or MUNGLS, a celebrated nation of Asia, whose conquests formerly were the most rapid and extensive of any people recorded in history.

The origin of the Moguls, Tartars, and Turks, is universally allowed to be the same; and they are considered as the offspring of part of the ancient Scythians. Moguls. They themselves deduce their origin from Japhet, or, as they call him, Japhis, the son of Noah. His son Turk, they say, was the first king, or khan, of those nations who are now known by the separate names of Turks, Tartars, and Moguls; and the Tartars especially, assert that their proper designation is Turks. To this prince is attributed many of those inventions which barbarous nations commonly ascribe to their first sovereigns. He was succeeded by Taunak; in whose reign the whole posterity of Turk were divided into four large tribes, denominated the ordas of Erlat, Gialair, Kaugin, Berlas, or Perlas; of which last came the famous Timur Beg, or Tamerlane. From this time to that of Alanza Khan, he went with nothing remarkable. In his reign the Turks being immersed in all kinds of luxury, universally apostatized into idolatry. Having two sons, Tartar and Mogul, he divided his dominions among them, and thus gave rise to the two empires of the Tartars and Moguls.

The two nations had not long existed before they began to make war upon each other; and after long contention, the event at last was, that II Khan, emperor of the Moguls, was totally overthrown by Siuntz Khan, emperor of the Tartars; and so great was the defeat, that the Mogul nation seems to have been almost exterminated. Only two of II Khan's family survived this disaster. These were Kajan his youngest son, and Nagos his nephew, who were both of an age, and had both been married the same year. These two princes, with their wives, had been taken prisoners by Siuntz Khan, but found means to make their escape to their own country. Here they feasted upon all the cattle which had not been carried off by the Tartars; which was easily done, as having none to dispute the property with them; then stripping some of the slain, they took their clothes, and retired into the mountains. They passed several mountains without much difficulty; but at last advanced to the foot of one exceedingly high, which had no way over it but a very small path made by certain animals, called in the Tartar language archara. This path they found themselves obliged to make use of, tho' it was so strait, that only one could pass at a time, and he was in the most imminent danger of breaking his neck at the least false step.

Having ascended the mountain on one side by this path, they descended by the same on the other side; and were agreeably surprized to find themselves in a most delightful track, interspersed with rivulets and charming meadows, abounding with a vast variety of delicious fruits, and inclosed on all sides by inaccessible mountains, in such a manner as to shelter them from all future pursuits of the Tartars. Here they lived some time, and gave this beautiful country the name of Ir-gana-kon, in allusion to its situation; Ir-gana signifying, in the old language of the Moguls, a "valley," and Kon, a "steep height."

In process of time these two families very much increased. Kajan, whose posterity was the most numerous, called his descendants Kajath; but the people springing from Nagos were divided into two tribes; one of which received the appellation of Nagofer, and the other that of Durlagan.

These two Mogul princes and their descendants lived in this place for more than 400 years; but the latter then finding it too narrow for them, meditated a retreat to the country from which their forefathers had been driven. For some time, however, they found this impracticable, as the path that conducted their ancestors had been long since destroyed. At last they discovered, that one part of the high mountain above-mentioned was not very thick in a certain place; and also, that it consisted entirely of iron ore. To this, having before set fire to a layer of wood, and another of charcoal, laid along the foot of the mountain, they applied 70 large bellows, and at last melted the mountain in such a manner, that an opening was made large enough for a loaded camel to pass; and through this passage they all marched out with great joy.

The Moguls having thus issued as it were from a new world, overthrew the Tartars in their turn; and continued to be a very considerable nation till the time of their great hero Temujin, afterwards called Jenghis Khan, whom they extol in the most extravagant manner. It is difficult, however, to say, at the time Temujin made his appearance, how far the dominions of the Moguls extended, or in what estimation they were held by their neighbours. It seems to be pretty certain, that great part of the vast region now known by the name of Tartary, was then in a state of considerable civilization, and likewise extremely populous, as we find mention made of many cities which the Moguls destroyed; and the incredible multitudes whom they slaughtered, abundantly shew the populousness of the country. On the east, the country of the Moguls and Tartars had the great desert which divides Tartary from China; on the west, it had the empire of Karazan, founded by Mahmud Gazni; and on the south were the countries now known by the name of Indiglan, Khan, Siam, Pegu, Tonquin, and Cochim-China. Thus it comprehended the eastern part of modern Tartary, and all Siberia. This whole region was divided among a great number of Aymacks, or tribes; who had each one or more khans, according as it was more or less numerous, or divided into branches. Among these, that of the Karaits was the most powerful; their prince assumed the title of Grand Khan, and among the rest the Moguls were tributary to him; but, according to the Chinese historians, both the one and the other were tributary to the emperor of Kitay or Katay. China was divided into two parts: the nine southern provinces were in the hands of the Chinese emperors of the Song dynasty, who kept their court at Hang-chew, the capital of the province of Chekyang: the five northern provinces, excepting part of Shenfu, were possessed by the Kin, a people of Eastern Tartary, from whom are descended the Manchew Tartars, at present masters of China. This vast dominion was named Kitay, or Katay, and was divided into two parts: that which belonged to China, was properly called Kitay; and the part, which belonged to Tartary, was called Karakitay; in which some even include the territories of the Moguls, Karaitis, and other tribes, which are the subject of the present history. The western part of the empire of Kitay was possessed by a Turkish prince, who had lately founded a new kingdom there, called Hya; whose capital city was Hya-chew, now Ninghia in Shenfu, from whence the kingdom took its name. To the west of Hya lay Tangut; a country of great extent, and formerly very powerful; but at that time reduced to a low state, and di- Mogul divided among many princes; some of whom were subject to the emperor of Hya, and others to the emperor of China. All Tartary to the westward, as far as the Caspian sea, with the greater part of Little Bucharia, which then passed under the general name of Turkestan, was subject to Gorkhan, Khurkhan, or Kavar Khan; to whom even the Gazni monarchs are said to have been tributary. This Ghurkhan had been prince of the Western Kitan or Lyau; who, driven out of Kitay by the King, settled in Little Bucharia, and the country to the north, where they founded a powerful state about the year 1124.

Thus the Moguls, properly so called, had but a very small extent of empire which could be called their own, if indeed they had any, when Temujin made his appearance. This hero is said by the Tartars to have been of divine origin, since his family could be traced no farther back than ten generations, the mother of whom was got with child by a spirit. The names and transactions of his predecessors are equally uncertain and unimportant: he himself, however, was born in the year 1163, and is said to have come into the world with congealed blood in his hands; from whence it was prognosticated that he would be a great warrior, and obtain the victory over all his enemies.

This prediction, if any such there was, Temujin most literally fulfilled. At the time of his father's death, his subjects amounted to between 30,000 and 40,000 families; but of these two thirds quickly deserted, and Temujin was left almost without subjects. When only 13 years of age, he fought a bloody battle against these revolters; but either was defeated, or gained an indecisive victory; so that he remained in his obscurity for 27 years longer. His good fortune at last he owed to the friendship of Vang Khan, who ruled over a great number of Tartar tribes to the north of Kitay, and has been heard of under the name of Prefier John among the Europeans. This prince took Temujin under his protection; and a rebellion being afterwards raised against himself, Temujin was made his general, and the khan was kept in possession of his throne; soon after which, Temujin subdued the tribes which had revolted from himself, treating them at the same time with the utmost barbarity.

This happened in the year 1201; but Vang Khan, instead of continuing the friend of Temujin, now became jealous, and resolved to destroy him by treachery. With this view he proposed a marriage between Temujin's son Juji and his own daughter, and another between Temujin's daughter and his own son. Temujin was invited to the camp of Vang Khan, in order to celebrate this double marriage; but, receiving intelligence of some evil intention against him, he excused himself to Vang Khan's messengers, and desired that the ceremony might be put off to some other time.

A few days after the departure of these messengers, Badu and Kiialik, two brothers, who kept the horses of one of Vang Khan's chief domestics, came and informed Temujin, that the grand Khan finding he had missed his aim, was resolved to set out instantly, and surprise him next morning, before he could suspect any danger. Temujin, alarmed at this intelligence, quitted his camp in the night-time, and retired with all his people to some distance. He was scarce gone, when Vang Khan's troops arrived, and discharged an incredible number of arrows among the empty tents; but finding nobody there, they pursued Temujin with such haste that they fell into great disorder. In this condition they were suddenly attacked and routed by Temujin, after which an open war with Vang Khan took place.

By this quarrel almost all the princes of Tartary Temujin were put in motion; some siding with Tamujin, and others with Vang Khan. But at last fortune declared in favour of the former: Vang Khan was overthrown in a battle, where he lost 40,000 men; and obliged to fly for refuge to a prince named Tayyan Khan, who was Temujin's father-in-law, and his own enemy, and by whom he was ungenerously put to death. Temujin immediately began to seize on his dominions, great part of which voluntarily submitted: but a confederacy was formed against him by a number of Vang Khan's tributaries, at the head of whom was Jamuka, a prince who had already distinguished himself by his enmity to Temujin; and even Tayyan Khan himself was drawn into the plot, through jealousy of his son-in-law's good fortune. But Temujin was well prepared; and in the year 1204 attacked Tayyan Khan, entirely routed his army, killed himself, and took Jemuka prisoner, whose head he caused instantly to be struck off; after which he marched against the other tribes who had conspired against him. Them he quickly reduced; took a city called Kaibin, where he put all to the sword who had borne arms against him; and reduced all the Mogul tribes in 1205.

Temujin now, having none to oppose him, called a general diet, which he appointed to be held on the first day of the spring, 1206; that is, on the day in which the sun entered Aries. To this diet were summoned all the great lords both Moguls and Tartars; and in the mean time, to establish good order in the army, he divided his soldiers into bodies of 10,000, 1,000, 100, and 10 men, with their respective officers, all subordinate to the generals, or those who commanded the bodies of 10,000; and these were to act under his own sons. On the day of holding the diet, the princes of the blood and great lords appeared dressed in white. Temujin, dressed in the same manner, with his crown on his head, sat down on his throne, and was complimented by the whole assembly, who wished him the continuance of his health and prosperity. After this they confirmed the Mogul empire to him and his successors; adding all those kingdoms which he had subdued, the descendents of whose vanquished khans were deprived of all right or title to them; and after this he was proclaimed emperor with much ceremony. During this inauguration, a pretended prophet declared that he came from God to tell the assembly, that from thenceforth Temujin should assume the name of Jenghiz Khan, or the Most Great Khan of khans; prophesying also, that all his posterity should be khans from generation to generation. This prophecy, which was no doubt owing to Temujin himself, had a surprising effect on his subjects, who from that time concluded, that all the world belonged of right to them, and even thought it a crime against heaven for any body to pretend to resist them.

Jenghiz Khan having now reduced under his subjection all the wandering tribes of Moguls and Tartars, began to think of reducing those countries to the south south and south-west of his own, where the inhabitants were much more civilized than his own subjects; and the countries being full of fortified cities, he must of course expect to meet with more resistance. He began with the emperor of Hya, whose dominions he invaded in 1209, who at last submitted to become his tributary. But in the mean time Jenghiz Khan himself was supposed to be tributary to the emperor of Kitay; who, in 1210, sent him an officer, demanding the customary tribute. This was refused with the utmost indignation, and a war commenced, which ended not but with the dissolution of the empire of Kitay, as mentioned under the article China, n° 17—33.

In the year 1216 Jenghiz Khan resolved to carry his arms westward, and therefore left his general Muchuli to pursue his conquests in Kitay. In his journey westward he overthrew an army of 300,000 Tartars who had revolted against him; and, in 1218, sent ambassadors defining an alliance with Mohammed Karazm Shah, emperor of Gazna. His ambassador was haughtily treated; however, the alliance was concluded; but soon after broken, through the treachery, as it is said, of the Karazmian monarch's subjects. This brought on a war attended with the most dreadful devastations, and which ended with the entire destruction of the empire of Karazm or Gazna, as related under the article Gazna.

After the reduction of Karazm, part of the Moguls broke into Iran or Persia, where also they made large conquests, while others of their armies invaded Georgia and the countries to the west; all this time committing such enormities, that the Chinese historians say, both men and spirits burst with indignation. In 1225, Jenghiz Khan returned to Hya, where he made war on the emperor for having sheltered some of his enemies. The event was, that the emperor was slain, and his kingdom conquered, or rather destroyed; which, however, was the last exploit of this most cruel conqueror, who died in 1227, as he marched to complete the destruction of the Chinese.

The Mogul empire, at the death of Jenghiz Khan, extended over a prodigious tract of country; being more than 1800 leagues in length from east to west, and upwards of 1000 in breadth from north to south. Its princes, however, were still infatuated, and pushed on their conquests on all sides. Oktay was acknowledged emperor after Jenghiz Khan; and had under his immediate government Mogulestan, (the country of the Moguls properly so called), Kitay, and the countries eastward to the Tartarian sea. Jagatai his brother governed under him a great part of the western conquests. The country of the Kipjacks, and others to the east and north-east, north and north-west, were governed by Batu or Patu the son of Juji, who had been killed in the wars; while Tuli or Toley, another son of Jenghiz Khan, had Khorasan, Persia, and what part of India was conquered. On the east side the Mogul arms were still attended with success; not only the empire of Kitay, but the southern part of China, was conquered, as already related under that article, n° 23—40. On the west side matters continued much in the same way till the year 1254, when Magu, or Menkho, the fourth khan of the Moguls, (the same who was afterwards killed at a siege in China*), raised a great army, which he gave to his brother Hulaku, or Hulagu, to extend his dominions westward. In 1255 he entered Iran; where he suppressed the Ismaelians or Assassins, of whom an account is given under the article Assassins; and two years afterwards he advanced to Bagdad, which he took, and cruelly put the khalif to death, treating the city with no more lenity than the Moguls usually did, treated those which fell into their hands. Everything was put to fire and sword; and in the city and its neighbourhood, the number of slain, it is said, amounted to 1,600,000.—The next year he invaded Syria; the city of Damascus was delivered up, and, as it made no resistance, the inhabitants were spared; but Aleppo being taken by storm, a greater slaughter ensued there than had taken place at Bagdad, not even the children in their cradles being spared. Some cities of this country revolted the next year, or the year after; but falling again into the hands of the Moguls, they were plundered, and the inhabitants butchered without mercy, or carried into slavery.

Hulaku died in 1264, and at his death we may fix the greatest extent of the Mogul empire. It now comprehended the whole of the continent of Asia, excepting part of Indostan, Siam, Pegu, Cochinchina, and a few of the countries of Lesser Asia, which had not been attacked by them; and during all these vast conquests no Mogul army had ever been conquered, except one by Jaloloddin, as mentioned under the article Gazna.—From this period, however, the empire began to decline. The ambition of the khans begins to have prompted them to invade the kingdoms of Japan and Cochinchina, they were miserably disappointed in their attempts, and lost a great number of men.—The same bad success attended them in Indostan; and in a short time this mighty empire broke into several smaller ones. The governors of Persia being of the family of Jenghiz Khan, owned no allegiance to any superior; those of Tartary did the same. The Chinese threw off the yoke; and thus the continent of Asia wore much the same face that it had done before Jenghiz Khan began his conquests.

The successors of Hulaku reigned in Persia till the year 1335; but that year Abulfaid Khan, the eighth from Hulaku, dying, the affairs of that country fell into confusion for want of a prince of the race of Jenghiz Khan to succeed to the throne. The empire therefore was divided among a great number of petty princes, who fought against each other almost without intermission, till, in the year 1360, Timur Bek, or Tamerlane, one of these princes, having conquered a number of others, was crowned at Balkh, with the pompous title of Saheb Karan; that is, "the emperor of the age, and conqueror of the world." As he had just before taken that city, and destroyed one of his most formidable rivals who had shut himself up in it, the new emperor began his reign with beheading some of the inhabitants, imprisoning others, burning their houses, and selling the women and children for slaves.—In 1370 he crossed the Sihun, made war on the Getes, and attacked Karazm. Next year he granted a peace to his enemies; but two years after, he again invaded the country of the Gates, and by the year 1379 had fully conquered that country as well as Korazan; and from that time he continued to extend his conquests in much the same manner as Jenghiz. Mogul. Jenghiz Khan had done, though with less cruelty. In 1387 he had reduced Armenia, Georgia, and all Persia; the conquest of which last was completed by the reduction of Isfahan, 70,000 of the inhabitants of which were slaughtered on account of a sedition raised by some rash or evil-disposed persons.

After the reduction of Persia, Timur turned his arms northward, and westward, subduing all the countries to the Euphrates. He took the city of Bagdad; subdued Syria; and having ravaged great part of Russia, returned to Persia in 1396, where he splendidly feasted his whole army. In 1398 he invaded India, crossed the Indus on the 17th of September, reduced several fortresses, and made a vast number of captives. However, as he was afraid that, in case of any emergency, these prisoners might take part with the enemy, he gave orders to his soldiers to put all their Indian slaves to death; and, in consequence of this inhuman order, more than 100,000 of these poor wretches were slaughtered in less than an hour.

In the beginning of the year 1399, Timur was met by the Indian army; whom, after a desperate battle, he defeated with great slaughter, and soon after took the city of Delhi, the capital of the country. Here he seated himself on the throne of the Indian emperors; and here the sharifs, kadies, and principal inhabitants of the city, came to make their submission, and begged for mercy. The tame elephants and rhinoceroses likewise were brought to kneel before him as they had been accustomed to do to the Indian emperors, and made a great cry as if they implored his clemency. These war-elephants, 120 in number, were, at his return, sent to Samarcan, and to the province where his sons resided. After this, at the request of the lords of the court, Timur made a great feast; at which he distributed presents to the princes and principal officers.

Delhi at this time consisted of three cities, called Seyri, Old Delhi, and Jehan Penah. Seyri was surrounded with a wall in form of a circle. Old Delhi was the same, but much larger, lying south-west of the other. These two parts were joined on each side by a wall, and the third, lying between them, was called Jehan Penah, which was larger than Old Delhi. Penah had ten gates; Seyri had seven, three of which looked towards Jehan Penah; this last had thirteen gates, fix to the north-west, and seven to the south-east. Everything seemed to be in a quiet posture; when, on the 12th of January 1399, the soldiers of Timur being assembled at one of the gates of Delhi, insulted the inhabitants of the suburbs. The great emirs were ordered to put a stop to these disorders; but their endeavours were not effectual. The folkans having a curiosity to see the rarities of Delhi, and particularly a famous palace adorned with 1000 pillars, built by an ancient king of India, went in with all the court; and the gate being on that occasion left open for everybody, above 15,000 soldiers got in unperceived. But there was a far greater number of troops in a large place between Delhi, Seyri, and Jehan Penah, who committed great disorders in the two last cities. This made the inhabitants in despair fall on them; and many, setting fire to their houses, burnt their wives and children. The soldiers seeing this confusion, did nothing but pillage the houses; while the difference was increased by the admission of more troops who seized the inhabitants of the neighbouring places, who had fled thither for shelter. The emirs, to put a stop to this mischief, caused the gates to be shut; but they were quickly opened by the soldiers within, who rose in arms against their officers; so that by the morning of the 13th the whole army was entered, and this great city was totally destroyed. Some soldiers carried out 150 slaves, men, women, and children; nay, some of their boys had 20 slaves a-piece to their share. The other spoils, in jewels, plate, and manufactures, were immense; for the Indian women and girls were adorned with precious stones, and had bracelets and rings on their hands, feet, and even toes, so that the soldiers were loaded with them. On the 15th, in Old Delhi, the Indians retired into the great mosque to defend themselves; but being attacked by the Tartars they were all slaughtered, and towers erected with their heads. A dreadful carnage now ensued throughout the whole city, and several days were employed before the inhabitants could be made to quit it entirely; and as they went, the emirs took a number of them for their service. The artisans were also distributed among the princes and commanders; all but the masons, who were reserved for the emperor, in order to build him a spacious stone-mosque at Samarcan.

After this terrible devastation, Timur marched into the different provinces of India, every where defeating the Indians who opposed him, and slaughtering the Ghebrs, or worshippers of fire. On the 25th of March he set out on his return, and on the 9th of May arrived at Samarcan. In a few months after his arrival, he was obliged to undertake an expedition into Persia, where affairs were in the utmost disorder on account of the misconduct of his son, whom he had appointed sovereign of that empire. Here Timur soon settled matters; after which he again set out on an expedition westward, reduced many places in Georgia which had not submitted before, and invaded and conquered Syria. At the same time he quarrelled with Bajazet the Turkish sultan, then busied in an enterprise against Constantinople, in which he would probably have succeeded had not Timur interfered. The cause of this quarrel at first was, that Bajazet had demanded tribute from a prince who was under Timur's protection, and is said to have returned an insulting answer to the Tartar ambassadors who were sent to him on that account. Timur, however, who was an enthusiast in the cause of Mahometanism, and considered Bajazet as engaged in the cause of heaven when besieging a Christian city, was very unwilling to disturb him in so pious a work; and therefore undertook several expeditions against the princes of Syria and Georgia, in order to give the Turkish monarch time to cool and return to reason. Among other places, he again invested the city of Bagdad, which had cast off its allegiance to him; and having taken it by storm, made such a dreadful massacre of the inhabitants, that 120 towers were erected with the heads of the slain. In the mean time Bajazet continued to give fresh provocation, by protecting one Kara Yuluf a robber, who had even insulted the caravan of Mecca; for that Timur at length resolved to make war upon him. The sultan, however, foreseeing the danger of bringing such a formidable enemy against himself, thought proper to ask pardon, by a letter, for what was past, and promise obedience to Timur's will for the future. This embassy was graciously received; and Timur returned for answer, that he would forbear hostilities, provided Bajazet would either put Kara Yusuf to death, send him to the Tartar camp, or expel him out of his dominions. Along with the Turkish ambassadors he sent one of his own; telling Bajazet that he would march into the confines of Anatolia, and there wait his final answer.

Though Bajazet had seemed at first willing to come to an agreement with Timur, and to dread his superior power; yet he now behaved in such an unsatisfactory manner, that the Tartar monarch desired him to prepare for war; upon which he raised the siege of Constantinople, and having met Timur with an army greatly inferior to the Tartars, was utterly defeated and taken prisoner. According to some accounts, he was treated with great humanity and honour; while others inform us, that he was shut up in an iron cage, against which he dashed out his brains the following year. At any rate, it is certain that he was not restored to liberty, but died in confinement.

This victory was followed by the submission of many places of the Lesser Asia to Timur; the Greek emperor owning himself his tributary, as did also the sultan of Egypt. After this Timur once more returned to Georgia, which he cruelly ravaged; after which he marched to Samarqand, where he arrived in the year 1405. Here, being now an old man, this mighty conqueror began to look forward to that state which at one time or other is the dread of all living creatures; and Timur, in order to quiet the remorse of his own conscience, came to the following curious resolution, which he communicated to his intimate friends; namely, that "as the vast conquests he had made were not obtained without some violence, which had occasioned the destruction of a great number of God's creatures, he was resolved, by way of atonement for his past crimes, to perform some good action; namely, to make war on the infidels, and exterminate the idolaters of China." This atonement, however, he did not live to accomplish; for he died the same year of a burning fever, in the 71st year of his age and 36th of his reign.

On the death of Timur, his empire fell immediately into great disorder, and the civil wars continued for five or six years; but at last peace was restored, by the settlement of Shah Rukh, Timur's son, on the throne. He did not, however, enjoy the empire in its full extent, or indeed much above one half of it, having only Karazm, Khorasan, Kandahar, Persia, and part of Indostan. Neither was he able, though a brave and warlike prince, to extend his dominions, though he transmitted them to his son Ulug Beg. He proved a wise and learned monarch; and is famous for the astronomical tables which he caused to be composed, and which are well known at this day. He was killed in 1448 by his son Abdollatif, who fix months after was put to death by his own soldiers. After the death of Abdollatif, Abdollah, a grandson of Shah Rukh, seized the throne; but, after reigning one year, was expelled by Abdulai Mirza, the grandson of Miran Shah the son of Timur. His reign was one continued scene of wars and tumults; till at last he was defeated and taken prisoner by one Hafiz Beg, who put him to death in 1468. From this time we may look upon the empire of Timur as entirely dissolved, though his descendents still reigned in Persia and Indostan. The history of the latter, which is still known by the name of the Mogul's empire, we shall now give from the death of Abdulai Mirza to the present time.

On the death of the abovementioned monarch, his History of son Babr, or Bahor, succeeded him, but was soon driven out by the Uzbek Tartars; after which he retired some time in Gazna, whence he made incursions into Indostan, and at length became master of the whole empire, excepting the kingdoms of Dekan, Guzerat, and Bengal. He died in 1539, and was succeeded by his son Hemayun; who in the beginning of his reign conquered the province of Guzerat, excepting a very few places, and in 1540 made himself master of Bengal also; but soon after he was driven out of his dominions by the Afghans, a people inhabiting the mountainous country between India and Persia. In this distress he fled to the court of Persia; and being assisted by that monarch, recovered his kingdom; but three months afterwards was killed by an accidental fall in the year 1556, the 26th of his reign.

Hemayun was succeeded by his son Akbar, at that time only 13 years of age. He subdued Guzerat, Bengal, and Kabul, (a country lying beyond the limits of India Proper), and conquered several other countries; but proved unsuccessful in his attempts on Dekan. He poisoned himself by mistake in 1605, having swallowed the dose he had caused to be prepared for one of his principal lords; and was succeeded by his son Jehan Ghir. The reign of this prince was full of troubles, owing chiefly to his own misconduct. He invaded Dekan without success, and was four years a prisoner in the hands of one of his generals named Mohabat Khan; from whom, however, he at last found means to escape, and enjoyed his empire till the year 1627, when he died, and was succeeded by his son Shah Jahan.

The new emperor proved a very debauched and avaricious prince; which gave occasion to one of his sons named Aurang-zib, or Aurang-zebe, to dethrone him. This prince attained his end by a train of deep hypocrisy and dissimulation; covering his ambition with a pretence of religion, and under that pretence committing the greatest crimes. He defeated two of his brothers who opposed him, by unforeseen accidents, when he himself seemed to be on the very brink of destruction; and when he attained sufficient power, put them to death, and then lamented their misfortune. One of his brothers who assisted him, he rewarded with perpetual imprisonment, and at last put him to death also. The history of the empire, after he began to reign, is very much unknown, because Aurangzebe would not allow it to be written during his life. Neither do we meet with any thing of importance regarding this empire till the invasion of Thamas Kouli Khan, or Nadir Shah, emperor of Persia, which happened in 1739.

This conqueror did not invade India, as Jenghiz Khan and Tamerlane had done, with a view to plunder; though, after he became master of Delhi, he seems seems not to have been inferior in rapacity to any of his predecessors. He was invited, however, by some of the great men who were disaffected to the emperor Nasroddin Mohammed Shah, in order to settle the affairs of the empire. Nadir was easily induced to accept the invitation, and set out from Kandahar with an army of 125,000 men, composed of many different nations, and, being all inured to hardships, were much more than sufficient to have conquered the whole force of the effeminate Indians. Accordingly he defeated the forces sent against him; after which he was visited by the Mogul himself. Him he severely reprimanded for his misconduct. However, he told him, that as he was of the race of Timur, who had not offended the reigning family of Persia, he would not take the empire from him; only as he had put him to the trouble of coming so far to settle his affairs, he insisted that his expenses should be paid. To this speech the Mogul made no answer; however, Nadir Shah took care to enforce the latter part of it. Some days after the Mogul's return, the Persian monarch went to his camp to pay him a visit, where he seized 200 cannon, with some treasure and other effects, sending them off immediately to Kandahar. He then marched to Delhi, where a dreadful slaughter was made, owing to a mob which arose about the price of corn. Nadir Shah, endeavouring to quell it, narrowly escaped being killed by a musket-ball shot purposely at him; which enraged him to such a degree, that he gave orders for an indiscriminate massacre. These orders were obeyed with the utmost alacrity by his soldiers; and 120,000, some say 150,000, of the inhabitants perished at once. After this all the jewels, gold-plate, &c., which could be found were seized, and the Shah demanded a present of money amounting to about 25 millions sterling; which was raised with such rigour, that many chose to put an end to their own lives rather than bear the torments which were inflicted on those who could not pay the sum at which they were assessed. At last, however, the sum was made up; and Nadir Shah took leave of the Mogul, with all the marks of friendship. He put the crown on his head with his own hands; and after having given him some good advice concerning the regulation and government of the empire, set out from Delhi on the 6th of May 1739.

By this invasion the empire sustained a prodigious loss. Since the arrival of Shah Nadir in the country, about 200,000 people had been destroyed, and the conquerors had carried off treasure and goods to the amount of 125 millions Sterling. Nevertheless even this dreadful calamity did not awaken the sufferers to a sense of their danger, nor was any step taken to put the empire in a proper state of defence; so that it still continues a prey to every invader, and equally incapable of subduing its enemies, or of defending itself.

Hindostan, or the empire of the Great Mogul, or Mogol, is bounded on the north by Great and Little Tibet; on the east by Tibet, and the Farther Peninsula of the Indies; on the south by the Hither Peninsula, part of the Indian Sea, and Bay of Bengal; and on the west by Persia. It is situated between the 84th and 102d degrees of longitude, and between the 21st and 36th degrees of latitude; being, in length about 1204 miles, and in breadth 960, though in some parts not near so much.

Towards the north, Hindostan is very cold and barren; but towards the south, very hot, and fertile in corn, rice, fruits, and other vegetables. The northern provinces are very mountainous and hilly; while the southern are for the most part level, and well watered with several rivers.

The most remarkable mountains are those which surround it on three sides. Those on the west, separating it from Persia, called, in general, Soleyman Khy, or the mountains of Soleyman, are of a vast height as well as breadth, and are only passable in certain places, through which roads have been made for the sake of commerce. The chief are those which lead to Kabul, Gazna, and Kandahar. This great chain of mountains is inhabited by different nations, the principal of which are the Afghans, or Patans, and the Baluches, who have extended themselves on the side of India, as well as Persia. The mountains on the north are called Nagarakut, Himay, or Mās Tāg, which has an affinity with Imāli, and by other names, which are given also in common to the mountains on each side, separating Hindostan from Tibet. The very prospect of these mountains is frightful, being nothing but hideous precipices, perpetually covered with snow, and not to be crossed without the greatest danger and difficulty.

The most remarkable rivers of Hindostan are the Indus and Ganges. The former is called by the orientals Send, Sindj, or Sindi. It rises in the mountains to the north, or north-east, of Hindostan; whence, after a long course, first to the south and then to the south-west, it falls into the Persian sea, below Lower Bandar, by several mouths. In its course it receives several other large rivers, as the Nilah, Jamal, Behat, and Lakka.

The Ganges, called in the Indies Ganga, rises in the kingdom of Tibet: entering Hindostan, about the 30th degree of latitude, it runs first south-eastward by the cities of Bekāner, Minapar, Halabas, Benares, and Patna, to Rajah Mahl, where it divides into two branches. The eastern having passed by Dākka, the capital of Bengal, enters the gulph of that name about Chatigan. The western, descending by Kośum-Bazar and Hughley, falls into the gulph below Shandernagar, towards Pipeli.

Many of the Jews and ancient Christians believed this river to be the Pison, one of the four mentioned in scripture as the boundaries of the terrestrial paradise. The Indians retain the greatest reverence for its waters, going in crowds from the remotest parts of the country to wash in them, from a persuasion that they deface from all the spots of sin. The reason of this is, because they imagine this river does not take its source from the bosom of the earth, but descends from heaven into the Paradise of Devendra, and from thence into Hindostan. Nothing is more childish than the fables of the Bramins on this subject, yet the people swallow them all. The Mogul and prince of Golconda drink no other water than that of the Ganges: foreigners, on the contrary, pretend that it is very unwholesome, and that it cannot be safely drank till it is first boiled. There are a great number of superb pagodas on the banks of the Ganges, which are immensely rich. At certain festivals, there has been sometimes a concourse of 100,000 people who came to bathe in it. But what principally distinguishes this river, besides its greatness and rapidity, is the gold it brings down in its lands, and throws on its banks; and the precious stones and pearls it produces, not only in itself, but in the Gulp of Bengal, into which it discharges its waters, and which abound therewith. The Chun, or Jemma, the Guderesu, the Perfilis, Lakia, and several other rivers, discharge themselves into it during its course.

The weather and seasons are, for the general, very regular in this spacious country; the winds blowing constantly, for six months, from the south, and six from the north, with very little variation. The months of April, May, and the beginning of June, till the rains fall, are so extremely hot, that the reflection from the ground is apt to blister one's face; and, but for the breeze, or small gale of wind, which blows every day, there would be no living in that country for people bred in northern climates; for, excepting in the rainy season, the coldest day is hotter there at noon than the hottest day in England. However, very surprising changes of heat and cold sometimes happen within a few hours; so that a stifling hot day is succeeded by a night cold enough to produce a thin ice on the water, and that night by a noon as scorching as the preceding. Sometimes, in the dry season, before the rains, the winds blow with such extreme violence, that they carry vast quantities of dust and sand into the air, which appear black, like clouds charged with rain; but fall down in dry showers, filling the eyes, ears, and nostrils of those among whom they descend, and penetrate every chest, cabinet, or cupboard, in the houses or tents, by the key-hole or crevices.

From Surat to Agra, and beyond, it seldom or never rains, excepting in one season of the year; that is, from the middle of June to the middle of September. These rains generally begin and end with most furious storms of thunder and lightning. During these three months it rains usually every day, and sometimes for a week together without intermission: by this means the land is enriched, like Egypt by the Nile. Although the land looks before like the barren lands of the Arabian deserts; yet, in a few days after those showers begin to fall, the surface appears covered with verdure. When the rainy season is over, the sky becomes perfectly serene again, and scarce one cloud appears all the nine months: however, a refreshing dew falls every night, during that dry interval, which cools the air, and cherishes the earth.

The produce of Hindostan is very rich in every kind, whether it be fossil, vegetable, or animal. Besides other precious stones found in it, there is a diamond-mine at the town of Sonmelphur, in Bengal. Quarries of Theban stone are so plentiful in the Mogul's empire, that there are both mosques and pagods built entirely of it. Some travellers tell us, there are mines of lead, iron, and copper, and even silver; but those of the last, if there be any, need not be opened, since the bullion of all nations is sunk in this empire, which will take nothing else in exchange for her commodities, and prohibits the exporting it again. They till the ground with oxen and foot-ploughs, sowing in May and the beginning of June, that all may be over before the rains, and reaping in November and December, which with them is the most temperate months in the year. The land is nowhere enclosed, excepting a little near towns and villages. The grass is never mowed to make hay, but cut off the ground, either green or withered, as they have occasion to use it. Wheat, rice, barley, and other grain, grow here in plenty, and are very good. The country abounds no less in fruits, as pomegranates, citrons, dates, grapes, almonds, and cocoa-nuts; plums, those especially called mirabolans; plantanes, which in shape resemble a slender cucumber, and in taste excel a Norwich pear; mangos, an excellent fruit, resembling an apricot, but larger; ananas, or pine-apples; lemons and oranges, but not so good as in other countries; variety of pears and apples in the northern parts; and the tamarind-tree, the fruit of which is contained in a pod resembling those of beans. There are many other kinds of fruit trees peculiar to the country. But the valuable trees are the cotton and mulberry, on account of the wealth they bring the natives from the manufactures of calicoes and silks. They plant abundance of sugarcanes here, as well as tobacco; but the latter is not so rich and strong as that of America, for want of knowing how to cure and order it.

Hindostan affords also plenty of ginger, together with carrots, potatoes, onions, garlic, and other roots known to us, besides small roots and herbs for salads; but their flowers, though beautiful to look at, have no scent, excepting roses, and some few other kinds.

There is a great variety of animals in this country, both wild and tame; of the former are elephants, rhinoceroses, lions, tygers, leopards, wolves, jackals, and the like. The jackalls dig up and eat dead bodies, and make a hideous noise in the night. The rhinoceros is not common in the Mogul's empire; but elephants are very numerous, some 12, 14, or 15 feet high. There is plenty of venison, and game of several kinds; as red-deer, fallow-deer, elks, antelopes, kids, hares, and such like. None of these are imparked, but all in common, and may be any body's who will be at the pains to take them. Among the wild animals also may be reckoned the mule-animal, apes, and monkeys.

Hindostan affords variety of beasts for carriage, as camels, dromedaries, mules, asses, horses, oxen, and buffaloes. Most of the horses are white, and many curiously dappled, pied, and spotted all over. The flesh of the oxen is very sweet and tender. Being very tame, many use them as they do horses, to ride on. Instead of a bit, they put one or two small strings through the grille of the nostrils, and fastening the ends to a rope, use it instead of a bridle, which is held up by a bunch of grilly flesh which he has on the forepart of his back. They saddle him as they do a horse; and, if spurred a little, he will go as fast. These are generally made use of all over the Indies; and with them only are drawn waggons, coaches, and chariots. Some of these oxen will travel 15 leagues in a day. They are of two sorts; one six feet high, which are rare; another called dwarfs, which are only three. In some places, where the roads are stony, they shoe their oxen, when they are to travel far. The buffalo's skin makes excellent... excellent buff, and the female yields very good milk; but their flesh is neither so palatable nor wholesome as beef. The sheep of Hindoostan have large heavy tails, and their flesh is very good, but their wool coarse.

This country is much infested with reptiles and insects; some of a noxious kind, as scorpions, snakes, and rats; but the lizards, which are of a green colour, are not hurtful. Snakes and serpents, we are told, are sometimes employed to dispatch criminals, especially such as have been guilty of some atrocious crime, that kind of death being attended with the most grievous torture. The most troublesome insects in this hot country are flies, musketeers, and chinchies, or bugs, the first by day, and the others in the night, when they offend no less by their stench than their bite.

Hindoostan is inhabited by several different kinds of people, as the Hindoos, the Patans or Afghans, the Baluchis, the Parsis, and the Moguls or Tartars, besides foreigners, especially Jews and Christians of various sects. The Hindoos are the ancient inhabitants; and though subject to the Moguls, are at least some hundreds to one, compared with all the rest. The Parsis are the descendants of the ancient Persians, who worshipped the fire. These fled from India to avoid the persecution of the Mahometans; and are settled on the western peninsula, chiefly about Surat. The Patans, or Afghans, for they seem to be the same people under different names, are those from whom the Moguls conquered Hindoostan. They are still very numerous; chiefly in the mountains and north-west parts, towards Kabul, Gazna, and Kandahar, from whence in all probability they originally came. They are a fierce and warlike people, and have a great aversion to the Moguls for having dispossessed them of their territories. The Baluchis, a barbarous people, and much given to rapine, possess several parts of Hindoostan to the west of the Indus, particularly the province of Hajakhan. Both they and the Afghans also possess several parts of Persia. The Moguls, or Jagatays, are the present lords of Hindoostan, where they reign over the rest, for the most part, with an absolute sway. Of these several nations, the Hindoos and Parsis are Pagan; but excel all the rest in modest deportment and the practice of virtue. The Patans, Baluchis, and Moguls, are Mahometans; and the first and last pretty strict observers of the laws and the rules of justice, at least among themselves. It is rare to see a crooked or deformed person, an idiot, or natural fool, in Hindoostan. As to the complexion of the natives, they are of a deep tawny or olive colour; their hair jet black, but not curled. They like not people who are very white or fair, because that is the colour of lepers, who are common in those parts. Most of the Mahometans, except their priests and ancient men, keep their chins constantly shaven, but let the hair on their upper lip grow very long. They shave their heads all over, leaving only a lock on the crown, by which they expect to be drawn up to heaven by their prophet Mahomet. Instead of hats or bonnets, they wear a kind of turban, consisting of a piece of narrow calico, wound several times about the head. The inhabitants, in general, are very civil and courteous, as well to strangers as one another. They salute by bowing the head or their body, laying the right hand on their breast, and uttering compliments as they pass. The meaner people salute their superiors in a very submissive manner, either by putting the right hand to the ground, and then laying it on their head; or else by falling on their knees, and then bowing their head to the earth. In their more familiar salutations, they take each other by the chin, or beard, and cry Baba, "father," or Bijj, "brother." The dress of the inhabitants of Hindoostan is all the same in great and small, rich and poor, differing only in coat; for they never alter their fashions. Their upper-coats, to the waist, fit close to their bodies, whence they hang loose a little below their knees. Under this coat, they usually wear another slight one of the same cloth, but shorter, in the nature of a vest. Some of the richer sort, in the cooler parts of the day, slip on loose coats over the other, made of quilted silk, or calico, or else of English scarlet-cloth, for that is the colour they most affect. Under their coats they wear a sort of trowsers, which fall down to their ankles, and ruffle on the small of their legs; for their feet are always bare in their shoes, but as clean as their hands. They have girdles, made of a long piece of cloth, which go twice at least about them, the ends hanging down.

The dress of the Mahometan women differs but little from that of the men; only they bind their hair with long fillets, which hang down behind, and wear on their heads mantles or veils of calico; all round their ears they wear small pendants, made of thin and narrow pieces of gold or silver, brafs or iron, according to the quality of the person. The lower part of their left nostril is also pierced for putting in rings of those metals at pleasure; the ends of their gold rings meeting in a pearl, drilled for that purpose. Some of the better sort wear great hollow rings of gold enamelled, silver, or brafs, upon their wrists and the small of their legs, two or three on each limb, which makes a tinkling noise when they move.

Although the Mahometans are allowed four wives, very few, and those only of the richer sort, take more than one. They are so jealous, that they will not suffer either father or brother to speak to their wives, unless in their presence. Adultery and fornication are reckoned in the highest degree criminal. Great men have concubines to guard their women. Common prostitutes are tolerated here; but they must be licensed, before they are at liberty to open a house.

The women are exceeding happy in this part of the world in having easy labours; for it is common to see them one day riding big with child, and the next day riding again with the infants in their arms. The children of the poorer sort go naked several years, only now and then their mothers cover them with a slight calico mantle.

The Mahometans bury not in their mosques or churches, but in some open place out of town.

Their mourning over the deceased is immoderate, especially at their graves; when they often ask the party, as if living, Why he would die, since he had such loving wives and friends, and other comforts, in this life? The men of the greatest quality often provide fair sepulchres for themselves and friends. There are also many handsome monuments erected in memory of such as they esteem pirs, or saints; which are much referred to by devout people, having lamps continually burning in them, with votaries, who have salaries to attend attend them. The Mahometans bestow not so much cost on any sort of structures as on sepulchres.

The common language of the empire, called the Hindustan, has a great affinity with the Persian and Arabic, but is more smooth, and very significant and concise. Its characters are different from those of the above languages, and written from the left hand to the right, like the European. All the learning of the Moguls consists in reading and writing; however, the people themselves are men of very strong reason, and will speak off-hand on any subject exceeding well. Their chief study is astrology, with the belief of which the generality are strangely infatuated; the Great Mogul himself undertaking nothing of any moment without consulting his astrologers. For an account of the different religions in this empire, see the articles Mahometanism and Gentoo; and Hindoo in the Appendix.