in antiquity, a garden, villa, or grove, situated within a mile of Athens, where Plato and his followers held their philosophical conferences. It took its name from one Academus, or Eacademus, who was the original owner of it, and made it a kind of gymnasium: he lived in the time of Theseus; and, after his death, it retained his name, and was consecrated to his Academies; his memory. Cimon embellished it with fountains, trees, and walks; but Sylla, during the siege of Athens, employed these very trees in making battering engines against the city. Cicero too had his villa, or place of retirement, near Puzzoni, which he also named an academy, where he composed his Academical questions, and his book De natura deorum.

Academy, among the moderns, is most commonly used to signify a society of learned men, established for the improvement of any art or science, and generally under the protection of a prince.

The first Academy we read of, was established by Charlemagne, at the instigation of Alcuin. It was composed of the chief wits of the court, the emperor himself being a member. In their academical conferences, every person was to give an account of what ancient authors he had read; and each even assumed the name of some ancient author who pleased him most, or some celebrated person of antiquity. Alcuin, from whose letters we learn these particulars, took that of Flaccus, the surname of Horace: a young lord, named Augilbert, took that of Homer: Adelard, bishop of Corbie, was called Augustin: Riculfe, bishop of Mentz, was Dametas; and the king himself, David. This shows the mistake of some modern writers, who relate, that it was in conformity with the genius of the learned men of those times, who were great admirers of Roman names, that Alcuin took the name of Flaccus Albinus.

Most nations have now their academies; but Italy has the greatest number.—The French have many flourishing academies, most of which were established by Lewis XIV.—We have but few in Britain; and those of chiefest note go by a different name. See the article Society.

In giving an account of the principal Academies, it seems most proper to arrange them according to their subjects.

I. Medical Academies, as that of the Nature Curiosi in Germany; that founded at Palermo in 1645; another, at Venice in 1701, which meets weekly in a hall near the grand hospital; another at Geneva in 1715, in the house of M. Le Clerc. The colleges of physicians at London and Edinburgh are also, by some, ranked in the number of Academies.

The Academy of Nature Curiosi, called also the Leopoldine Academy, was founded in 1652 by Jo. Laur. Baufchius, a physician; who, in imitation of the English, published an invitation to all physicians to communicate their extraordinary cases; and, meeting with success, was elected president. Their works were at first published separately; but in 1670 a new scheme was laid for publishing a volume of observations every year. The first volume appeared in 1684, under the title of Ephemerides, and the work has been continued with some interruptions and variations of the title, &c.

In 1687, the emperor Leopold took the society under his protection, granting the members several privileges, particularly that their presidents should be counts palatine of the holy Roman empire. This academy has no fixed residence, nor regular assemblies: instead of these, there is a kind of bureau, or office, first established at Breslau, and afterwards removed to Nuremberg, where letters, observations, &c., from correspondents or members are taken in. The academy consists of a president, two adjutants or secretaries, and colleagues or members without restriction. The colleagues, at their admission, oblige themselves to two things: first, to choose some subject out of the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdom, to handle, provided it had not been treated of by any colleague before; the second, to apply themselves to furnish materials for the Annual Ephemerides. Each member to bear a symbol of the academy; viz., a gold ring; whereon, instead of a stone, is a book open, and, on the face thereof, an eye; on the other side the motto of the academy, Nunquam otium.

II. Chirurgical Academies; as that instituted some years ago, by public authority, at Paris: the members of which were not only to publish their own and correspondent observations and improvements; but to give an account of all that is published on surgery, and to compose a complete history of the art, by their extracts from all the authors ancient and modern who have wrote on it. A question in surgery is annually proposed by the academy, and a gold medal of 200 livres value given to him who furnishes the most satisfactory answer.

Academy of Surgery at Vienna, was instituted some years ago by the present emperor, under the direction of the celebrated Brambilla. In this there were at first only two professors; and to their charge the instruction of 130 young men was committed, 30 of whom had formerly been surgeons in the army. But of late the number both of the teachers and pupils has been considerably increased. Gabrieli has been appointed to teach pathology and practice; Boecking, anatomy, physiology, and physics; Streit, medical and pharmaceutical surgery; Hunczowsky, surgical operations, midwifery, and the chirurgia forensis; and Plenk, chemistry and botany. To these also has been added, Beindl, as professor and extraordinary professor of surgery and anatomy. Besides this, the emperor, with his usual liberality, has provided a large and splendid edifice in Vienna, which affords habitation both for the teachers, the students, pregnant women, patients for clinical lectures, and servants. He has also purchased for the use of this academy a medical library, which is open every day; a complete set of chirurgical instruments; an apparatus for experiments in natural philosophy; a collection of natural history; a number of anatomical and pathological preparations; a collection of preparations in wax brought from Florence; and a variety of other useful articles. Adjoining to the building also there is a good botanical garden.

Among other parts of this institution, three prize-medals, each of the value of 40 florins, are to be annually bestowed on those students who return the best answer to questions proposed the year before. These prizes are not entirely founded by the emperor, but are in part owing to the liberality of Brendellius the protochirurgus at Vienna.

III. Ecclesiastical Academies; as that at Bologna in Italy, instituted in 1687, employed in the examination of the doctrine, discipline, and history, of each age of the church.

IV. Cosmographical Academies; as that at Venice, called the Argonauts. This was instituted at the solicitation of F. Coronelli, for the improvement of geographical knowledge. Its design was to publish exact maps, both celestial and terrestrial, as well particular Academy, ticular as general, together with geographical, historical, and astronomical descriptions. Each member, in order to defray the expense of such a publication, was to subscribe a proportional sum, for which they were to receive one or more copies of each piece published. For this end three societies are settled; one under F. Moro, provincial of the Minorities in Hungary; another under the abbot Laurence au Rue Payenne au Marais; the third under F. Baldigiani, Jesuit, professor of mathematics in the Roman college. The device of this academy is the terraqueous globe, with the motto Plus ultra; and at its expense all the globes, maps, and geographical writings, of F. Coronelli have been published.

V. Academies of Sciences.—These comprehend such as are erected for improving natural and mathematical knowledge. They are otherwise called Philosophical and Physical academies.

The first of these was instituted at Naples, about the year 1560, in the house of Battista Porta. It was called the Academy Secretorum Naturae; and was succeeded by the Academy of Lyncei, founded at Rome by Prince Frederic Cesi, towards the end of that century. Several of the members of this academy rendered it famous by their discoveries; among these was the celebrated Galileo. Several other academies were instituted about that time, which contributed greatly to the advancement of the sciences; but none of them comparable to that of the Lyncei.

Some years after the death of Torricelli, the Academy del Cimento made its appearance, under the protection of Prince Leopold, afterwards Cardinal de Medicis. Redi was one of its chief members; and the studies pursued by the rest may be collected from those curious experiments published in 1667, by their secretary Count Laurence Magulotti, under the title of Saggi di Naturali Esperienze; a copy of which was presented to the Royal Society, translated into English by Mr Waller, and published at London in 4to.

The Academy degl'Inquieti, afterwards incorporated into that of Della Tracia in the same city, followed the example of that of Del Cimento. Some excellent discourses on physical and mathematical subjects, by Geminiano Montenari, one of the chief members, were published in 1667, under the title of Perseri Fisico Matematici.

The Academy of Raffano, in the kingdom of Naples, was originally an academy of Belles Lettres, founded in 1549, and transformed into an Academy of Sciences in 1695 at the solicitation of the learned abbot Don Giacinto Gimma; who being made president, under the title of Promoter General thereof, gave them a new set of regulations. He divided the academists into the following classes: Grammarians, Rhetoricians, Poets, Historians, Philosophers, Physicians, Mathematicians, Lawyers, and Divines, with a class apart for Cardinals and persons of quality. To be admitted a member, a man must have some degrees in the faculty. The members are not allowed to take the title of Academists in the beginning of their books, without a written permission from their president, which is not granted till the work has been examined by the censors of the academy; and the permission is the greatest honour the academy can confer, as they thereby adopt the work, and are answerable for it against all criticisms that may be made upon it. To this law the Academy's president or promoter himself is subject; and no academist is allowed to publish anything against the writings of another without leave from the society.

Several other Academies of Sciences have been founded in Italy; but, for want of being supported by princes, did not continue long. The loss of them, however, was abundantly repaired by the institution of others still subsisting; such as, the Academy of Filarnici at Verona; of Ricovatri at Padua, where a learned discourse on the origin of springs was delivered by Sig. Vallifinieri, first professor of physic in the university of that city, and which was afterwards printed. To the Academy of the Muti de Reggio, at Modena, the same Sig. Vallifinieri presented an excellent discourse on the scale of created beings, since inserted in his history of the generation of man and animals printed at Venice in the year 1721.

F. Merfenne is said to have given the first idea of a philosophical academy in France, towards the beginning of the 17th century, by the conferences of naturalists and mathematicians occasionally held at his lodgings; at which Gassendi, Des Cartes, Hobbes, Roberval, Pascal, Blondel, and others assisted. F. Merfenne proposed to each certain problems to examine, or certain experiments to be made. These private assemblies were succeeded by more public ones, formed by Mr Montmort, and Mr Thévenot the celebrated traveller. The French example animated several Englishmen of distinction and learning to erect a kind of philosophical academy at Oxford, towards the close of Oliver Cromwell's administration; which, after the Restoration, was erected into a Royal Society. See Society. The English example, in its turn, animated the French. Lewis XIV. in 1666, assisted by the counsels of Mr Colbert, founded an academy of sciences at Paris, with a sufficient revenue to defray the charge of experiments, and salaries to the members.

Royal Academy of Sciences. After the peace of the Pyrenees, Lewis XIV. being desirous of establishing the arts, sciences, and literature, upon a solid foundation, directed M. Colbert to form a society of men of known abilities and experience in the different branches, who should meet together under the king's protection, and communicate their respective discoveries. Accordingly Mr Colbert, having conferred with those who were at that time most celebrated for their learning, resolved to form a society of such persons as were conversant in natural philosophy and mathematics, to join to them other persons skilled in history and other branches of erudition, along with those who were entirely engaged in what are called the Belles Lettres; grammar, eloquence, and poetry. The geometers and natural philosophers were ordered to meet on Tuesdays and Saturdays, in a great hall of the king's library, where the books of mathematics and natural philosophy were contained; the learned in history to assemble on Mondays and Thursdays, in the hall where the books of history were contained; and the class of Belles Lettres to assemble on Wednesdays and Fridays. All the different classes were likewise ordered to meet together upon the first Thursday of every month; and, by their respective secretaries, make a report of the proceedings of the foregoing month.

In a short time, however, the classes of History, Belles Academies, Belles Lettres, &c., were united to the French Academy, which was originally instituted for the improvement and refining the French language; so that the royal Academy contained only two classes, viz. that of natural philosophy and mathematics.

In the 1696, the king, by a proclamation dated the 26th of January, gave this Academy a new form, and put it upon a more respectable footing.—It was now to be composed of four kinds of members, viz. honorary, pensionary associates, and eleves. These last were a kind of pupils, or scholars, each of whom was attached to one of the pensionaries. The first class to contain ten persons, and each of the rest twenty. The honorary academists to be all inhabitants of France; the pensionaries all to reside at Paris; eight of the associates allowed to be foreigners; and the eleves all to live at Paris. The officers to be, a president named by the king, out of the class of honorary academists; and a secretary and treasurer to be perpetual. Of the pensionaries, three to be geometricians, three astronomers, three mechanics, three anatomists, three chemists, three botanists, and the remaining two to be secretary and treasurer. Of the twelve associates, two to apply themselves to geometry, two to botany, and two to chemistry. The eleves to apply themselves to the same kind of science with the pensionaries they were attached to; and not to speak, except when called by the president. No regular or religious to be admitted, except into the class of honorary academists; nor any person to be admitted either for associate or pensionary, unless known by some considerable printed work, some machine, or other discovery. The assemblies were held on Wednesdays and Saturdays, unless either of them happened to be a holiday, and then the assembly was held on the preceding day.—To encourage the members to pursue their labours, the king engaged not only to pay the ordinary pensions, but even to give extraordinary gratifications, according to the merit of their respective performances; furnishing without the expense of the experiments and other inquiries necessary to be made. If any member gave in a bill of charges of experiments he had made, or defied the printing of any book, and brought in the charges of graving, the money was immediately paid by the king, upon the president's allowing and signing the bill. So, if an anatomist required live tortoises, for instance, for making experiments about the heart, &c., as many as he pleased were brought him at the king's charge. Their motto was, Invenit et perfect.

In the year 1716, the duke of Orleans, then regent, made an alteration in their constitution; augmenting the number of honoraries, and of associates capable of being foreigners, to 12; admitting regulars among such associates; and suppressing the class of eleves, as it appeared to be attended with some inconveniences, particularly that of making too great an inequality among the academists, and being productive of some misunderstandings and animosities among the members. At the same time he created other two classes; one consisting of 12 adjuncts, who, as well as the associates, were allowed a deliberative voice in matters relative to science; and the other six free associates, who were not attached to any particular science, nor obliged to pursue any particular work.

Since its re-establishment in 1699, this academy has been very exact in publishing, every year, a volume containing either the works of its own members, or such memoirs as have been composed and read to the academy during the course of that year. To each volume is prefixed the history of the academy, or an extract of the memoirs, and, in general, of whatever has been read or said in the academy; at the end of the history, are the eulogiums on such academists as have died that year.—M. Rouille de Meslay, counsellor to the parliament of Paris, founded two prizes, one of 2500, and the other of 2000 livres, which are alternately distributed by the parliament every year; the subject for the first must relate to physical astronomy, and those for the latter to navigation and commerce.

Notwithstanding the advantages which the members of this academy enjoy over others, in having their expenses defrayed, and even being paid for their time and attendance, they have fallen under some imputations, particularly that of plagiarism, or borrowing their neighbours inventions; but with what justice we do not say.

The French have also considerable academies in most of their great cities: as, at Montpelier, a royal academy of sciences on the like footing as that at Paris, being as it were a counterpart thereof; at Toulouse, an academy under the denomination of Lanternists; others at Nîmes, Arles, Lyons, Dijon, Bordeaux, &c.

The Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin was founded in 1700, by Frederic II, king of Prussia, on the model of that of England; excepting that, besides natural knowledge, it likewise comprehends the Belles Lettres. In 1710, it was ordained that the president shall be one of the counsellors of state, and nominated by the king. The members were divided into four classes; the first for prosecuting physics, medicine, and chemistry; the second for mathematics, astronomy, and mechanics; the third for the German language and the history of the country; the fourth for oriental learning, particularly as it may concern the propagation of the gospel among infidels. Each class to elect a director for themselves, who shall hold his post for life. The members of any of the classes have free admission into the assemblies of any of the rest.

The great promoter of this institution was the celebrated Mr Leibnitz, who accordingly was made the first director. The first volume of their transactions was published in 1710, under the title of Miscellanea Berolinensia; and though they received but few marks of the royal favour for some time, they continued to publish new volumes in 1723, 1727, 1734, and 1740. At last, however, Frederic III, the late king of Prussia, gave new vigour to this academy, by inviting to Berlin such foreigners as were most distinguished for their merit in literature, and encouraged his subjects to prosecute the study and cultivation of the sciences by giving ample rewards; and thinking that the academy, which till that time had had some minister or opulent nobleman for its president, would find an advantage in having a man of letters at its head, he conferred that honour on M. Maupertuis. At the same time, he gave a new regulation to the academy, and took upon himself the title of its protector.

The academists hold two public assemblies annually; one in January, on the late king's birthday; and the other Academies other in May, on the day of his accession to the throne.

At the latter of these is given, as a prize, a gold medal of 50 ducats value; the subject for this prize is successively, natural philosophy, mathematics, metaphysics, and erudition.

The Imperial Academy of Sciences at Peterburgh was projected by Czar Peter the Great. That great monarch having, during his travels, observed the advantage of public societies for the encouragement and promotion of literature, formed the design of founding an academy of sciences at St Peterburgh. By the advice of Wolf and Leibnitz, whom he consulted on this occasion, the society was regulated, and several learned foreigners were invited to become members. Peter himself drew the plan, and signed it on the 10th of February 1724; but was prevented, by the suddenness of his death, from carrying it into execution. His decease, however, did not prevent its completion: for on the 21st of December 1725, Catharine I. established it according to Peter's plan; and on the 27th of the same month the society was first assembled. On the 1st of August 1726, Catharine honoured the meeting with her presence, when professor Bulfinger, a German naturalist of great eminence, pronounced an oration upon the advances made by the loadstone and needle for the discovery of the longitude.

The empress settled a fund of 4982l. per annum for the support of the academy; and fifteen members, all eminent for their learning and talents, were admitted and pensioned, under the title of Professors, in the various branches of literature and science. The most distinguished of these professors were Nicholas and Daniel Bernoulli, the two De Lisle, Bulfinger, and Wolf.

During the short reign of Peter II. the salaries of the members were discontinued, and the academy was utterly neglected by the court; but it was again patronized by the empress Anne, who even added a seminary for the education of youth, under the superintendence of the professors. Both institutions flourished for some time under the direction of Baron Korf; but upon his death, towards the latter end of Anne's reign, an ignorant person being appointed president, many of the most able members quitted Russia. At the accession of Elizabeth, new life and vigour were again restored to the academy: the original plan was enlarged and improved; some of the most learned foreigners were again drawn to Peterburgh; and, what was considered as a good omen for the literature of Russia, two natives, Lomonosof and Rumovsky, men of genius and abilities, who had prosecuted their studies in foreign universities, were enrolled among its members. The annual income was increased to 10,659l. and soon afterwards the new institution took place.

The present empress Catharine III. with her usual zeal for promoting the diffusion of knowledge, has taken this useful society under her more immediate protection. She has altered the court of directors greatly to the advantage of the whole body; she has corrected many abuses, and has infused a new spirit into their researches. By her Majesty's particular recommendation, the most ingenious professors have visited the various provinces of her vast dominions; and as the fund of the academy was not sufficient to supply the whole expense of these several expeditions, the empress bestowed a largess of 2000l. which she has renewed as occasion has required.

The purpose and intent of these travels will appear from the instructions given by the academy to the several persons who were engaged in them. They were ordered to pursue their inquiries upon the different sorts of earths and waters; upon the best methods of cultivating the barren and desert spots; upon the local disorders incident to men and animals, and the most efficacious means of relieving them; upon the breeding of cattle, and particularly of sheep; on the rearing of bees and silk-worms; on the different places and objects for fishing and hunting; on minerals; on the arts and trades; and on forming a Flora Ruffica, or collection of indigenous plants; they were particularly instructed to rectify the longitude and latitude of the principal towns; to make astronomical, geographical, and meteorological observations; to trace the course of the rivers; to take the most exact charts; and to be very distinct and accurate in remarking and describing the manners and customs of the different people, their dress, languages, antiquities, traditions, history, religion; and, in a word, to gain every information which might tend to illustrate the real state of the whole Russian empire.

In consequence of these expeditions, perhaps no country can boast, within the space of so few years, such a number of excellent publications on its internal state, on its natural productions, on its topography, geography, and history; on the manners, customs, and languages of the different people, as have issued from the press of this academy.

The first transactions of this society were published in 1728, and intitled, Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae ad ann. 1726, with a dedication to Peter II. The publication was continued under this form until the year 1747, when its transactions were called Novi Commentarii Academici, &c. In 1777 the academy again changed the title into Acta Academiae Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae, and likewise made some alteration in the arrangement and plan of the work. The papers, which had been hitherto published in the Latin tongue, are now written either in that language or French; and a preface is added, styled Partis Historique, which contains an account of its proceedings, meetings, admission of new members, and other remarkable occurrences. Of the Commentaries, 14 volumes were published: the first of the New Commentaries made its appearance in 1750, and the twentieth in 1776. Under the new title of Acta Academica, several volumes have been given to the public, and two are printed every year. These transactions abound with ingenious and elaborate disquisitions upon various parts of science and natural history, and which reflect the greatest honour upon their authors; and it may not be an exaggeration to assert, that no society in Europe has more distinguished itself for the excellence of its publications, and particularly in the more abstruse parts of the pure and mixed mathematics.

The academy is still composed, as at first, of fifteen professors, beside the president and director. Each of these professors has a house and an annual stipend from 200l. to 600l. Beside the professors, there are four adjuncts, who are pensioned, and who are present at Academies, the fittings of the society, and succeed to the first vacancies.—The direction of the academy is at present consigned to the Prince's Daftkof.

The building and apparatus of this academy are extraordinary. There is a fine library, consisting of 36000 curious books and manuscripts.—There is an extensive museum, in which the various branches of natural history, &c., are distributed in different apartments; it is extremely rich in native productions, having been considerably augmented with a variety of specimens collected by Pallas, Gmelin, Guldenfaedt, and other learned professors, during their late expeditions through the Russian empire. The stuffed animals and birds occupy one apartment. The chamber of rarities, the cabinet of coins, &c., contain innumerable articles of the highest curiosity and value. The society has this modest motto, Paulatim.

The Academy of Sciences at Bologna, called the Institute of Bologna, was founded by count Marfigli in 1712, for the cultivating of physics, mathematics, medicine, chemistry, and natural history. Its history is written by M. de Limiers, from memoirs furnished by the founder himself.

The Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, or Royal Swedish Academy, owes its institution to six persons of distinguished learning, amongst whom was the celebrated Linnæus: they originally met on the 2d of June 1739, formed a private society, in which some dissertations were read; and in the latter end of the same year their first publication made its appearance. As the meetings continued and the members increased, the society attracted the notice of the king, and was, on the 31st of March 1741, incorporated under the name of the Royal Swedish Academy. Not receiving any pension from the crown, it is only under the protection of the king, being directed, like our Royal Society, by its own members. It has now a large fund, which has chiefly arisen from legacies and other donations; but a professor of experimental philosophy, and two secretaries, are still the only persons who receive any salaries. Each of the members resident at Stockholm becomes president by rotation, and continues in office during three months. There are two species of members, native and foreign; the election of the former is held in April, and of the latter in July: no money is paid at the time of admission. The dissertations read at each meeting are collected and published four times in the year; they are written in the Swedish language, and printed in octavo, and the annual publications make a volume. The first 40 volumes, which were finished in 1779, are called the Old Transactions; for in the following year the title was changed into that of New Transactions. The king is sometimes present at the ordinary meetings, and particularly at the annual assembly in April for the election of members. Any person who sends a treatise which is thought worthy of being printed, receives the transactions for that quarter gratis, and a silver medal, which is not esteemed for its value, being worth only three shillings, but for its rarity and the honour conveyed by it. All the papers relating to agriculture are put forth separately under the title of Oeconomica adta. Annual premiums, in money and gold medals, principally for the encouragement of agriculture and inland trade, are also distributed by the academy. The fund for these prizes is supplied from private donations.

The Royal Academy of Sciences at Copenhagen, owes its institution to the zeal of six literati, whom Christian VI. in 1742, ordered to arrange his cabinet of medals. The count of Holstein was the first president; and the six persons who first formed the design, were John Gram, Joachim Frederic Ramus, Chrifiian Louis Scheid, Mark Woldickey, Eric Pontopidan, and Bernard Moelman. These persons occasionally meeting for that purpose, extended their designs; associated with them others who were eminent in several branches of science; and forming a kind of literary society, employed themselves in searching into, and explaining the history and antiquities of their country. The count of Holstein warmly patronized this society, and recommended it so strongly to Christian VI. that, in 1743, his Danish Majesty took it under his protection, called it the Royal Academy of Sciences, endowed it with a fund, and ordered the members to join to their former pursuits, natural history, physics, and mathematics. In consequence of the royal favour, the members engaged with fresh zeal in their pursuits; and the academy has published 15 volumes in the Danish language, some whereof have been translated into Latin.

The American Academy of Sciences, was established in 1780 by the council and house of representatives in the province of Massachusetts Bay, for promoting the knowledge of the antiquities of America, and of the natural history of the country; for determining the uses to which its various natural productions might be applied; for encouraging medicinal discoveries, mathematical disquisitions, philosophical inquiries and experiments, astronomical, meteorological, and geographical observations, and improvements in agriculture, manufactures, and commerce; and, in short, for cultivating every art and science which may tend to advance the interest, honour, dignity, and happiness, of a free, independent, and virtuous people. The members of this academy are never to be more than 200, nor less than 40.

VI. Academies or Schools of Arts; as that at Peterburgh, which was established by the empress Elizabeth, at the suggestion of count Shuvaloff, and annexed to the academy of sciences; the fund was £4000 per annum, and the foundation for 40 scholars. The present empress has formed it into a separate institution, enlarged the annual revenue to £12,000, and augmented the number of scholars to 300; she has also constructed, for the use and accommodation of the members, a large circular building, which fronts the Neva. The scholars are admitted at the age of six, and continue until they have attained that of 18: they are clothed, fed, and lodged, at the expense of the crown. They are all instructed in reading and writing, arithmetic, the French and German languages, and drawing. At the age of 14 they are at liberty to choose any of the following arts, divided into four classes. 1. Painting in all its branches of history, portraits, battles, and landscapes; architecture; Mosaic; enamelling; &c. 2. Engraving on copperplates, seal-cutting, &c. 3. Carving in wood, ivory, and amber. 4. Watch-making, turning, instrument-making, casting statues in bronze and other metals, imitating gems and medals in paste and other Academies, other compositions, gilding, and varnishing. Prizes are annually distributed to those who excel in any particular art; and from those who have obtained four prizes, twelve are selected, who are sent abroad at the charge of the emperors. A certain sum is paid to defray their travelling expenses; and when they are settled in any town, they receive an annual salary of L.60, which is continued during four years. There is a small assortment of paintings for the use of the scholars; and those who have made great progress are permitted to copy the pictures in the emperor's collection. For the purpose of design, there are models in plaster of the best antique statues in Italy, all done at Rome, of the same size with the originals, which the artists of the academy were employed to cast in bronze.

The Royal Academy of Arts in London, was instituted for the encouragement of Designing, Painting, Sculpture, &c. &c. in the year 1768. This academy is under the immediate patronage of the king, and under the direction of 40 artists of the first rank in their several professions. It furnishes, in winter, living models of different characters to draw after; and, in summer, models of the same kind to paint after. Nine of the ablest academicians are annually elected out of the 40, whose business is to attend by rotation, to set the figures, to examine the performance of the students, and to give them necessary instructions. There are likewise four professors, of Painting, of Architecture, of Anatomy, and of Perspective, who annually read public lectures on the subjects of their several departments; beside a president, a council, and other officers. The admission to this academy is free to all students properly qualified to reap advantage from the studies cultivated in it; and there is an annual exhibition of paintings, sculptures, and designs, open to all artists of distinguished merit.

The Academy of Painting and Sculpture at Paris. This took its rise from the disputes that happened between the master painters and sculptors in that capital; in consequence of which, M. Le Brun, Sarazin, Corneille, and others of the king's painters, formed a design of instituting a particular academy; and, having presented a petition to the king, obtained an arrêt dated Jan. 20, 1648. In the beginning of 1655, they obtained from cardinal Mazarin a brevet, and letters patent, which were registered in parliament; in gratitude for which favour, they chose the cardinal for their protector, and the chancellor for their vice-protector. In 1663, by means of M. Colbert, they obtained a pension of 4000 livres. The academy consists of a protector; a vice-protector; a director; a chancellor; four rectors; adjuncts to the rectors; a treasurer; four professors, one of which is professor of anatomy, and another of geometry; several adjuncts and counsellors, an historiographer, a secretary, and two others.

The Academy of Painting holds a public assembly every day for two hours in the afternoon, to which the painters resort either to design or to paint, and where the sculptors model after a naked person. There are 12 professors, each of whom keeps the school for a month; and there are 12 adjuncts to supply them in case of need. The professor upon duty places the naked man as he thinks proper, and sets him in two different attitudes every week. This is what they call setting the model. In one week of the month he sets two models together, which is called setting the group. The paintings and models made after this model, are called academicians, or academy-figures. They have likewise a woman who stands for a model in the public school. Every three months, three prizes for design are distributed among the elevens or disciples; two others for painting, and two for sculpture, every year.

There is also an Academy of Painting, Sculpture, &c. at Rome, established by Lewis XIV., wherein those who have gained the annual prize at Paris are entitled to be three years entertained at the king's expense, for their further improvement.

The Academy of Architecture, established by M. Colbert in 1671, consisting of a company of skilful architects, under the direction of the superintendent of the buildings.

The Academy of Dancing, erected by Lewis XIV., with privileges above all the rest.

VII. Academies of Law; as that famous one at Beryta, and that of the Sittientes at Bologna.

VIII. Academies of History; as the Royal Academy of Portuguese History at Lisbon. This academy was instituted by king John V. in 1720. It consists of a director, four censors, a secretary, and 50 members; to each of whom is assigned some part of the ecclesiastical or civil history of the nation, which he is to treat either in Latin or Portuguese. In the church-history of each diocese, the prelates, synods, councils, churches, monasteries, academies, persons illustrious for sanctity or learning, places famous for miracles or relics, must be distinctly related in twelve chapters. The civil history comprises the transactions of the kingdom from the government of the Romans down to the present time. The members who reside in the country are obliged to make collections and extracts out of all the registers, &c. where they live. Their meetings to be once in 15 days.

A medal was struck by this academy in honour of their prince: the front of which was his effigy, with the inscription "Johannes V. Luxitanorum Rex;" and, on the reverse, the same prince is represented standing, raising History almost prostrate before him, with the legend "Historia Refugiet." Underneath are the following words in abbreviation: REGIA ACADemia HI-STORiae LUSITanae, INSTITuta VI. Idus Decembris MDCCXX.

Academy of Swabian History at Tubingen, was lately established by some learned men, for publishing the best historical writings, the lives of the chief historians, and compiling new memoirs, on the several points and periods thereof.

IX. Academies of Antiquities; as that at Cortona in Italy, and at Upsal in Sweden. The first is designed for the study of Etrurian antiquities; the other for illustrating the northern languages, and the antiquities of Sweden, in which notable discoveries have been made by it. The head of the Etrurian academy is called Lucamon, by which the ancient governors of the country were distinguished. One of their laws is to give audience to poets only one day in the year; another is to fix their fees, and impose a tax of a dissertation on each member in his turn.

The Academy of Medals and Inscriptions at Paris was set on foot by M. Colbert, under the patronage of Lewis XIV. in 1663, for the study and explanation Academies of ancient monuments, and perpetuating great and memorable events, especially those of the French monarchy, by coins, reliques, inscriptions, &c. The number of members at first was confined to four or five, chosen out of those of the French academy; who met in the library of Mr Colbert, from whom they received his majesty's orders. The days of their meetings were not determined; but generally they met or Wednesdays, especially in the winter season; but, in 1691, the king having given the inspection of this academy to M. de Pontchartrain comptroller general, &c. he fixed their meetings on Tuesdays and Saturdays.

By a new regulation, dated the 16th of July 1701, the academy was composed of ten honorary members; ten affiliates, each of whom had two declarative voices; ten pensionaries; and ten elevos, or pupils. They then met every Tuesday and Wednesday, in one of the halls of the Louvre; and had two public meetings yearly, one the day after Martinmas and the other the 16th after Easter. The class of elevos has been suppressed, and united to the affiliates. The king nominates their president and vice-president yearly; but their secretary and treasurer are perpetual. The rest are chosen by the members themselves, agreeably to the constitutions on that behalf given them.

One of the first undertakings of this academy, was to compose, by means of medals, a connected history of the principal events of Lewis XIV's reign; but in this design they met with great difficulties, and of consequence it was interrupted for many years; but at length it was completed down to the advancement of the duke of Anjou to the crown of Spain.

In this celebrated work, the establishment of the academy itself was not forgot. The medal on this subject represents Mercury fitting, and writing with an antique stylus on a table of braids; he leans with his left hand upon an urn full of medals, and at his feet are several others placed upon a card: the legend, Rerum gestarum fides; and on the exergue, Academia regia inscriptionum et numismatum, infituta M.DC.L.XIII., signifying that the Royal Academy of Medals and Inscriptions, founded in 1663, ought to give to future ages a faithful testimony of all great actions. Besides this work, we have several volumes of their memoirs; and their history, written and continued by their secretaries.

X. Academies of Belles Lettres, are those wherein eloquence and poetry are chiefly cultivated. These are very numerous in Italy, and not uncommon in France.

The Academy of Umidi at Florence has contributed greatly to the progress of the sciences by the excellent Italian translations given, by some of its members, of the ancient Greek and Latin historians. Their chief attention is to the Italian poetry, at the same time that they have applied themselves to the polishing of their language, which produced the Academy la Crusca.

The Academy of Humoristi, Humoristi, had its origin at Rome from the marriage of Lorenzo Marini, a Roman gentleman; at which several persons of rank were guests; and, it being carnival time, to give the ladies some diversion, they took themselves to the reciting of verses, sonnets, speeches, first extempore, and afterwards premeditatedly; which gave them the denomination of Belli Humori. After some experience, coming more and more into the taste of these exercises, they resolved to form an Academy of Belles Lettres; and changed the title of Belli Humori for that of Humoristi: choosing for their device a cloud, which, after being formed of exhalations from the salt waters of the ocean, returns in a gentle sweet shower; with this motto from Lucretius, Redit agnive dulci.

In 1690, the Academy of Arcadi was established at Rome, for reviving the study of Poetry and of the Belles Lettres. Besides most of the politer wits of both sexes in Italy, this academy comprehends many princes, cardinals, and other ecclesiastics; and, to avoid disputes about pre-eminence, all appear masked after the manner of Arcadian shepherds. Within ten years from its first establishment, the number of Academists amounted to six hundred. They hold assemblies seven times a-year in a mead or grove, or in the gardens of some nobleman of distinction. Six of these meetings are employed in the recitation of poems and verses of the Arcadi residing at Rome; who read their own compositions; except ladies and cardinals, who are allowed to employ others. The seventh meeting is set apart for the compositions of foreign or absent members.

This academy is governed by a Custos, who represents the whole society, and is chosen every four years, with a power of electing 12 others yearly for his assistance. Under these are two sub-custodes, one vicar or pro-custos, and four deputies or superintendants, annually chosen. The laws of the society are immutable, and bear a near resemblance to the ancient model.

There are five manners of electing members. The first is by acclamation. This is used when sovereign princes, cardinals, and ambassadors of kings, desire to be admitted; and the votes are then given viva voce. The second is called annumeration. This was introduced in favour of ladies and academical colonies, where the votes are taken privately. The third, representation, was established in favour of colonies and universities, where the young gentry are bred; who have each a privilege of recommending one or two members privately to be balloted for. The fourth, surrogation; whereby new members are substituted in the room of those dead or expelled. The last, destination; whereby, when there is no vacancy of members, persons of poetical merit have the title of Arcadi conferred upon them till such time as a vacancy shall happen. All the members of this body, at their admission, assume new pastoral names, in imitation of the shepherds of Arcadia. The academy has several colonies of Arcadi in different cities of Italy, who are all regulated after the same manner.

XI. Academies of Languages; called, by some, Grammatical Academies; as,

The Academy della Crusca at Florence, famous for its vocabulary of the Italian tongue, was formed in 1582, but scarce heard of before the year 1584, when it became noted for a dispute between Tasso and several of its members. Many authors confound this with the Florentine academy. The discourses which Toricelli, the celebrated disciple of Galileo, delivered in the assemblies, concerning levity, the wind, the power of percussion, mathematics, and military architecture, are a proof proof that these academists applied themselves to things as well as words.

The Academy of Frutifera had its rise in 1617, at an assembly of several princes and nobility of the country, who met with a design to refine and perfect the German tongue. It flourished long under the direction of princes of the empire, who were always chosen presidents. In 1668, the number of members arose to upwards of 900. It was prior in time to the French academy, which only appeared in 1629, and was not established into an academy before the year 1635. Its history is written in the German tongue by George Neumark.

The French Academy, which had its rise from a meeting of men of letters in the house of M. Comart, in 1629. In 1635, it was erected into an academy, by Cardinal Richelieu, for refining and ascertaining the French language and style.—The number of its members are limited to 40; out of whom a director, chancellor, and secretary, are to be chosen; the two former hold their post for two months, the latter is perpetual. The members of this academy enjoy several privileges and immunities, among which is that of not being obliged to answer before any court but that of the king's household. They meet three times a week in the Louvre; at breaking up, forty silver medals are distributed among them, having on one side the king of France's head, and on the reverse, Président de l'Académie, with laurel, and this motto, A l'Immortalité. By this distribution, the attendance of the Academists is secured, those who are present receiving the surplus otherwise intended for the absent. To elect or expel a member, at least 18 are required; nor can any be chosen unless he petition for it: by this expedient, the affront of refusals from persons elected is avoided. Religious are not admitted; nor can any nobleman, or person of distinction, be admitted on another footing than as a man of letters. None are to be expelled, except for base and dishonest practices; and there are but two instances of such expulsions, the first of M. Granier for refusing to return a deposit, the other of the Abbé Furetière for plagiarism.—The design of this academy was to give not only rules, but examples, of good writing. They began with making speeches on subjects taken at pleasure, about 20 of which were printed. They met with great opposition from the parliament at their first institution; it being two years before the patents granted by the king would be registered. They have been severely satirized, and their style has been ridiculed as enervating instead of refining the French language. They are also charged with having forfeited the world by flattery, and having exhausted all the topics of panegyric in praise of their founder; it being a duty incumbent on every member, at his admission, to make a speech in praise of the king, the cardinal, the chancellor Seguier, and the person in whose place he is elected. The most remarkable work of this academy is a dictionary of the French tongue; which, after 50 years spent in settling the words and phrases to be used in writing, was at last published in 1694.

The foundation of an Academy similar to the above, has been proposed at Pittsburgh, by the learned princes Dakhof; it is to consist of 60 members. The plan has been approved by the emperors, who has already given a fund for its support and establishment.

The Royal Spanish Academy at Madrid held its first Academies meeting in July 1713, in the palace of its founder, the duke d'Escalona. It consisted at first of eight academists, including the duke; to which number 14 others were afterwards added, the founder being chosen president or director. In 1714, the king granted them his confirmation and protection. Their device is a crucible in the middle of the fire, with this motto, Limpieza, Faya, y da Esplendor: "it purifies, fixes, and gives brightness." The number of members is limited to 24; the duke d'Escalona to be director for life, but his successors chosen yearly, and the secretary to be perpetual. Their object, as marked out by the royal declaration, was to cultivate and improve the national language; they were to begin with choosing carefully such words and phrases as have been used by the best Spanish writers; noting the low, barbarous, or obsolete ones; and composing a dictionary wherein these may be distinguished from the former.

XII. Academies of Politics; as that at Paris, consisting of five persons, who met at the Louvre, in the chamber where the papers relating to foreign affairs were lodged. But this academy proved of little service, as the kings of France were unwilling to trust any but their ministers with the inspection of foreign affairs.

For a further account of similar establishments, see the article Society.

Academy is also a term for schools and other seminaries of learning among the Jews, where their rabbins and doctors instructed their youth in the Hebrew language, and explained to them the Talmud and the secrets of the Cabbala: Those of Tiberias and Babylon have been the most noted.

The Romans had a kind of military academies, established in all the cities of Italy, under the name of Campi Martis. Here the youth were admitted to be trained for war at the public expense. The Greeks, beside academies of this kind, had military professors called Tactici, who taught all the higher offices of war, &c. &c.

Academy is often used with us to denote a kind of collegiate seminary, where youth are instructed in arts and sciences. There is one at Portsmouth for teaching navigation, drawing, &c.; another at Woolwich, fortification, gunnery, &c.—Besides these, there are numerous academies, especially in London, for teaching mathematics, languages, writing, accounts, drawing, and other branches of learning.

The nonconformist ministers, &c. are bred up in private academies; as not approving the common university education. The principal of their academies are those in London, Daventry, and Warrington.

Academy is likewise a name given to a riding-school, where young gentlemen are taught to ride the great horse, &c., and the ground allotted is usually called the Manege.

Academic Figure, a drawing of a naked man or woman, taken from the life; which is usually done on paper with red or black chalk, and sometimes with pastels or crayons. See Academy, No VI, par. 4, supra.