a very large and powerful kingdom of Europe, comprehending also under its dominion the northern part of Asia, quite to the eastern part where it approaches the coast of America. On the south, this immense track is bounded by Calmuck and Cuban Tartary, Persia, Georgia, the Caspian and Euxine seas; and on the west, by Poland and Sweden. It is divided into four parts; namely, Mulcovy Proper, or Western Mulcovy; Eastern Mulcovy; Muscovite Tartary; and Mulcovite Lapland. These are subdivided into provinces, northern, eastern, and western; amounting to a very considerable number, including some kingdoms and duchies which have been conquered and subdued by the czars of Russia.

In ancient times this country was inhabited by various notions; such as Hunns, Scythians, Sarmatians, Massagetus, Scalonians, Cimbri, &c., of whom an account is given under the various detached articles in this work. The origin of the Russians themselves, though not prior to the ninth century, is still covered with almost impenetrable obscurity; partly owing to the ignorance and barbarity of the people, and partly to the mistaken policy which yet prevails in the nation, of suppressing all accounts of their origin and inquiries into their ancient state and situation; of which we have a remarkable instance in the suppression of a work by professor Muller, intitled De Originibus gentis et nominis Rusorum.

According to several authors of credit, the Russians derived their origin from the Slavi, or Slavonians, corruptly called the Scaronians, who settled first along the banks of the Wolga, and afterwards near the Danube, in the countries named Bulgaria and Hungary; but being driven from thence by the Romans, (whom the Russians call Woleskers, or Wolesaters,) they first removed to the river Borysthenes, or Dnieper, then over-ran Poland; and, as is reported, built the city of Kiow. Rus. Kiow. Afterwards they extended their colonies farther north, to the rivers which run into the Ilmen lake, and laid the foundation of the city of Novogrod. The towns of Smolensk and Ternikow appear also to have been built by them, though the dates of these events cannot be ascertained. The most ancient inhabitants, not only of Rusia, but all over Siberia, quite to the borders of China, are called Thudii; for professor Muller, on inquiring in those parts, by whom the ancient buildings and sepulchral monuments he saw there were erected, was everywhere answered, that they were the works of the Thudii, who in ancient times had lived in that country.

In the ninth century the Scandinavians, that is the Danes, Norwegians, and Swedes, emigrated from the north, and, crossing the Baltic, went to seek habitations in Rusia. They first subdued the Courlanders, Livonians, and Ethlonians; and, extending their conquests still farther, they exacted tribute from the Novgorodians, settled kings over them, and traded as far as Kiow, and even to Greece. These new invaders were called Waregers; which, according to professor Muller, signifies "sea-faring people;" or, if derived from the old northern word war, it signifies "warlike men." To these Waregers the name of Rusi, or Russians, is thought by the most eminent authors to owe its origin; but the etymology of the word itself is entirely uncertain.

In the dark ages of which we are speaking, it is pretty certain that Rusia was divided among a great number of petty princes, who made war upon each other with the ferocity and cruelty of wild beasts; so that the whole country was reduced to the utmost misery; when Gostomifel, a chief of the Novgorodians, pitying the unhappy fate of his countrymen, and seeing no other method of remedying their calamities, advised them to offer the government of their country to the Waregers. The proposal was readily accepted, and three princes of great abilities and valour were sent to govern them; namely, Ruric, Sinicus, and Truvor, generally supposed to have been brothers. The first took up his residence at Ladoga, in the principality of Great Novgorod; the second at Bielo Ozero, or the White Lake; and the third kept his court at Ibsorok, or, according to others, at a small town, then called Tvertzog, in the principality of Pleskow. The three brothers reigned amicably, and made considerable additions to their dominions; all of which at length devolved to Ruric by the death of Sinicus and Truvor; but what the conquests of the two brothers were, we have no records to inform us of.

The Rusian empire continued to flourish till the end of the reign of Wolodomir, who ascended the throne in the year 976. Having settled the affairs of his empire in peace, he demanded in marriage the princess Anne, sister to the Greek emperor Basilus Porphyrogenitus. His suit was granted, on condition that he should embrace Christianity. With this the Rusian monarch complied; and that vast empire was thenceforward considered as belonging to the patriarchate of Constantinople. Wolodomir received the name of Basilus the same day on which he was baptized; and, according to the Rusian annals, 20,000 of his subjects were baptized the same day. Michael Syra, or Cyrus, a Greek, sent by Photius the patriarch of Constanti- Tartar; to offer him milk to drink; and, if any drops of it fell down, to lick them up; a singular mark of fertility, which continued near 200 years.

George Sevoldowitz was succeeded by his brother Michael Sevoldowitz Zernigoulski; who opposed the Tartars, but was defeated by them, and lost his life. He left three sons, Feodor, Alexander, and Andrew, whose wars with each other ended in the death of them all. A son of Alexander, and of the same name, was then placed on the throne by the Tartars; and his son Danilow, or Daniel Alexandrowitz, removed his court from Wolodimir to Moscow, where he first assumed the title of Great duke of Wolodimir and Moscow. Daniel Alexandrowitz left two sons, Gregory and John; the former of whom, named Kalita, from a purse he used always to carry about him filled with money for the poor, ascended the throne; but he was soon assassinated by another prince; named Demetri Michaelowitz, who was himself put to death for it by the Tartars; and John, likewise surnamed Kalita, was then made czar. This John left three sons, John, Simon, and Andrew; and the eldest of these, commonly called Iwan Iwanowitz, was made czar, with the approbation of the Tartars, on whom he was dependant.

During these several reigns, which fill a space of upwards of 100 years, and which all historians have passed over for want of records concerning them, the miseries of a foreign yoke were aggravated by all the calamities of intestine discord and war; whilst the knights of Livonia, or brothers of the short-sword, as they are sometimes called, a kind of military order of religious, on one side, and the Poles on the other, catching at the opportunity, attacked Russia, and took several of its towns, and even some considerable countries. The Tartars and Russians, whose interests were in this case the same, often united to oppose their common enemies; but were generally worsted. The Livonians took Pleikow; and the Poles made themselves masters of Black Russia, the Ukraine, Podolia, and the city of Kiow. Casimir the Great, one of their kings, carried his conquests still farther. He asserted his pretensions to a part of Russia, in right of his relation to Boleslaus duke of Halitz, who died without issue, and forcibly possessed himself of the duchies of Perzemyslia, Halitz, and Luckow, and of the districts of Sanock, Lubackzow, and Trebowla; all which countries he made a province of Poland.

The newly-conquered Russians were ill-disposed to brook the government of the Poles; whose laws and customs were more contrary to their own than those of the Tartars had been. They joined the latter, to rid themselves of the yoke; and assembled an army numerous enough to overwhelm all Poland, but destitute of valour and discipline. Casimir, undaunted by this deluge of barbarians, presented himself at the head of a few troops on the borders of the Vistula, and obliged his enemies to retire.

Demetrius Iwanowitz, son of Iwan Iwanowitz, who commanded in Moscow, made frequent efforts to rid himself of the galling yoke. He defeated in several battles, Maymay khan of the Tartars; and, when conqueror, refused to pay them any tribute, and assumed the title of great duke of Moscow. But the oppressors of the north returned in greater numbers than before; and Demetrius, at length overpowered, after a struggle of three years, perished with his whole army, which, if we may credit historians, amounted to upwards of 240,000 men.

Basilus Demetriwitz revenged his father's death. He attacked his enemies, drove them out of his dominions, and conquered Bulgaria. He made an alliance with the Poles, whom he could not subdue; and even ceded to them a part of his country, on condition that they should help him to defend the rest against any new incursions of the Tartars. But this treaty was a weak barrier against ambition. The Russians found new enemies in their allies; and the Tartars soon returned. Basilus Demetriwitz had a son who was called after his name, and to whom the crown ought naturally to have descended. But the father suspecting his legitimacy, left it to his own brother Gregory, a man of a severe and tyrannical disposition, and therefore hated by the people, who asserted the son's right, and proclaimed him their sovereign. The Tartars took cognizance of the dispute, and determined it in favour of Basilus; upon which Gregory had recourse to arms, drove his nephew from Moscow to the principality of Uglitz, and forcibly usurped and kept possession of his throne. Upon the death Gregory, Basilus returned to Moscow; but Andrew and Demetrius, sons of the late usurper, laid siege to that city, and obliged him to retire to the monastery of Troitz, where they took him prisoner, with his wife and son, and put out his eyes; hence the appellation of jemnitsi, "blind," by which this Basilus is distinguished. The subjects of this unfortunate prince, incensed at the cruel treatment he had received, forced the perpetrators of it to fly to Novogrod, and reinstated their lawful sovereign at Moscow, where he died.

In the midst of this general confusion, John Basilo-John Iwanowitz I., by his invincible spirit and refined policy, became both the conqueror and deliverer of his country, and laid the first foundation of its future grandeur. Observing with indignation the narrow limits of his power at his accession to the throne, after the death of his father Basilus the Blind, he began immediately to resolve within himself the means of enlarging his dominions. Marriage, though he had in reality no regard or inclination for women, seemed to him one of the best expedients he could begin with; and accordingly he demanded and obtained Maria, sister of Michael duke of Twer; whom he soon after deposed, under pretence of revenging the injuries done to his father, and added this duchy to his own territories of Moscow. Maria, by whom he had a son named John, who died before him, did not live long; and upon her death he married Sophia, daughter of Thomas Paleo-Marius logus, who had been driven from Constantinople, and Greek princesses, in hopes of procuring thereby great advantage to the Roman religion; but his expectations were frustrated, Sophia being obliged to conform to the Greek church after her arrival in Russia.

What could induce Basilo-John to seek a consort at such a distance, is nowhere accounted for; unless it be, that he hoped by this means to establish a pretension to the empire of the east, to which his father was the next heir; but however that may be, the Russians certainly owed to this alliance their deliverance from the Tartar yoke. Shocked at the servile homage exacted by those proud proud victors, her husband going to meet their ambassadors at some distance from the city, and standing to hear what they had to say, whilst they were at dinner; Sophia told him, that she was surprised to find that she had married a servant to the Tartars. Nettled at this reproach, Baflowitz feigned himself ill when the next deputation from the Tartars arrived, and under that pretence avoided a repetition of the stipulated humiliating ceremonial. Another circumstance equally displeasing to this princess was, that the Tartars had, by agreement, within the walls of the palace at Moscow, houses in which their ministers resided; to show their power, and at the same time watch the actions of the great duke. To get rid of these, a formal embassy was sent to the Tartar khan, to tell him, that Sophia having been favoured with a vision from above, ordering her to build a temple in the place where those houses stood, her mind could not be at ease till she had fulfilled the divine command; and therefore his leave was desired to pull them down, and give his people others. The khan consented: the houses within the Kremlin were demolished; and no new ones being provided, the Tartar residents were obliged to leave Moscow; their prince not being able to revenge this breach of promise, by reason of a war he was then engaged in with the Poles. Baflowitz taking advantage of this circumstance, and having in the mean time considerably increased his forces, openly disclaimed all subjection to the Tartars, attacked their dominions, and made himself master of Casan, where he was solemnly crowned with the diadem of that kingdom, which is said to be the same that is now used for the coronation of the Russian sovereigns. The province of Permia, with great part of Lapland and Asiatic Bulgaria, soon submitted to him; and Great Novogrod, a city then so famous, that the Russians used to express its vast importance by the proverbial expression of, Who can resist God and the Great Novogrod? was reduced by his generals after a seven years siege, and yielded him an immense treasure; no less, say some writers, than 300 cart loads of gold and silver, and other valuable effects.

Alexander Witold, waiwode of Lithuania, was in possession of this rich place, from which he had exacted for some years an annual tribute of 100,000 rubles, a prodigious sum for those days and for that country; when it was taken by John Baflowitz, who, the better to secure his conquest, put it under the protection of the Poles, voluntarily rendered himself their tributary for it, and accepted a governor from the hand of their king Casimir, a weak and indolent prince, from whom he well knew he had nothing to fear. The Novogrodians continued to enjoy all their privileges till about two years after; when John, ambitious of reigning without control, entered the city with a numerous retinue, under pretence of keeping to the Greek faith, who, said he, intended to embrace the Roman religion; and with the assistance of the archbishop Theophilus, stripped them all of their remaining riches. He then deposed the treacherous prelate, and established over Novogrod new magistrates, creatures of his own; destroying at once, by this means, a noble city, which had its liberties been protected, and its trade encouraged, might have proved to him an inexhaustible fund of wealth. All the north beheld with terror and astonishment the rapid increase of the victor's power: for

The Poles, however, complained loudly of his late breach of faith in regard to Novogrod, and threatened vengeance upon which Baflowitz, elated with his successes, with the riches he had amassed, and with the weak condition of most of his neighbours, sent a body of troops into Lithuania, and soon became master of several of its towns. Casimir applied for alliance to Matthias king of Hungary: but was answered by this laft, that his own soldiery were quite undisciplined; peace, that his auxiliaries had lately mutinied for want of pay; and that it was impossible for him to raise a new army out of the neighbouring countries. The Polish monarch in this distress, was obliged to purchase of John a cessation of arms for two years, during which the Muscovite made new acquisitions to his dominions.

The dukes of Servia, whose territories were about 500 miles in extent, had long thought themselves ill used by the Lithuanians on account of their religion, which was that of the Greek church; and wanted to withdraw from their subjection to Poland, and put themselves under the protection of Russia. The following accident afforded them the wished-for pretence. Their envoys arriving at Wilna, desired admittance to the king's presence: which being refused, one of them endeavoured to force his way in; but the porter shut the door rudely against him, and in so doing broke one of his fingers. The servant was immediately put to death for this offence: but the Servians, by no means satisfied with that, returned home in great fury, and prevailed upon their countrymen to submit themselves and their country to the Muscovites. Casimir made several attempts to recall them, but to no purpose.

Matthias king of Hungary dying about this time, two of his sons, Uladislaus, then king of Bohemia, and John Albert, contended for the vacant crown. Casimir wanted to give it to the latter, whom he accordingly assisted to the utmost of his power; and to enable him the better so to do, though he was in great want of money as well as men, he purchased a renewal of the truce with the Russians, and thereby gave John Baflowitz time to establish himself in his new acquisitions.

Casimir died in the year 1492, and was succeeded on the throne of Poland by his son John Albert, who totally disregarding the Russians, involved himself unnecessarily in a war with the brave Stephen, duke of Moldavia: and though he had at the same time both the Tartars and Turks against him, his propensity to pleasure, and his lascivious disposition, rendered him so indolent, that he not only did not so much as attempt to molest Baflowitz in any of his possessions, but concluded a peace with him on terms very advantageous to the latter; and even entered into a treaty, by which he stipulated not to assist the Lithuanians, though they had chosen his brother Alexander for their duke, in case the Russians should attack them, as it was supposed they would. Alexander thinking to parry the inconveniences of this agreement, and to guard against the designs of his enemies, demanded in marriage Baflowitz's daughter, Helena, by his second wife Sophia, and obtained her. The Lithuanians then flattered themselves with a prospect of tranquillity: but the ambitious czar, for Baflowitz had assumed that title since his conquest of Casan, aiming only at the increase of dominion, soon found a pretence to break with his new allies, by alleging, that Polish Russia, as far as the river Berezina, had formerly belonged to his ancestors, and therefore should be his; and that Alexander, by his marriage-contract, had engaged to build a Greek church at Wilna for his Russian comfort, which he had not done, but on the contrary endeavoured to force the Polish Russians to embrace the religion of the church of Rome. In consequence of this plea, he sent into the territories of his son-in-law, by different ways, three armies, which reduced several places, destroyed the country about Smolensk, and defeated the Lithuanian field-marshal Oktroiski, near the river Wiedra, where he fell unawares into an ambush of the Russians. Alexander raised a new army of Silesians, Bohemians, and Moravians; but they came too late, the Russians having retired with their plunder. Elated by their success against the Lithuanians, they invaded Livonia in the year 1502, with 130,000 men; but Walter Von Plettenberg, grand-master of the knights of the cross, with only 12,000 men, gave them a total overthrow; killing 10,000 of his enemies, with scarce any loss on his own side. Baslowitz dispirited by this defeat, and being then engaged in a war with the Tartars, the Poles, and the city of Pleskow, immediately dispatched an embassy to Plettenberg, and concluded a truce with him for 50 years. At the same time he begged of that general to send to Moscow, that he might see him, one of the iron-dragons, as he called them, who had performed wonders in the late engagement. Von Plet- tenberg readily complied; and the czar, struck with admiration, rewarded the courier's accomplishments with considerable honours and presents.

Alexander had been elected king of Poland upon the death of his brother John Albert, which happened in the beginning of this year: but the Poles refused to crown his consort Helena, because she adhered to the Greek religion. Provoked at this affront, and pro- bably still more stimulated by ambition, Baslowitz re- solved again to try his fortune with them; and accord- ingly ordered his son Demetrius, now the eldest, to march against Smolensk, and reduce that city. The young prince did all that could be done; but the vi- gorous resistance of the besieged, and the arrival of the king of Poland with a numerous army, obliged the Russians to raise the siege and return home; and the czar was glad to make a fresh truce with the Poles for six years, upon the easy terms of only returning the prisoners he had taken. Some writers say, that flying into a violent passion with his son the moment he saw him, and imputing the miscarriage of this expedition to his want of courage or conduct, he gave him a blow which laid him dead at his feet; to which is added, that remorse for this rash action carried his father to his grave: but this account is not confirmed by authors whose authority can be relied on. Certain it is, how- ever, that neither of them long survived this event; and that Demetrius died first: for Sophia, who had gained an absolute ascendant over her husband, and wanted to give the sovereignty to her own children, persuaded him by various artful insinuations, to set aside and im- prison his grandson Demetrius, the only child of the late John, whom he had by his first wife Maria, and declare her then eldest son, Gabriel, his successor. Age and infirmities had rendered the czar so weak, that he blindly followed the iniquitous advice; but shortly af- ter, finding his end approach, he sent for young De- metrius, expressed great repentance for his barbarity towards him, and on his deathbed declared him his lawful successor. He died in November 1505, after a reign of 55 years; leaving behind him an immense suc- cessor territory, chiefly of his own acquiring.

The czar was no sooner dead, than his son Gabriel who takes the name of Iwanowitz, at the instigation of his mother Sophia, put an end to the life of the young Demetrius, by confining him in prison, where he perished with hunger and cold; after which Gabriel was crowned by the name of Basilus, and took the title of czar, as well as all the rest belonging to the sovereignty. On his accession to the throne he expected that the Poles would be in confusion about the election of a new sovereign; but his expectations being defeated by their unanimous elec- tion of Sigismund I., a prince of a mild and peaceable disposition, he sent an army into Lithuania, and laid siege to Smolensk. The place made a brave resistance, till news arrived that the crown-troops of Poland were coming to their assistance, with the additional aid of 80,000 Crimean Tartars; on which the Russians returned and smashed home with the utmost precipitation. They were, how- ever, quickly followed by the Poles, who reduced the czar to submit to such terms as they pleased to impose. Basilus remained quiet till he thought himself capable of revenging the injuries he had sustained; after which, pretending to set out upon some other expedition, he marched with a numerous army, and encamped in the neighbourhood of Pleskow, where the Poles, presum- ing on the late treaty, received him as a friend and ally. But in the mean time the Muscovite priests of the Greek church preached to their hearers concerning the expediency of having a sovereign of their own religion; and brought them to such a height of enthusiasm, that they murdered their magistrates, and opened their gates to the czar, who made them all slaves, and sent them away to different parts, replacing them with Musco- vites, the better to secure his conquest. Soon after he took also the city of Smolensk; and the Swedes alarmed at his rapid progress, desired a prolongation of the truce, at that time subsisting between the two states, for 60 years longer. The duchy of Lithuania was the great object of the designs of Baslowitz; and to ac- complish his design, he ordered Iwan Czadzin, a man of great resolution, and enterprising even to rashness, to march thither with 80,000 men. The army of the Bat is at Poles, which did not exceed 35,000 men, but was com- manded by a most experienced general. The two ar- mies met on the opposite banks of the Dnieper, near Orsova, and the Poles passed that river in sight of their enemies. Czadzin's officers advised him to fall upon the enemy when about half of them had crossed the ri- ver; but that general, too confident of success, replied, that the other half would then run away, and he was determined to gain a complete victory. The Lithua- nians began the attack, but were repulsed by the Rus- sians; who imprudently following them, lost an advan- tageous situation, and found themselves at once expo- sed to the full fire of the enemy's artillery. The Polish cavalry then rushed in among them sword in hand, and made dreadful havoc; the trembling Russians scarce even attempting to defend themselves. Those who en- deavoured Basilius was at Smolensko when he received the news of this dreadful defeat; on which he immediately fled to Moscow, where his danger increased daily. The Crimean-Tartars ravaged his dominions, and the emperor Maximilian, with whom he had been in alliance, deserted him; his troops were utterly defeated in Livonia, where he was obliged to submit to a peace on dishonourable terms; but what these terms were, historians do not inform us of. In the mean time, the king of Poland stirred up the Tartars to invade Russia, while the Russian monarch in his turn endeavoured to excite them to an invasion of Poland. These barbarians, equally treacherous to both parties, first invaded and ravaged Podolia, a province of Poland; and then having invaded Russia and defeated the armies of the Tartars in the year 1521, they poured in thither in such incredible multitudes, that they quickly made themselves masters of Moscow. An army, which had been sent to oppose their progress, was defeated near the river Occa; and the Czar's brother Andrew who commanded it, was the very first who fled. Basilius with great difficulty made his way to Novogrod; so terrified, that he hid himself by the way under a haystack, to avoid a dragging party of the enemy. The Tartars, however, soon obliged him to sign a writing, by which he acknowledged himself their vassal, and promised to pay them a tribute of so much a head for every one of his subjects. Besides this, Machmetgerei, the commander of the Tartars, caused his own statue to be set up at Moscow, as a mark of his sovereignty; compelled Basilius to return to his capital, to bring thither in person the first payment of this tribute, and, as a token of his submission, to prostrate himself before his statue. Machmetgerei then left Moscow, and returned home with an immense booty, and upwards of 80,000 prisoners, who were made slaves, and sold like cattle to the Turks and other enemies of the Christian name. In his way back he attempted to take the city of Rezan; but was repulsed with considerable loss by Ivan Kowen, who commanded in that place for the Russians. Here the Tartar general narrowly escaped with his life, his coat being shot thro' with a musket-ball; and the Muscovites pulled down his statue, and broke it to pieces as soon as the conquerors had left them.

The Tartars were no sooner gone, than Basilius began to talk in a high strain of the revenge he intended to take of them; but was never able to execute his threats. He died in 1533; and was succeeded by his son Iwan, or John Basilowitzy, an infant of five years of age.

During the minority of the young prince, his two uncles Andrew and George endeavoured to deprive him of the crown; but their attempts were defeated by the care and activity of his guardians; and the Poles also immediately commenced hostilities, but could make little progress. The new Czar, as soon as he entered the 19th year of his age, showed an inclination for releasing his subjects out of that desperate state of ignorance and barbarism in which they had been hitherto immersed. He sent a splendid embassy to the emperor Charles V., who was then at Augsburg, to desire the renewal of the treaty of friendship which had been concluded with his father Maximilian; and offering to enter into a league with him against the Turks, as enemies to the Christian religion; for his further information in which, particularly in regard to the doctrine and ceremonies of the Latin church, he requested that his ambassador might be allowed to send from Germany to Russia proper priests to instruct him and his subjects. With these he likewise desired to have some wise and experienced statesmen, able to civilize the wild people under his government; and also, the better to help to polish them, he requested that he would send mechanics and artists of every kind; in return for all which he offered to furnish two tons of gold yearly, for 20 years together, to be employed in the war against the Turks. The emperor readily agreed to the desire of the Czar; and the Russian ambassador accordingly engaged upwards of 300 German artists, who were directed to repair to Lubeck, in order to proceed from thence to Livonia. But the Lubeckers, who were very powerful at that time, and aimed at nothing less than the engrossing of the whole commerce of the north, stopped them, and represented strongly to the emperor, in the name of all the merchants going in Livonia, the dangerous consequence of thus affording instructions to the Russians, who would soon avail themselves of it to ruin their trade, and distress the subjects of his Imperial majesty. The workmen and others intended for Russia, were easily prevailed upon to return to their respective homes; and the Czar's ambassador was arrested upon his arrival at Lubeck, and imprisoned there at the suit of the Livonians; however, he made his escape shortly after; and the Czar, tho' provoked to the last degree at the behaviour of the Lubeckers, was obliged for some time to suspend his resentment.

The first enterprise of Basilowitz now was against the Tartars of Calan, who had hitherto been such formidable enemies. In this he was attended with great success; the whole territory was conquered in seven years; but the capital, named also Calan, being well fortified and bravely defended, made such resistance as quite disheartened the besiegers, and made them think of abandoning their enterprise. Basilowitz being informed of this, hastened to them with a considerable reinforcement, endeavouring to revive their drooping courage, and exhorting them to push the siege with redoubled vigour. However, the greater part, deaf to all his remonstrances, after loudly insisting upon a peace with the Tartars, and leave to return home, proceeded to mutiny, and fell upon their comrades who were for continuing the war. Basilowitz, alarmed at this event, rushed in among the combatants, and with great difficulty parted them; but neither menaces nor intrigues, nor even a promise of giving them the whole plunder of the city if they took it, could prevail on them to continue the war. Their rage at last prompted them to threaten the life of their sovereign; who, to provide for his own safety, was obliged to make the best of his way to Moscow; and the mutineers, no longer regarding any command, instantly returned thither.

Basilowitz, though justly incensed at this insolence, took a method of punishing it which does honour to his humanity. Having selected a guard of 2000 of ing a treach- his best troops, he ordered a great feast, to which he invited his principal nobles and officers, to each of whom, according to the Russian custom, he gave very rich garments. The chief of the seditionists were clothed in black velvet; and after the dinner was over, he made a speech to the whole company, setting forth the behaviour of his troops before Casan, their contempt of his commands, and their conspiracy to take away his life: to which he added, that he was doubly sorry to find the instigators of such wickedness among those who were styled, and who ought to be, his faithful counsellors; and that those who knew themselves to be guilty of such atrocious wickedness, could not do better than voluntarily to submit themselves to his mercy. Upon this, most of them immediately threw themselves at his feet, and implored his pardon. Some of the most criminal were executed, but the rest were only imprisoned.

Immediately after this punishment of the rebels, Basiliowitz marched with a fresh army to re-invade Casan before the Tartars had time to recover themselves. The besieged still made an obstinate defence, and the Russians again began to be dispirited; upon which the Czar ordered his pioneers to undermine the walls of the citadel, a practice then quite unknown to the Tartars. This work being completed, he directed his priests to read a solemn mass to the whole army, at the head of which he afterwards spent some time in private prayer, and then ordered fire to be set to the powder, which acted so effectually, that great part of the foundation was immediately blown up, and the Muscovites rushing into the city, slaughtered all before them; while the astonished Tartars, crowding out at the opposite gate, crossed the river Casanka, and fled into the forests. Among the prisoners taken on this occasion were Simeon king of Casan with his queen; both of whom were sent to Moscow, where they were treated with the utmost civility and respect.

Encouraged by this success, Basiliowitz invaded the country of Astrakan, the capital of which he soon reduced; after which he prepared to revenge himself on the Livonians for their behaviour in stopping the German artists. John Basiliowitz I. had concluded a truce with these people for 50 years; which being now expired, Iodocus, a Reckarchbishop of Dorpt and canon of Munster in Westphalia, sensible of the danger to which he was exposed by the vicinity of the Russians, requested the Czar to give him a prolongation of the truce. Basiliowitz desired him to choose whether he would have a truce for five years longer, on condition that all the inhabitants of his archbishopric should pay to him the annual tribute of a fifth part of a ducat for each person, which the people of Dorpt had formerly agreed to pay to the grand-dukes of Pletskow; or, for 20 years, on this farther condition that he and the Livonians should rebuild all the Russian churches which had been demolished in their territories at the time of the reformation, and allow his subjects the free exercise of their religion. Iodocus evaded an answer as long as he could; but finding at last that the affair grew serious, he levied a considerable sum from his subjects, and fled with it to Münster, where he resigned his prebend and married a wife. His successor, whose name was Herman, and the deputies from Livonia, accepted of the conditions, and swore to observe them; with this additional clause, that the priests of the Roman communion should be exempted from paying tribute.

But though the Livonians swore to the observation of these terms, they were at that very time in treaty with Gustavus Vasa, king of Sweden, to join them in attacking Russia. The king of Sweden very readily complied with their desires; upon which Basiliowitz invaded Finland. Gustavus advanced against him with a powerful army; but as neither the Poles nor Livonians gave him any assistance, he was obliged to conclude a treaty with the Czar, and soon after to evacuate the country. Finland was at this time governed by William of Furstenberg, grand-master of the Livonian knights, and the archbishop of Riga, with some other prelates; between whom a quarrel happened about this time, which soon facilitated the designs of Basiliowitz on the country. The archbishop, after attempting to set himself above the grand-master even in civil affairs, and to persecute those who adhered to the confession of Augsburg, chose for his coadjutor in the archbishopric of Riga, Christopher duke of Mecklenburg. From the abilities and haughty temper of this lord, the Livonian knights apprehended that they had reason to fear the same fate which had befallen the Teutonic order in Prussia; and the step itself was, besides, unprecedented, and contrary to the established laws of the country. These discontentments were heightened by letters said to be intercepted from the archbishop to his brother Albert duke of Prussia, inviting this last totally to suppress the order of Livonian knights, and to secularize their possessions, especially in Finland; so that an open war broke out among the contending parties, and the archbishop was seized and made prisoner. He was, however, soon released, through the mediation of the emperor of Germany and other potentates, backed by the powerful preparations of the Prussians to avenge his cause; but in the meantime, the strength of their country being totally exhausted, the Livonians were obliged, instead of preparing for war, to sue to the Czar for peace. Basiliowitz replied, that he did not believe their intentions to be sincere while they kept 6000 Germans in pay; and therefore, if they meant to treat of peace, they must begin with dismissing these troops. The Livonians, having no longer any power to resist, did as they were ordered; but it availed them nothing. In Livonia, an army of 100,000 Russians entered the district of Dorpt, and laid every thing waste before the Russians with the most shocking cruelty. After this they entered the territories of Riga, where they behaved with equal inhumanity; and having at last satisfied themselves with blood and treasure, they retired with an immense booty and a great number of prisoners.

The Livonians, now thoroughly convinced of their own folly in exposing themselves to the resentment of the exasperated Russians, sent ambassadors to sue for peace in good earnest. There offered the Czar a present of 30,000 ducats, and prevailed upon him to grant their nation a truce for four months, during which they returned home to get the money. But in this interval the Livonian governor of the city of Nertska, out of an idle frolic, fired some cannon against Ivanogorod or Russian Neret, situated on the opposite side of the river, and killed several of the Czar's subjects. The Ruffians, out of regard to the truce, did not even attempt to make reprisals; but immediately acquainted Basilowitz with what had happened; which so incensed the Czar, that when the Livonian ambassadors arrived he told them, he looked upon their nation to be a set of perfumed wretches, who had renounced all honesty; that they might go back with their money and proposals, and let their countrymen know that his vengeance would soon overtake them.

The ambassadors were scarce arrived in Livonia, when an army of 300,000 Ruffians entered the district of Nerva, under the command of Peter Sifegaledrii, who had been a famous pirate in the Euxine sea. He took the city of Nerva in nine days, and very speedily made himself master of Dorpt, where he found immense treasures. Several other garrisons, terrified by the approach of such numbers, quitted their posts; so that the Ruffians became masters of a great part of Livonia almost without opposition. At last, Gothard Kettler, grand-master of the knights of Livonia, invited Christian III., king of Denmark, to take Rigas, Reval, and the countries of Garnland, Wirland, and Esthonia, under his protection; but the advanced age of that monarch, the distance of the places, and the want of sufficient power to withstand so potent an adversary, made him decline the offer. However, he assisted them with some money and powder, of which they stood greatly in need. Having then applied, without success, first to the emperor of Germany, and then to the court of Sweden, Kettler put himself under the protection of the Poles, who had hitherto been such formidable enemies to the Ruffians. In the meantime the latter pursued their conquests; they took the city of Marienburg, laid waste the district of Riga, destroyed Garnland, and penetrated to the very gates of Reval. Felix, in which was the best artillery of the whole country, became theirs by the treachery of its garrison; and here William of Furstenberg, the old grand-master was taken, and ended his days in a prison at Moscow.

The distracted situation of the Livonian affairs now induced the bishop of Oefel to sell his bishopric to Ferdinand, king of Denmark, who exchanged it with his brother Magnus for a part of Holstein. The districts of Reval and Esthonia put themselves under the protection of Sweden; and then the grand-master, finding himself deserted on all sides, suppressed the order of which he was the chief, and accepted of the duchy of Courland, which he held as a fief of the crown of Poland.

The Czar saw with pleasure the division of Livonia between the Swedes and Poles, which, he rightly judged, would produce quarrels between the two nations, and thus give him the fairer opportunity of seizing the whole to himself. Accordingly, in 1569, the Swedes offered him their alliance against the Poles; but he, judging himself to be sufficiently strong without them, attacked the Poles with his own forces, and was twice defeated, which checked his farther operations in Livonia. In 1569, he entered into a treaty of commerce with England, captain Richard Chancellor having a short time before discovered a passage to Archangel in Russia through the White Sea, by which that empire was likely to be supplied with foreign goods, without the alliance either of Poland or Livonia. To the discoverers of this new passage Basilowitz granted many exclusive privileges; and after the death of queen Mary, renewed the alliance with queen Elizabeth, and which has been continued without interruption ever since.

In the mean time, however, a prodigious army of Turks and Tartars entered Mulcovy, with a design to subdue the whole country. But Zerebrinow, the off-Czar's general, having attacked them in a defile, put them to flight with considerable slaughter. Then they retired towards the mouth of the Wolga, where they expected a considerable reinforcement; but being closely pursued by the Ruffians and Tartars in alliance with them, they were again defeated and forced to fly towards Asof on the Black Sea. But when they came there, they found the city almost entirely ruined by the blowing up of a powder magazine. The Ruffians then attacked their ships there, took some, and sunk the rest; by which means almost the whole army perished with hunger or the sword of the enemy.

From this time the empire of Russia became formidable, that none of the neighbouring nations could hope to make a total conquest of it. The Poles and Swedes indeed continued to be very formidable enemies; and, by the instigation of the former, the Crimean Tartars, in 1571, again invaded the country with an army of 70,000 men. The Ruffians, who might have prevented their passing the Wolga, retired before them till they came within 18 miles of the city of Moscow, where they were totally defeated. The Czar, who had sooner heard this news than he retired with his most keen and valuable effects to a well-fortified cloister; upon which the Tartars entered the city, plundered it, and set fire to several churches. A violent storm which happened at the same time, soon spread the flames all over the city; which was entirely reduced to ashes in six hours, though its circumference was upwards of 40 miles. The fire likewise communicated itself to a powder magazine at some distance from the city; by which accident upwards of 50 rods of the city wall, with all the buildings upon it, were destroyed; and, according to the best historians, upwards of 120,000 citizens were burnt or buried in the ruins, besides women, children, and foreigners. The cattle, however, which was strongly fortified, could not be taken; and the Tartars hearing that a formidable army was coming against them under the command of Magnus duke of Holstein, whom Basilowitz had made king of Livonia, thought proper to retire. The war, nevertheless, continued with the Poles and Swedes; and the Czar being defeated by the latter after some trifling success, was reduced to the necessity of suing for peace. But the negotiations being somehow or other broken off, the war was renewed with the greatest vigour. The Livonians, Poles, and Swedes, having united in a league together against the Ruffians, gained great advantages over them; and, in 1579, Stephen Battori, who was then raised to the throne of Poland, levied an army expressly with a design of invading Russia, and of regaining all that Poland had formerly claimed, which indeed was little less than the whole empire. As the Poles understood the art of war much better than the Ruffians, Basilowitz found his undisciplined multitudes unable to cope with the regular forces of his enemies; and their conquests were so rapid, that he he was soon obliged to sue for peace; which, however, was not granted; and it is possible that the number of enemies which now attacked Russia might have overcome the empire entirely, had not the allies grown jealous of each other; the consequence of which was, that in 1582 a peace was concluded with the Poles, in which the Swedes were not comprehended. However, the Swedes finding themselves unable to effect any thing of moment after the defection of their allies, were fain to conclude a truce; shortly after which the Czar having been worsted in an engagement with the Tartars, died in the year 1584.

This great prince was succeeded by his son Theodore Ivanowitz; a man of such weak understanding, that he was totally unfit for government. Under him, therefore, the Russian affairs fell into confusion; and Boris Gudenow, a nobleman whose sister Theodore had married, found means to assume all the authority. At last, unable to bear even the name of a superior, he resolved to usurp the throne. For this purpose he caused the Czar's brother Demetrius, at that time only nine years of age, to be assassinated; and afterwards, knowing that no trust could be put in an assasin, he caused him also to be murdered lest he should divulge the secret. In 1597, the Czar himself was taken ill and died, not without great suspicion of his being poisoned by Gudenow; of which indeed the Czarina was so well convinced, that she would never afterwards speak to her brother.

With Theodore ended the line of Ruric, who had governed the empire of Russia for upwards of 700 years. Boris, who in reality was possessed of all the power, and would indeed have suffered nobody else to reign, artfully pretended to be unwilling to accept the crown, till compelled to it by the intrigues of the people; and even then he put the acceptance of it on the issue of an expedition which he was about to undertake against the Tartars. The truth of the matter, however, was, that no Tartar army was in the field, nor had Boris any intention of invading that country; but by this pretence he assembled an army of 500,000 men, which he thought the most effectual method of securing himself in his new dignity. In 1600, he concluded a peace with the Poles, but resolved to continue the war against the Swedes; however, being disappointed in some of his attempts against that nation, he entered into an alliance with the Swedish monarch, and even proposed a match between the king's brother and his daughter. But while these things were in agitation, the city of Moscow was defoliated by one of the most dreadful famines recorded in history. Thousands of people lay dead in the streets and highways, with their mouths full of hay, straw, or even the most filthy things which they had been attempting to eat. In many houses, the fattest person was killed in order to serve for food to the rest. Parents were said to have eaten their children and children their parents, or to have sold them to buy bread. One author (Petrius) says, that he himself saw a woman bite several pieces out of a child's arm as she was carrying it along; and captain Margaret relates, that four women having ordered a peasant to come to one of their houses, under pretence of paying him for some wood, killed and ate up both him and his horse. This dreadful calamity lasted three years, notwithstanding all the means which Boris could use to alleviate it; and in this time upwards of 500,000 people perished in the city.

In 1604 a young man appeared, who pretended to be Demetrius, whom Boris had caused to be murdered, as we have already seen. Being supported by the Poles, he proved very troublesome to Boris all his lifetime; and after his death deprived Theodore Borislavitz, the new czar, of the empire; after which he ascended the throne himself, and married a Polish princess. However, he held the empire but a short time, being killed in an insurrection of his subjects, and the unhappy czarina was sent prisoner to Jaroslav.

After the death of Demetrius, Zuzki, who had conspired against him, was chosen czar; but rebellions continually taking place, and the empire being perpetually harassed by the Poles and Swedes, in 1610, Zuzki was deposed, and Uladlafus son of Sigismund king of Poland was elected. However, the Poles representing to Sigismund, that it would be more glorious for him to be the conqueror of Russia, than only the czar, father of its sovereign, he carried on the war with such fury, that the Russians in despair fell upon the Poles who resided in great numbers at Moscow. The Poles being well armed and mostly soldiers, had greatly the advantage; however, they were on the point of being oppressed by numbers, when they fell upon the most cruel method of ensuring their success that could be devised. This was by setting fire to the city in several places; and while the terrified Russians ran to save their families, the Poles fell upon them sword in hand. In this confusion upwards of 100,000 people perished; but the event was, that the Poles were finally driven out, and lost all footing in Russia.

The expulsion of the Poles was succeeded by the election of Theodorowitz Romanow, a young nobleman of 17 years of age, whose posterity still continue to enjoy the sovereignty. He died in 1646, and was succeeded by his son Alexis; whose reign was a continued scene of tumult and confusion, being harassed on all sides by external enemies, and having his empire perpetually disturbed by internal commotions. In 1676 he was succeeded by his son Theodore Alexowitz, who after an excellent reign, during the whole of which he exerted himself to the utmost for the good of his subjects, died in 1682, having appointed his brother Peter I, commonly called Peter the Great, his successor.

Theodore had another brother named John; but as he was subject to the falling-sickness, the czar had preferred Peter, though very young, to the succession. But through the intrigues of the princess Sophia, sister to Theodore, a strong party was formed in favour of John; and soon after both John and Peter were proclaimed sovereigns of Russia under the administration of Sophia herself, who was declared regent. However, this administration did not continue long; for the princess regent having conspired against Peter, and having the misfortune to be discovered, was confined for life in a convent. From this time also John continued to be only a nominal sovereign till his death, which happened in 1696, Peter continuing to engrave all the power.

It is to this emperor that Russia is universally allowed to owe the whole of her present greatness. The character of Peter himself seems to have been but very indifferent. Though he had been married in his eighteenth year to a young and beautiful princess, he was not sufficiently restrained by the solemn ties of wedlock; and he was besides so much addicted to feasting and drunkenness, the prevailing vice of his country, that nobody could have imagined him capable of effecting the reformation upon his subjects which he actually accomplished. The princess Sophia, whose interest it was to keep him as much as possible in ignorance, had impeded his education. However, in spite of all disadvantages, he applied himself to the military art and to civil government. He had also a very singular natural defect, which, had it not been conquered, would have rendered him for ever incapable of accomplishing what he afterwards did. This was a vehement dread of water; which is thus accounted for. When he was about five years of age, his mother went with him in a coach, in the spring-season; and passing over a dam where there was a considerable water-fall, whilst he lay asleep in her lap, he was suddenly awaked and frightened by the rushing of the water, that it brought a fever upon him; and after his recovery, he retained such a dread of that element, that he could not bear to see any standing water, much less to hear a running stream. This aversion, however, he conquered by jumping into water; and afterwards became very fond of that element.

Being ashamed of the ignorance in which he had been brought up, he learned almost of himself, and without a master, enough of the High and Low Dutch languages to speak and write intelligibly in both. He looked upon the Germans and Hollanders as the most civilized nations; because the former had already erected some of their arts and manufactures in Moscow, which he was desirous of spreading throughout his empire; and the latter excelled in the art of navigation, which he considered as more necessary than any other. During the administration of the princess Sophia, he had formed a design of establishing a maritime power in Russia; and for this purpose he took a model from an old English sloop, which with much difficulty he got repaired by a Dutch ship-builder residing at Moscow, which he first used as a pleasure-boat on a river, and afterwards caused to be removed to a large lake, on which he also caused two frigates and three yachts to be built, which he piloted himself. In 1694 he took a journey to Archangel, where he caused the Dutchman build him a small vessel, in which he embarked on the White Sea; which had never been visited by any Russian sovereign before. On this occasion he was escorted by a Dutch man of war, and attended by all the merchant-ships in the harbour of Archangel. He had already learned the method of working a ship; but, notwithstanding the eagerness with which courtiers generally imitate the example of their sovereigns, Peter himself was the only man in the court by whom this art was understood.

Having reformed his army and introduced new discipline among them, he led his troops against the Turks, from whom, in 1696, he took the fortress of Alop, and had the satisfaction to see his fleet defeat that of the enemy. On his return to Moscow were struck the first medals which had ever appeared in Russia. The legend was, "Peter the First, the august emperor of Russia." On the reverse was Azor, with these words; Victorious by fire and water. Notwithstanding this success, however, Peter was very much charmed at having his ships all built by foreigners; having besides as great an inclination to have an harbour on the Baltic, as on the Euxine Sea. These considerations determined him to send some of foreign nobility of his empire into foreign countries, where they might improve. In 1697, he sent 60 young Russians into Italy; most of them to Venice, and the rest to Leghorn, in order to learn the method of constructing their galleys. Forty more were sent out by his direction for Holland, with an intent to instruct themselves in the art of building and working large ships; others were appointed for Germany, to serve in the land-forces, and to learn the military discipline of that nation. At last he resolved to travel through different countries in person, that he might have the opportunity of profiting by his own observation and experience. Accordingly, in the month of the tour of April 1697, he set out like a private person, in the retinue of three ambassadors, by the way of Great Novgorod. From thence they proceeded through Estonia and Livonia. At Riga the czar desired to see the fortifications of the citadel; but the count D'Albert, the governor of Riga, not only refused his request, but seemed to make very light of the embassy; which provoked Peter so much, that he told him he hoped to see the day when he should be able to refuse the same request to the king of Sweden in person. From Livonia they travelled into Brandenburg Prussia; and having taken the road through Pomerania, arrived at Berlin; from whence one part took their route by Magdeburg, and the other by Hamburg; then they directed their course towards Minden, passed through Westphalia, and at last arrived by the way of Cleves at Amsterdam. The czar had reached this city 15 days before his ambassadors; he lodged at first in a house belonging to the East India Company; but chose afterwards a small apartment in the yards of the admiralty. He disguised himself in a Dutch skipper's habit, and went to the village of Sardam, where many more vessels were then built than at present. Here he admired the multitude of workmen constantly employed; the order and exactness they observed in their several departments; the prodigious dispatch with which they fitted out and built ships; and the incredible quantity of stores and machines, for the greater ease and security of labour. He began with purchasing a boat, and made a mast for himself; by degrees he executed every part of the construction of a ship; and led the same life all the time as the carpenters of Sardam; clad and fed exactly like them; worked hard at the forges, rope-yards, and at the several mills for the sawing of timber, manufacturing paper, wire-drawing, &c. He entered himself as a common carpenter, and was enrolled among their workmen by the name of Peter Michaeloff. They commonly called him Master Peter, or Peter Bar; and though they were confounded at first to behold a sovereign their companion, yet they gradually accustomed themselves to the sight.

Besides this, Peter frequently went from Sweden to Amsterdam, where he attended the lectures of the celebrated Ruysh on anatomy. He also attended the lectures of burgomaster Witsen on natural philosophy. From this place he went for a few days to Utrecht, in order to pay a visit to king William III. of England; and on his return sent to Archangel a 60 gun ship, in the building of which he had assisted with his own hands. In 1768 he went over to England, where he employed himself in the same manner as he had done in Holland. Here he perfected himself in the art of ship building; and having engaged a great number of artisans, he returned with them to Holland: from whence he set out for Vienna, where he paid a visit to the emperor; and was on the point of setting out for Venice to finish his improvements, when he was informed of a rebellion having broken out in his dominions.—This was occasioned by the superstition and obstinacy of the Russians, who having an almost invincible attachment to their old ignorance and barbarism, had resolved to dethrone the czar on account of his innovations. But Peter arriving unexpectedly at Moscow, quickly put an end to their machinations, and took a most severe revenge of those who had been guilty. Having then made great reformation in every part of his empire, in 1700 he entered into a league with the kings of Denmark and Poland against Charles XII. of Sweden. The particulars of this famous war are related under the article SWEDEN. Here we shall only observe, that from the conclusion of this war Sweden ceased not only to be a formidable enemy to Russia, but even lost its political consequence in a great measure altogether.

In 1725 this great monarch died; and was succeeded by his wife Catherine, who governed the empire with the greatest wisdom and prudence till her death, which happened in the year 1727. She was succeeded by Peter II. a minor, and who died in 1730. After his death the regular succession was broken through, and the princess Anne Ivanovna, the second daughter of John the brother of Peter the Great, was declared empress. She maintained the credit of the empire in as high a degree as any of her predecessors, settled Augustus III. on the throne of Poland, carried on a successful war against the Turks, and totally broke the power of the Crimean Tartars. The only error in her government was her confiding almost wholly in strangers, and particularly Germans, with whom she filled her councils and armies; which raised such a spirit of jealousy among the Russians, that in 1741 a revolution took place in favour of Elizabeth Petrovna, the daughter of Peter the Great and the empress Catherine, who was crowned at Moscow in 1742. The most remarkable transaction in her reign was her war with the king of Prussia, of which an account has already been given under the article PRUSSIA. When by her means this monarch had been reduced almost to the brink of destruction, he was suddenly freed by her death from such a formidable enemy, and in her successor Peter III found as warm a friend. This weak prince, however, pushing his plans of reformation to too great a length, was deposed by his wife Catherine II. the present empress; under whose reign a most successful war has been carried on against the Turks, (see TURKEY;) so that now the empire of Russia may be looked upon as superior in power to any in Europe, though as yet far behind with regard to arts and civilization.

Moscow is in general a flat level country, except towards the north, where it is rough and mountainous. Forests abound everywhere throughout this empire. The plains are marshy, or flooded with a great number of lakes, some of which extend above 40 leagues in length. The Ladoga and Onega, on the borders of Finland, are the largest in Europe. The other noted lakes are Brela-ozera, from whence a province derives its name; Iwanofo-cargapol, which lends its name to another province; and Honent, in the neighbourhood of the Great Novgorod.

Moscow likewise boasts a considerable number of large and famous rivers. The Obi, formed by the junction of the Tobal and the Iris, in the 65th degree of northern latitude, runs northward into the Frozen Ocean, opposite to Nova Zembla, and is the boundary between Europe and Asia. The Dwina takes its origin in Wologda, runs a northerly course, and falls into the White Sea below Archangel. The Wolga, or Volga, formerly known by the name of Rha, owes its origin to the lake Uranow, near the frontiers of Lithuania; directs its course south-easterly thro' European Russia, receiving in its route the rivers Mologo, Mosco, Kioma, Ocka, Samar, and above 30 more; then enters Asiatic Russia, and by several channels discharges itself into the Caspian sea, below Astracan: this is the largest and deepest river in Russia. The Don, formerly called the Tanais, takes its rise in the middle of Russia, is swelled by the Weronetz, runs in a south-east direction to Kamiskau; then winding to the south-west, receives the Donets, and falls into the Palus Morotis, or sea of Azoph. The Nieper, formerly the Borislavens, rises in the province of Moscow, runs through Poland, re-enters Muscovy, passes Kiof, waters the Ukrain, and, after a southerly course through Tartary, falls into the Euxine sea at Ocjakow. The Lower Dwina, rising also in the province of Moscow, runs through Poland, which it divides from Livonia, and discharges itself into the Baltic, below Riga. Some of these rivers run a surprising length of course; that of the Wolga exceeds 2000 miles: it washes the walls of near four score towns, and supplies the country with prodigious quantities of sturgeon, salmon, pikes, and other fishes of stupendous size and exquisite delicacy. Along its banks are found trouts, and wild asparagus, of a most delicious taste and flavour: here likewise grow the only oaks that are produced in Muscovy. Tho' the length of the Don, or Tanais, which arises in the province of Rezan, does not exceed 400 miles in a direct line from its source to the Palus Morotis, in which it is lost, it will be found to run above 1000, if traced in all its windings; in the course of which it is swelled by many rivers, waters many cities, and forms a great number of beautiful islands, in one of which is situated Terekcalke, the metropolis of Circalia.

In such a vast extent of country, stretching from the Climate, Temperate so far into the Frigid Zone, the climate must vary considerably in different places. In the southern parts of Muscovy the longest day does not exceed fifteen hours and a half; whereas in the most northern, the sun in summer is seen two months above the horizon. The country in general, though lying under different climates, is excessively cold in the winter. Towards the north, the country is covered near three quarters of the year with snow and ice; and by the severity of the cold, many unfortunate persons are maimed, or perish. This sort of weather commonly sets in about the latter end of August, and continues till the month of May; in which interval the rivers are frozen to the depth of four or five feet. Water thrown up into the air, will fall down in icicles; birds are frozen in their flight, and travellers in their sledges. In some provinces the heats of summer are as scorching as the winter colds are rigorous.

The soil of Muscovy varies still more than the climate, according to the influence of the sun and the situation of the country. The warmer provinces produce wheat, oats, barley, peas, and rye, together with a variety of herbs and fruits; and the vegetation is so quick, that corn is commonly reaped in two months after it begins to appear above the surface of the ground. The natives use no other manure than the snow; which is supposed to enrich the ground, and to cherish and shelter the grain that is sown immediately after harvest. The great variety of mushrooms produced spontaneously in Russia, may be considered as a comfortable relief to the poor, while they appear as delicacies at the tables of the rich. Above 1000 waggon-loads of them used to be sold annually in Moscow. Perhaps it is on account of the scarcity of provisions, that such a number of fasts are instituted in the Muscovite religion.

Besides the abovementioned productions, Muscovy yields rhubarb, flax, hemp, pasture for cattle, wax, and honey. Among other vegetables, we find in Russia a particular kind of rice called pyntha, plenty of excellent melons, and in the neighbourhood of Astracan, the famous zoophyte, or animal-plant, which the Muscovites call bonnaret, or lambkin, from its resemblance to a lamb. [See the article Scythian Lamb.]

Agriculture in general was but little understood, and less prosecuted in this country, until it was improved under the encouragement and influence of that great patriot the czar Peter, who was indefatigable in executing his plans of reformation. The natural ignorance, sloth, and obstinacy of the people, together with the tyranny of the nobles, by whom they are miserably enslaved, were such obstructions to the improvement of husbandry, as nothing but his genius could have surmounted. The most considerable articles in the economy of a Russian farm are wax and honey, by which the peasant is often enriched. He cuts down a great number of trees in the forest, and sawing the trunks into a number of parts, bores each of these, and stops up the hollow at both ends, leaving only a little hole for the admittance of the bees; thus the honey is secured from all the attempts of the bear, who is extremely fond of it, and tries many different experiments for making himself master of the luscious treasure. Of this honey the Russians make a great quantity of strong mead, for their ordinary drink. They likewise extract from rye a spirit, which they prefer to brandy. Muscovy is very rich in mines of silver, lead, and iron, which are worked in different parts of the country, and yield a very considerable revenue to the sovereign.

The wild beasts in the northern part of Russia are the same with those we have mentioned in the articles of Norway and Lapland: such as rein-deer, bears, foxes, ermines, martens, sables, hares, and squirrels. In the more southern provinces the Muscovites breed black cattle, small but hardy horses, sheep, goats, and camels. The breed of cattle and horses has been enlarged by the care and under the protection of Peter. The whole empire abounds with wild-fowl and game of all sorts, and a variety of birds of prey; besides the different kinds of poultry, which are raised in this as well as in other countries. The external parts and provinces of Muscovy are well supplied with sea-fish from the Northern Ocean, the Baltic, or gulph of Finland, the White Sea, the Black Sea, and the Caspian; but the whole empire is plentifully provided with fresh-water fish from the numerous lakes and rivers, yielding immense quantities of salmon, trout, pike, sturgeon, and beluga; the last being a large fish, of whose roe the best caviare is made. Innumerable insects, like those of Lapland, are hatched by the summer's heat in the sand, marshes, and forests, with which this empire abounds; and are so troublesome, as to render great part of the country altogether uninhabitable.

This vast empire is but thinly inhabited, in proportion to its extent; great part of it consisting of dreary wastes of land, desart, forest, and morass. Many parts of it are possessed by people who are in all respects different from the native Muscovites. The kingdom of Siberia, including the province of Dauria, was originally peopled with Tartars, who lived in little hordes or tribes, under distinct governments, and shifted their habitations occasionally; but since the establishment of Russian colonies in these countries, they have learned to dwell in houses, to till the ground, and pay an annual tribute of furs to the czar or emperor. There are other Tartars, however, who still live in tents, leading a vagrant life, without acknowledging the czar's sovereignty. A large tract of land, between Nife Novogrod and Cazan, on both sides of the river Volga, is occupied by the Zeremisses and Morduas, who live peaceably, employing themselves in agriculture, and pay taxes like the other subjects of Russia; but they never furnish recruits for the army. From Cazan to the frontiers of Siberia, the country is inhabited by the Balkirs, a powerful nation, who have some villages, and enjoy certain privileges, of which they are very jealous. The rest of this tract, as far as Astracan and the frontiers of the Ufbeck, is frequented by the wandering Khalmucks, who remove with their tents, according to the season, for the convenience of subsistence. They receive annually from the czar presents of cloth, money, and arms; in return for which they are obliged to serve in his army without pay. This, however, is ill-paid; for they plunder friend and foe, without distinction; and are, on the whole, barbarous, brutal, and savagely cruel.

The Cosacks are distinguished into three tribes, known by the places where they make their first settlements; though they are all of the same nation, speak the same language, profess the same religion, and live under the same form of government.† The Samoides and Laplanders are described in their proper places.

The empire of Russia, including all these different nations, is not supposed to contain above seven millions of souls, the bulk of which number is composed people by the native Russians. These are stigmatized by their neighbours as an ignorant brutal people, totally... Rus.

resigned to sloth, and addicted to drunkenness, even in the most beastly excess; nay, they are accused of being arbitrary, perfidious, inhuman, and delinquent of every social virtue. The severity of the country they inhabit, their want of letters, polity, and commercial intercourse, joined to the depopulation of their government, and the tyranny of the grandees, may doubtless have an unhappy effect on the dispositions and morals of the people, which, however, have been meliorated and improved by the care, affluence, and example of some of their late sovereigns. Certain it is, the vice of drunkenness was so universally prevalent among them, that Peter I. was obliged to restrain it by very severe edicts, which, however, have not produced much effect. They numbered in the city of Moscow no fewer than 4000 brandy-shops, in which the inhabitants used to set away their time in drinking strong liquors and smoking tobacco. This last practice became so dangerous, among persons in the most beastly state of intoxication, that a very severe law was found necessary to prevent the pernicious consequences, otherwise the whole city might have been consumed by conflagrations. The nobility were heretofore very powerful, each commanding a great number of vassals, whom they ruled with the most despotic and barbarous authority; but their possessions have been gradually circumscribed, and their power transferred in a great measure to the czar, on whom they are now wholly dependant. At present there is no other degree of the nobility; but that of the boyars; these are admitted to the council, and from among them the voivodes, governors, and other great officers, are nominated. A Russian boyar is very proud of being corpulent, believing that nothing gives such a dignified air as does a broad face or portly belly. Their surnames are no other than patronymics; for example, the son of Alexis calls himself Alexievitch. They formerly wore long beards, and long robes with stiff sleeves hanging down to their ankles; their collars and shirts were generally wrought with silk of different colours; in lieu of hats, they covered their heads with furred caps; and, instead of shoes, wore red or yellow leather buffings. The dress of the women nearly resembled that of the other sex; with this difference, that their garments were more loose, their caps fantastical, and their shift-sleeves three or four ells in length, gathered up in folds from the shoulder to the fore-arm. By this time, however, the French fashions prevail among the better sort throughout all Moscow.

The common people are generally tall, healthy, and robust, patient of cold and hunger, inured to hardships, and remarkably capable of bearing the most sudden transition from the extremes of hot or cold weather. Nothing is more customary than to see a Russian, who is over-heated and sweating at every pore, strip himself naked, and plunge into a river; nay, when their pores are all opened in the hot bath, to which they have daily recourse, they either practise this immersion, or subject themselves to a discharge of some pailfuls of cold water. This is the custom of both men and women, who enter the baths promiscuously, and appear naked to each other, without scruple or hesitation.

A Russian will subsist for many days upon a little oatmeal and water, and even raw roots: an onion is a regale; but the food they generally use in their journeys is a kind of rye-bread, cut into small square pieces, and dried again in the oven: these, when they are hungry, they soak in water, and eat as a very comfortable repast. Both sexes are remarkably healthy and robust, and accustom themselves to sleep every day after dinner.

The Russian women are remarkably fair, comely, strong, and well-shaped, obedient to their lordly husbands, and patient under discipline: they are even said to be fond of correction, which they consider as an infallible mark of their husband's conjugal affection; and they pour and pine if it be withheld, as if they thought themselves treated with contempt and disregard. Of this neglect, however, they have very little cause to complain; the Russian husband being very well disposed, by nature and inclination, to exert his arbitrary power. Some writers observe, that, on the wedding-day, the bride presents the bridegroom with a whip of her own making, in token of submission; and marriages, this he fails not to employ as the instrument of his authority. Very little ceremony is here used in match-making, which is the work of the parents. Perhaps the bridegroom never sees the woman until he is joined to her for life. The marriage being proposed and agreed to, the lady is examined, stark-naked, by a certain number of her female relations; and if they find any bodily defect, they endeavour to cure it by their own skill and experience. The bride, on her wedding-day, is crowned with a garland of wormwood, implying the bitterness that often attends the married state; when the priest has tied the nuptial knot at the altar, his clerk or sexton throws upon her head a handful of hops, wishing that she may prove as fruitful as the plant thus scattered. She is muffled up, and led home by a certain number of old women, the parish-priest carrying the cross before; while one of his tablers, in a rough goat-skin, prays all the way that she may bear as many children as there are hairs on his garment. The newly-married couple, being seated at table, are presented with bread and salt; and a chorus of boys and girls sing the epithalamium, which is always grossly obscene. This ceremony being performed, the bride and bridegroom are conducted to their own chamber by an old woman, who exhorts the wife to obey her husband, and retires. Then the bridegroom defiles the lady to pull off one of his buffings, giving her to understand, that in one of them is contained a whip, and in the other a jewel or a purse of money. She takes her choice; and if she finds the purse, interprets it into a good omen; whereas should the light on the whip, she construes it into an unhappy presage, and instantly receives a lash, as a specimen of what she has to expect. After they have remained two hours together, they are interrupted by a deputation of old women, who come to search for the signs of her virginity: if these are apparent, the young lady ties up her hair, which before consumption hung loose over her shoulders, and visits her mother, of whom she demands the marriage-portion. It is generally agreed, that the Muscovite husbands are barbarous even to a proverb; they not only administer frequent and severe correction to their wives, but sometimes even torture them to death, without being subject to any punishment for the murder. The canon law of Muscovy forbids the conjugal commerce on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays; and whoever transgresses this law, must bathe himself before he enters the church-porch. He that marries a second wife, the first being alive, is not admitted farther than the church-door; and if any man espouses a third, he is excommunicated: so that though bigamy is tolerated, they nevertheless count it infamous. If a woman is barren, the husband generally persuades her to retire into a convent; if fair means will not succeed, he is at liberty to whip her into condescension. When the czar, or emperor, has an inclination for a wife, the most beautiful maidens of the empire are presented to him for his choice.

The education of the czarowitz, or prince royal, is intrusted to the care of a few persons, by whom he is strictly kept from the eyes of the vulgar, until he hath attained the 15th year of his age: then he is publicly exposed in the market-place, that the people, by viewing him attentively, may remember his person, in order to ascertain his identity; for they have more than once been deceived by impostors.

Such is the slavery in which the Muscovites of both sexes are kept by their parents, their patrons, and the emperor, that they are not allowed to dispute any match that may be provided for them by these directors, however disagreeable or odious it may be. Officers of the greatest rank in the army, both natives and foreigners, have been saddled with wives by the sovereign in this arbitrary manner. A great general some time ago deceased, who was a native of Britain, having been pressed by the late czarina to wed one of her ladies, saved himself from a very disagreeable marriage, by pretending his constitution was so unsound, that the lady would be irreparably injured by his compliance.

The Muscovites are fond of the bagpipe, and have a kind of violin, with a large belly like that of a lute; but their music is very barbarous and defective. Nevertheless, there are public schools, in which the children are regularly taught to sing. The very beggars also aim in a whining cadence and ridiculous sort of recitative. A Russian ambassador at the Hague, having been regaled with the best concert of vocal and instrumental music that could be procured, was asked how he liked the entertainment; and replied, "Perfectly well: the beggars in my country sing just in the same manner." The warlike music of the Russians consists in kettle-drums and trumpets: they likewise use hunting horns; but they are not at all expert in the performance. The Muscovites think it beneath them to dance; but they call in their Polish or Tartarian slaves to divert them with this exercise, in their hours of dissipation.

The Muscovites speak a dialect of the old Slavonic, mixed with barbarisms from the Polish and other languages: but the pure Slavonic is still retained in their bibles and homilies, and even spoken by those who affect to be thought men of letters. The Russians have adopted the Greek characters, which, however, they have corrupted and altered in the shape, and increased the letters to the number of 38. The whole empire was overwhelmed with the grossest ignorance: indeed, human learning was in so little request, that the nobility themselves were wholly illiterate; and even the clergy could hardly read their prayers. They had neither university nor school for the instruction of youth, until Peter, their great reformer, in some measure dispelled those clouds of ignorance, by inviting foreigners into his dominions, encouraging the liberal arts and sciences, obliging his nobles to send their sons to more civilized countries for their improvement, and instituting academies and seminaries in Moscow and Petersburg. These steps were so contrary to the natural disposition of the Muscovites, that no other prince could have taken them with any prospect of success. Nay, since the death of this great man, they seem returning to their old bigotry. Foreigners are discouraged at the court of Petersburg; a gaudy tinsel top is substituted in the room of real grandeur and magnificence; little or no progress has been made in prosecuting the wise plans projected by the czar Peter; and perhaps the whole nation would relapse into its primitive barbarity, were it not for the great commerce with different nations which must necessarily be carried on at Petersburg, and other Russian ports in the Baltic.

The Russians were converted to the Christian religion towards the latter end of the tenth century, as has been already related. Since that period they have confessed the articles of the Greek church, mingled with certain superstitious ceremonies of their own. They do not believe in transubstantiation, purgatory, or the pope's infallibility or supremacy: they use auricular confession, communicate in both kinds, adopt the Athanasian creed, and adhere to the established liturgy of St Basil. They worship the Virgin Mary, and other saints; and pay their adorations to crosses and relics. They observe four great fasts in the year, during which they neither taste fish, flesh, nor any animal production: they will not drink after a man who has eaten flesh, nor use a knife that has cut meat in less than 24 hours after it has been used; nor will they, even though their health is at stake, touch any thing in which hawthorn or any animal substance has been infused. While this kind of Lent continues, they subsist upon cabbage, cucumbers, and rye-bread, drinking nothing stronger than a sort of small-beer called kvass. They likewise fast every Wednesday and Friday. Their common penance is to abstain from every species of food and drink, but bread, salt, cucumbers, and water. They are ordered to bend their bodies, and continue in that painful posture, and between whiles to strike their head against an image.

The Muscovites at all times reject as impure, horse-flesh, elk, veal, hare, rabbit, ass's milk, mare's milk, and Venice-treacle because the flesh of vipers is an ingredient; also every thing that contains even the smallest quantity of musk, civet, and caffor: yet they have no aversion to swine's flesh; on the contrary, the country produces excellent bacon. They celebrate 15 grand festivals in the year. On Palm-Sunday there is a magnificent procession, at which the czar assists in person and on foot. He is apparelled in cloth of gold: his train is borne up by the prime of the nobility, and he is attended by his whole court. He is immediately preceded by the officers of his household, one of whom carries his handkerchief on his arm, lying upon another of the richest embroidery. He halts at a sort of platform of free-stone, where, turning to the east, and bending... bending his body almost double, he pronounces a short prayer: then he proceeds to the church of Jerusalem, where he reneweth his devotion. This exercise being performed, he returns to his palace, the bride of the patriarch's horse resting upon his arm. The horse's head being covered with white linen, is held by some nobleman; while the patriarch, sitting side by side, and holding a cross in his hand, distributes benedictions as he moves along; on his head he wears a cap edged with ermine, adorned with loops and buttons of gold and precious stones: before him are displayed banners of consecrated stuff, in a variety of colours. Above 500 priests walk in the procession; those who are near the patriarch bearing pictures of the Virgin Mary, richly ornamented with gold, jewels, and pearls, together with crosses, relics, and religious books, including a copy of the Gospels, which they reckon to be of inestimable value. In the midst of this procession is borne a triumphal arch; and on the top an apple-tree covered with fruit, which several little boys inclosed in the machine endeavour to gather. The lawyers and laity carry branches of willow; the guards and the spectators prostrate themselves on the ground while the procession halts; and after the ceremony, the patriarch presents a purse of 100 rubles to the czar, who perhaps invites him to dine at his table. During the season of Easter the whole empire is filled with mirth and rejoicing; which, however, never fails to degenerate into heat and debauchery; even the ladies may indulge themselves with strong liquors to intoxication, without scandal. When a lady sends to inquire concerning the health of her guests whom she entertained over-night, the usual reply is, "I thank your mistress for her good cheer: by my troth, I was so merry that I don't remember how I got home."

During these carnivals a great number of people, in reeling house drunk, fall down and perish among the snow. It is even dangerous to relieve a person thus overtaken; for, should he die, the person who endeavoured to assist him is called before the judge, and generally pays dear for his charity.

The Muscovite priests use exorcisms at the administration of baptism. They plunge the child three times over head and ears in water, and give it the sacrament of the Lord's Supper in one species, until it hath attained the age of seven; after which the child is indulged with it in both kinds. They likewise administer the sacrament to dying persons, together with extreme unction; and if this be neglected, the body is denied Christian burial. Soon as the person expires, the body is deposited in a coffin, with a luncheon of bread, a pair of shoes, some few pieces of money, and a certificate signed by the parish-priest, and directed to St Nicholas, who is one of their great patrons. They likewise hold St Andrew in great veneration, and ridiculously pretend they were converted by him to Christianity. But next to St Nicholas, they adore St Anthony of Padua, who is supposed to have sailed upon a mill-stone through the Mediterranean and Atlantic, and over the lakes Ladoga and Onega, as far as Novogrod. Every house is furnished with an image of St Nicholas, carved in the most rude and fantastic manner; and when it becomes old and worm-eaten, the owner either throws it into the river with a few pieces of coin, saying, "Adieu, brother;" or returns it to the maker, who accommodates him with a new image for a proper consideration.

The good women are very careful in adorning their private St Nicholas with rich cloaths and jewels; but on any emergency, these are resumed, and the saint left as naked as he came from the hand of the carpenter.

There are monasteries in Russia; but neither the monks nor the nuns are subject to severe restrictions. The friars are either horse-jockeys, or trade in hops, wheat, and other commodities; the fitters are at liberty to go abroad when they please, and indulge themselves in all manner of freedoms.

Heretofore liberty of conscience was denied, and every convicted heretic was committed to the flames; but since the reign of Peter, all religions and sects are tolerated throughout the empire. Roman Catholics, Lutherans, Calvinists, Armenians, Jews, and Mahometans, enjoy the free exercise of their respective forms of worship; though it was not without great difficulty, and by dint of extraordinary solicitation from different powers, that the Romish religion was allowed. Peter knowing the dangerous tenets of a religion that might set the spiritual power of the pope at variance with the temporal power of the emperor, and being well acquainted with the meddling genius of its professors, held out for some time against the intercession of Germany, France, and Poland; and though at length he yielded to their joint interposition, he would by no means suffer any Jesuit to enter his dominions.

The government of Russia is mere despotism. The whole empire is ruled by the arbitrary will and pleasure of the sovereign, who is styled the czar, a title which is probably a corruption of Caesar. Heretofore he was styled grand duke of Muscovy; but since the reign of Peter, he is dignified with the appellation of emperor of Russia. He is absolute lord, not only of all the estates in the empire, but also of the lives of his subjects; the greatest noblemen call themselves his slaves, and execute his commands with the most implicit obedience. The common people revere him as something supernatural: they never mention his name, or anything immediately belonging to him, without marks of the most profound respect and awful veneration. A man asking a carpenter at work upon one of the czar's warehouses, what the place was intended for, answered, "None but God and the czar knows."

The nobility of Russia were formerly rich and powerful, and ruled despotic over their inferiors; but their wealth and influence are now swallowed up by the importance and authority of the crown, and they are become venal dependants on the government. The czar appoints waiwodes, or governors of provinces; and bestows all offices of consequence, whether ecclesiastical, civil, or military. In a word, he is veiled with the whole legislative and executive power, and all his subjects are slaves existing at his will.

The people of Russia are distinguished into three degrees; namely, the nobility, called knes, or knesas; the gentry, known by the name of dervinins; and the peasants. The knes, or dukes, were anciently the palatinates of Russia, who exercised supreme power, each in his own territory, as an independent prince; but all of them either submitted, or were subdued by the princes of Voldomir, who translated their residence to Moscow, and assumed the title of veliki knes, or "great dukes." The descendants of these noblemen still retain their appellation, though many of them are reduced to the most abject poverty and contempt. In the beginning of this century above 300 knex served as common troopers in the regiment of dragoons commanded by prince Menzikoff. The czar Peter introduced the titles of count and prince of the empire, and instituted an order of knighthood in honour of St Andrew, distinguished by a blue ribbon and star, in imitation of the garter. The dourmins are country gentlemen, who generally hold their lands by knight's service; and in time of war are obliged to appear in arms on horseback. Those are the most happy who live at the greatest distance from court; because they may enjoy their estates unknown and unmolested. In general, they are extremely insolent and oppressive to the peasants, and meanly submissive to the nobility.

All the peasants in the empire are considered as immediate slaves belonging to the czar, to the boyars, or to the monasteries. The value of estates is computed, not by the extent or quality of the land, but from the number of those peasants, who may be sold, alienated, or given away, at the pleasure of their masters. The number of these husbandmen, whether living in villages or in the open country, being known, the czar, by requiring a certain proportion of each lord or proprietor, can raise 300,000 men in less than 40 days.

The administration is managed by a grand council, called dumny boyaren, or "council of the boyars," who are the grandees of the empire, and act as privy-councillors. To this are subservient six inferior chambers and courts of judicature, provided each with a president. The first regulates every thing relating to ambassadors and foreign negociations; the second takes cognizance of military affairs; the third manages the public revenues of the empire; the business of the fourth is to encourage, protect, and improve trade and commerce. The two last hear and determine in all causes, whether civil or criminal.

Peter divided the empire into the eight governments of Mosco, Archangel, Asof, Cafan, Altarcan, Chioff and the Ukraine, Siberia, Livonia, comprehending Ingria, Pletcow, and Novogrod, Smolensko, and Veronitz. The governors or waiodes were vested with power to dispose of all employments civil and military, and receive the revenues. They were directed to defray all expenses in their respective governments, and send a certain yearly sum to the great treasury. In a word, they enjoyed absolute power in every thing but what related to the regular troops, which, though quartered in their jurisdiction, were neither paid nor directed by them, but received their orders immediately from the czar or his generals.

The decision of causes heretofore depended upon the opinion and equity of the judges; but about the middle of the last century, a code of laws was compiled in one volume, intitled, fabrona ulotstnia, signifying universal law; and according to this the sentences are now regulated.

Besides these tribunals, there is an inferior court of judicature or process established in every province, having a president, chancellor, and secretary or diack. The law-suits are neither tedious nor expensive, as all the proceedings are summary: but the judge is very seldom incorruptible; and unless he is tampered with beforehand, the plaintiff generally obtains the sentence in his favour.

Few crimes are capital in Russia: murder may be atoned by paying a sum of money; nay, the civil magistrate takes no cognizance of murder, without having previously received information at the suit of some individuals.

Criminals were punished with torture and the most cruel deaths, till the reign of the illustrious Catherine I., when a more merciful system took place, and which the present empress has since confirmed by law. See the articles CATHERINE I. of Russia, and ELIZABETH PETROVNA.

The Russians drive a considerable traffic with different nations, both of Asia and Europe. One of the commerce, most considerable articles is the iron manufacture, in its different branches of cast cannon, mortars, bombs, anchors, and small arms. They have likewise at Petersburg large magazines of naval stores, leather, tallow, and pot-ashes. The southern parts furnish great quantities of caviar; the north-eastern provinces supply plenty of spermaceti, tea-horses teeth, ifinglais, and train-oil; and Russia produces an infinite number of the best furs in the world, together with abundance of honey, castor, rhubarb, and some other drugs. At the port of Petersburg 1000 ships are loaded yearly by foreigners, with the commodities produced in the northern part of this great empire. But the Muscovites likewise carry on a considerable commerce by land with China and the East Indies, for gold, silk, tea, and porcelain. The court monopolizes this trade, and imports their commodities by caravans of camels. With respect to the revenue of Russia, it continually fluctuates, according to the increase of commerce or the pleasure of the czar, who has all the wealth of the empire at his disposal. He monopolizes all the best furs, the mines, minerals, and trade by land to the East Indies; he farms out all the tobacco, wine, brandy, beer, mead, and other liquors; the inns, taverns, public houses, bath, and sweating-houses. The customs upon merchandize, the imposts upon corn, and toll exacted from cities, towns, and villages, are very considerable. He possesses demesnes to a very great value; inherits the effects of all those that die intestate, or under accusation of capital crimes; derives a duty from all lawsuits; and to sum up the whole, can command the fortunes of all his subjects. All these articles added together, are said to produce about 3,000,000 sterling: but then the intrinsic value of money is at least three times greater in Muscovy than in Britain. The czar Peter seized the lands of the church, and annexed them to his own demesnes; but the greater part was restored in the sequel. As for the lands belonging to the dignity and office of patriarch, they were distributed among the monasteries and nobility.

The standing army of Russia is computed at 250,000 Military men; besides these, the Russians can assemble a body force, &c. of 40,000 irregulars, Calmucks, Cossacks, and other Tartars, who live under their dominion. But the number may be doubled on any emergency. The czarina has likewise a considerable fleet in the Baltic, and a great number of formidable galleys, frigates, fire-ships, and bomb-ketches.