, let the back-ground be laid in, which must be treated in a different manner, covering it as thin as possible, and rubbing it into paper with a leather-stump. Near the face the paper should be almost free from colour, for this will do great service to the head, and by its thinness, give both a soft and solid appearance. In the back-ground also, no crayon that has whitening in its composition should be used, but chiefly such as are the most brilliant, and the least adulterated. The ground being painted thin next the hair, will give the student an opportunity of painting the edges of the hair over in a light and free manner, when he gives the finishing touches.

The student having proceeded thus far, the face, hair, and back-ground being entirely covered, he must carefully view the whole at some distance, remarking in what respect it is out of keeping, that is, what parts are too light, and what too dark, being particularly attentive to the white or chalky appearances, which must be subdued with lake and carmine. The above method being properly put into execution, will produce the appearance of a painting principally composed of three colours, viz. carmine, black, and white, which is the best preparation a painter can make for producing a fine crayon-picture.

The next step, is to complete the back-ground and the hair, as the dust, in painting these, will fall on the face, and would much injure it if that was completed first. From thence proceed to the forehead, finishing downward till the whole picture is completed.

In painting over the forehead the last time, begin the highest light with the most faint vermilion teint, in the same place where the faint carmine was first laid, keeping it broad in the same manner. In the next shade succeeding the lightest, the student must work in some light blue teints, composed of verditer and white, intermixing with them some of the deeper vermilion teints, sweetening them together with great caution*, insensibly melting them into one another, increasing the proportion of each colour as his judgment shall direct. Some brilliant yellows may also be used, but sparingly; and towards the roots of the hair, strong verditer teints, intermixed with greens, will be of singular service. Cooling crayons, composed of black and white, should succeed these, and melt into the hair. Beneath the eyes, the sweet, pearly teints are to be preserved, composed of verditer and white, and under the nose, and on the temples, the same may be used; beneath the lips, teints of this kind also are proper, mixing them with the light greens and some vermilion.

In finishing the cheeks, let the pure lake clear them from any dust contracted from the other crayons; then, with the lake may be intermixed the bright vermilion; and last of all, (if the subject should require it), a few touches of the orange-coloured crayon, but with extreme caution; after this, sweeten that part with the finger as little as possible, for fear of producing a heavy, disagreeable effect on the cheeks: as the beauty of a crayon-picture consists in

* This direction is for the finest complections, but the student must vary his colouring according to his subject. one colour flowing itself through, or rather between another; this the student cannot too often remark, it being the only method of imitating beautiful comple-

The eye is the most difficult feature to execute in crayons, as every part must be expressed with the utmost nicety, to appear finished; at the same time that the painter must preserve its breadth and solidity while he is particularizing the parts. To accomplish this, it will be a good general rule for the student to use his crayon in sweetening as much, and his finger as little as possible. When he wants a point to touch a small part with, he may break off a little of his crayon against the box, which will produce a corner fit to work with in the minutest parts. If the eye-lashes are dark, he must use some of the carmine and brown ocher, and the crayon of carmine and black; and with these he may also touch their iris of the eye (if brown or hazel), making a broad shadow, caused by the eye-lash. Red teints of vermillion, carmine, and lake, will execute the corners of the eye properly; but if the eye-lids are too red, they will have a disagreeable, sore appearance. The pupil of the eye must be made of pure lamp-black; between this and the lower part of the iris, the light will catch very strong, but it must not be made too sudden, but be gently diffused round the pupil till it is lost in shade. When the eye-balls are sufficiently prepared, the shining speck must be made with a pure white crayon, which should be first broken to a point, and then laid on firm; but as it is possible they may be defective in neatness, they should be corrected with a pin, taking off the redundant parts, by which means they may be formed as neat as can be required.

The difficulty, with respect to the nose, is to preserve the lines properly determined, and at the same time so artfully blended into the cheek, as to express its projection, and yet no real line to be perceptible upon a close examination; in some circumstances it should be quite blended with the cheek, which appears behind it, and determined entirely with a slight touch of red chalk. The shadow caused by the nose is generally the darkest in the whole face, partaking of no reflection from its surrounding parts. Carmine and brown ocher, carmine and black, and such brilliant crayons will compose it best.

The student having before prepared the lips with the strongest lake and carmine, &c., must, with these colours, make them completely correct; and, when finishing, introduce the strong vermillions, but with great caution, as they are extremely predominant. This, if properly touched, will give the lips an appearance equal, if not superior, to those executed in oils, notwithstanding the seeming superiority the latter has, by means of glazing*, of which the former is entirely destitute.

When the student paints the neck, he should avoid expressing the muscles too strong in the sternum, nor should the bones appear too evident on the chest, as both have an unpleasing effect, denoting a violent agitation of the body, a circumstance seldom necessary to express in portrait-painting. The most necessary part to be expressed, and which should ever be observed,

* The method with which painters in oils express transparency in the lips is, by painting them first with light vermilion teints, and, when dry, touching them over with pure lake.

(even in the most delicate subjects), is a strong marking just above the place where the collar bones unite; and if the head is much thrown over the shoulders, some notice should be taken of the large muscle that rises from behind the ear, and is inserted into the pit between the collar bones. All inferior muscles should be, in general, quite avoided. The student will find this caution necessary, as most subjects, especially thin persons, have the muscles of the neck much more evident than would be judicious to imitate. As few necks are too long, it may be necessary to give some addition to the sternum, a fault on the other side being quite unpardonable, nothing being more ungraceful than a short neck.

In colouring the neck, let the student preserve the stem of a pearly hue, and the light not so strong as on the chest. If any part of the breast appears, its transparency must also be expressed by pearly teints; but the upper part of the chest should be coloured with beautiful vermillions delicately blended with the other.

Sect. II. Of the Drapery.

Dark blue, purple, black, pink, and all kinds of red draperies also, should be first tinged with carmine, which will render the colours much more brilliant than any other method; over this should be laid on the paper, the middle teint, (a medium between the light and dark teints, of which the drapery is to be painted), except the dark masses of shadow, which should be laid on at first as deep as possible; these, sweetened with the finger, being destitute of the smaller folds, will exhibit a masterly breadth, which the lesser folds, when added, ought by no means to destroy. With the light and dark teints, the smaller parts are next to be made with freedom, executing, as much with the crayon, and as little with the finger as possible, in each fold touching the last stroke with the crayon, which stroke the finger must never touch. In the case of reflections, the simple touch of the crayon will be too harsh, therefore, fingering will be necessary afterwards, as reflected lights are always more gentle than those which are direct. With respect to reflections in general, they must always partake of the same colour as the object reflecting, but in the case of single figures, it may be useful to make some particular observations.

In a blue drapery, let the reflections be of a greenish cast; in green draperies, make them of a yellow teint; in yellow, of an orange; in orange, reflect a reddish cast; in all reds, something of their own nature, but inclined to the yellow; black should have a reddish reflection; the reflection of a reddish teint will also present purples to the best advantage.

Of whatever colour the drapery is, the reflection on the face must partake thereof, otherwise the picture, like paintings on glass, will have but a gaudy effect.

Linen, lace, fur, &c., should be touched spiritedly with the crayon, fingering very little, except the latter; and the last touches, even of this, like all other parts, should be executed by the crayon, without sweetening with the finger.

The methods above recommended, have been practiced by the most celebrated crayon-painters, whose works works have been held in public estimation; but the knowledge of, and ability to execute each separate part with brilliancy and truth, will be found very insufficient to constitute a complete painter, without his judgment enables him to unite them with each other, by correctness of drawing, propriety of light and shadow, and harmony of colouring. In order to accomplish this, the student should carefully avoid finishing one part in particular, till he has properly considered the connection it is to have with the rest. The neglect of this is the principal reason why the performances of indifferent painters are so destitute of what is termed breadth, so conspicuously beautiful in the works of great masters. It must be granted, that this observation relates more particularly to large compositions, where a diversity of figures requires such a judicious disposition, that each may assist in the combination of a kind of universal harmony; yet, even in portrait-painting, the student should be particularly attentive to observe this idea of breadth, if he is desirous of acquiring that importance and dignity which constitutes excellence in painting.

Sect. III. Of the Materials.

The perfection of the crayons consists, in a great measure, in their softness; for it is impossible to execute a brilliant picture with them if they are otherwise, on which account great care should be observed in preparing them, to prevent their being hard. In all compositions, flake-white, and white-lead should be wholly rejected, because the slightest touch with either of these will unavoidably turn black.

The usual objection to crayon-paintings is, that they are subject to change; but whenever this happens, it is entirely owing to an injudicious use of the above-mentioned whites, which will stand only in oils. To obviate the bad effects arising from the use of such crayons, let the student make use of common whiting prepared in the following manner:

Take a large vessel of water, put the whiting into it, and mix them well together; let this stand about half a minute, then pour off the top into another vessel, and throw the gritty sediment away; let what is prepared rest about a minute, and then pour it off as before, which will purify the whiting and render it free from all dirt and grittiness. When this is done, let the whiting settle, and then pour the water from it; after which, lay it on the chalk to dry, and keep it for use, either for white crayons, or the purpose of preparing teints with other colours, for with this, all other teints may be safely prepared. If the student chooses to make crayons of the whiting immediately after it is washed, it is not necessary to dry it on the chalk, for it may be mixed instantly with any other colour, which will save considerable trouble. All colours of a heavy, or gritty nature, especially blue verditer, must be purified by washing after this method.

The student must be provided with a large, flexible pallet-knife, a large stone and muller to levigate the colours, two or three large pieces of chalk to absorb the moisture from the colours after they are levigated, a piece of flat glass to prevent the moisture from being absorbed too much, till the colours are rolled into form, and vessels for water, spirits, &c. as necessity and convenience shall direct.

I. REDS.

It is rather difficult to procure either good carmine or good lake. Good carmine is inclined to the vermillion tint, and good lake to the carmine teint. The carmine crayons are prepared in the following manner:

1. CARMIN. As their texture is inclinable to hardness, instead of grinding and rolling them, take a sufficient quantity of carmine, lay it upon the grinding-stone, mix it with a levigating knife with spirits of wine, till it becomes smooth and even. The chalkstone being ready, lay the colour upon it to absorb the spirit; but be careful that it is laid on in a proper shape for painting. If it is levigated too thin, the crayons will be too flat, and if too thick, it will occasion a waste of colour, by their adhering to the pallet-knife; but practice will render the proper degree of consistence familiar.

The simple colour being prepared, the next step is to compose the different teints by a mixture with whiting; the proportion to be observed consisting of 20 gradations to one, which may be clearly understood by the following directions. Take some of the simple colour, and levigate it with spirits of wine, adding about one part of washed whiting to three parts of carmine, of which, when properly incorporated, make two parcels. The next gradation should be composed of equal quantities of carmine and whiting, of which four crayons may be made. The third composition should have one fourth carmine, and three fourths whiting, of this make five crayons, which will be a good proportion with the rest. The last teint should be made of whiting, very faintly tinged with carmine, of which make about eight crayons, which will complete the above-mentioned proportion. As these compound teints are levigated, they are to be laid immediately upon the chalk that the moisture may be absorbed to the proper degree of dryness for forming into crayons, which may be known by its losing the greater part of its adhesive quality when taken into the hand; if the consistence is found to be right, it may be then laid upon the glass, which having no pores will prevent the moisture from becoming too dry before it is convenient to form it into crayons, otherwise the crayons would be full of cracks and very brittle, which will be a great inconvenience when they are used in painting.

2. LAKE is a colour very apt to be hard, to prevent which the student must observe the following particulars:

Take about half the quantity of lake intended for the crayons, and grind it very fine with spirits of wine; let it dry, and then pulverize it, which is easily done if the lake is good; then take the other half, and grind it with spirits, after which mix it with the pulverized lake, and lay it out directly in crayons on the chalk. This colour will not bear rolling. The simple colour being thus prepared, proceed with the compound crayons, as directed before, and in the same degrees of gradation as the carmine teints.

3. VERMILLION; the best is inclined to the carmine teint. teint. Nothing is required to prepare this colour more than to mix it on the stone with soft water or spirits, after which it may be rolled into crayons. The different teints are produced by a mixture of the simple colour with whiting, according to the proportions already given.

II. BLUES.

1. PRUSSIAN-BLUE is a colour very apt to bind, and is rendered soft with more difficulty than carmine and lake. The same method of preparation is to be followed with this as directed with respect to lake, only it is necessary to grind a larger quantity of the pure colour, as it is chiefly used for painting draperies. The different teints may be made according to necessity, or the fancy of the painter.

2. BLUE-VERDITER is a colour naturally gritty, and therefore it is necessary to wash it well. Its particles are so coarse as to require some binding matter to unite them, otherwise the crayons will never adhere together. To accomplish this, take a quantity sufficient to form two or three crayons, to which add a piece of flaked plaster of Paris about the size of a pea; mix these well together, and form the crayons upon the chalk. This blue is extremely brilliant, and will be of great use in heightening draperies, &c. The teints must be formed with whiting as directed in the former instances, and are highly serviceable for painting flesh, to produce those pearly teints so beautiful in crayon-pictures. It is not necessary to mix the compounds with spirits, as clear water will be sufficient.

III. GREENS.

BRILLIANT-GREENS are produced with great difficulty. In Switzerland, they have a method of making them, far superior to ours*. We usually take yellow ocher, and after grinding it with spirits, mix it with the powder of Prussian blue, then temper it with a knife, and lay the crayons on the chalk, without rolling them. Instead of this, some use king's yellow mixed with Prussian blue, and others, brown ocher and Prussian blue. The crayons made of the two last may be rolled. Various teints may be produced by these colours, according to fancy or necessity; some to partake more of the blue, and others of the yellow.

IV. YELLOWS.

1. KING'S-YELLOW is the most useful and the most brilliant, levigated with spirits of wine, and compose the different teints as before directed. Yellow ocher and Naples yellow ground with spirits will make useful crayons.

2. ORANGE is produced with king's-yellow and vermillion ground together with spirits, and the teints formed as in other cases, but no great quantity of them is required.

V. BROWNS.

1. CULLEN'S-EARTH is a fine dark brown. After six or eight of the simple crayons are prepared, several rich compound teints may be produced from it, by a mixture with carmine, in various degrees. Black, carmine, and this colour, mixed together, make useful teints for painting hair; several gradations may be produced from each of these by a mixture with whiting. Roman, or brown ocher is an excellent colour, either simple or compounded with carmine. Whiting tinged in several degrees with either of these, will prove very serviceable in painting.

2. UMBER may be treated in just the same manner, only it is necessary to levigate it with spirits of wine.

VI. PURPLES.

PRUSSIAN-BLUE ground with spirits, and mixed with pulverized lake, will produce a good purple. Carmine thus mixed with Prussian blue, will produce a purple something different from the former. Various teints may be made from either of these compounds by a mixture with whiting.

VII. BLACK.

1. LAMP-BLACK is the only black that can be used with safety, as all others are subject to mildew; but as good lamp-black is very scarce, the student will, perhaps, find it most expedient to make it himself; the process of which is as follows:

Provide a fine cone, fix it over a lamp at such a height that the flame may just reach the cone for the foot to gather within it. When a sufficient quantity is collected, take it out, and burn all the grease from it in a crucible. It must then be ground with spirits and laid on the chalk to absorb the moisture. Various grey teints may be formed from this by a mixture with whiting, as mentioned in former instances.

2. VERMILLION mixed with carmine.—This is a composition of great use, and teints made from this with whiting will be found to be very serviceable.

3. CARMIN and black is another good compound, of which five or six gradations should be made, some partaking more of the black, and others having the carmine most predominant, besides several teints by a mixture with whiting.

4. VERMILLION and black is also a very useful compound, from which several different teints should be made.

5. PRUSSIAN-BLUE and black is another good compound, and will be found of singular service in painting draperies.

It is impossible to lay down rules for the forming every teint necessary in composing a set of crayons, there being many accidental compositions, entirely dependent on fancy and opinion. The student should make it a rule to save the leavings of his colours; for these he may form various teints, which will occasionally be useful.

SECT. IV. Of Rolling the Crayons, and disposing them for Painting.

The different compositions of colours must be cut into a proper magnitude, after they are prepared, in order to be rolled into patties, for the convenience of using them. Each crayon should be formed in the left hand with the ball of the right, first formed cylindrically,

* Mr Bonhote, in Hayfe's court, Soho, is the original importer of these crayons from Lausanne, in Switzerland; the student may find it very useful to supply deficiencies of this nature with them, as the ingredients which compose these brilliant crayons are not to be met with in England. cally, and then tapered at each end. If the composition is too dry, dip the finger in water; if too wet, the composition must be laid upon the chalk again to absorb more of the moisture. The crayons should be rolled as quick as possible; and when finished, must be laid upon the chalk again, to absorb all remaining moisture. After the gradation of teints from one colour are formed, the stone should be well scraped and cleansed with water before it is used for another colour.

When the set of crayons is completed according to the rules prescribed, they should be arranged in classes for the convenience of painting with them. Some thin drawers, divided into a number of partitions is the most convenient method of disposing them properly. The crayons should be deposited according to the several gradations of light. The bottom of the partitions must be covered with bran, as a bed for the colours; because it not only preserves them clean, but prevents their breaking.