a country of Indostan in Asia, bounded on the east by the kingdoms of Assam, Tipra, and Aracan; on the west, by Malva and Berar; on the north, by Gehund, Rotas, Benares, and Jefat; and on the south, by Orissa and the bay of Bengal. Its greatest length from west to east is about 720 miles, and its breadth from south to north, where greatest, is not less than 300; though in some places not above 150; extending from 21 to 25 degrees of north latitude, and from 86° to 91° of east longitude.

As this country lies almost entirely within the torrid climate zone, and in the middle of a very extensive continent, it is sometimes subject to such extremes of heat as render it very fatal to European constitutions. Dr Lind is of opinion, that the climate of Bengal is the most dangerous in this respect of any of the English territories excepting Bengoolen on the coast of Sumatra. Part of this unhealthy arises from the mere circumstance of heat; for in all the southern parts of India, heat of the wind blows over land, it is so extremely hot land-wind, and its suffocating as scarcely to be borne. The reason of this is evident from the mere inspection of a map of feet. Asia, where it is evident that whatever wind blows over land, especially in the southern parts, must pass over an immense tract of country strongly heated by the sun; and as in every part of this extensive continent there are sandy deserts of very considerable magnitude, the heat is thus prodigiously increased. This becomes very evident on the falling of a shower of rain at the time the land-wind prevails; for if the wind in its way passes through the shower, the air is agreeably cooled though the sky should be ever so clear; while those who reside only at a few miles distance, but out of the direct line of the shower, will be fainting under the excessive heat. Here indeed when the air is clear, the sun-beams are much more powerful than in our climate, insomuch that the light at noon-day is too powerful for the eyes to bear; and the large stars, as Venus and Jupiter, shine with a surprising lustre. Thus the reflexion of the sun-beams from the earth must necessarily occasion an extraordinary degree of heat in the atmosphere; so that from the winds abovementioned very great inconveniences sometimes arise, similar to those which are occasioned by the Harmattan in Africa. Mr Ives tells us, that it is affirmed they will snap glaas if it be too much exposed to them; he has seen the veneering stripped off from a chest of drawers by their means; and they will certainly crack and chap almost every piece of wood that is not well seasoned. In certain places they are so loaded with fand, that the horizon appears quite hazy where they blow, and it is almost impossible to prevent the eyes from being thus greatly injured. They have likewise a very pernicious effect on such people as are exposed to them while sleeping. This seldom fails to bring on a fit of the barbers, a kind of paralytic distemper attended with a total deprivation of the use of the limbs, and which the patient never gets the better of but by removing to some other climate. These hot winds are made use of with great success for cooling liquors, by wrapping a wet cloth round the bottles and exposing it to the air. The reason of this is explained under the article Evaporation. Mr Ives remarks, that it will thus cool much sooner than by being exposed to the cool sea-breeze. The great cause of the unhealthiness of Bengal, however, is owing to the inundations of the Ganges and Burramooter, by which such quantities of putrefactive matters are brought down as infect the air with the most malignant vapors when the waters retire. Though the rainy season begins in Bengal only in the month of June, the river begins to swell in the mountains of Thibet early in April, and by the latter end of that month in Bengal also. The reason of this is partly the melting of the snow on the mountains of Thibet, and partly the vast collection of vapors brought by the southerly or south-west monsoon, which are suddenly flooded by the high mountains of Thibet. Hence it is obvious, that the accumulation and condensation of these vapors must first take place in the neighborhood of the mountains which oppose them; and thus the rainy season commences soonest in those places which lie nearest the mountains.

The rivers in Bengal begin to rise at first very slowly, the increase being only at the rate of one inch per day for the first fortnight. It then gradually augments to two and three inches before any quantity of rain falls in the low countries; and when the rain becomes general, the increase at a medium is five inches per day. By the latter end of July, all the lower parts of Bengal, contiguous to the Ganges and Burramooter, are overflowed, and present a surface of water more than 100 miles wide. This vast collection of fluid, however, is owing in a great measure to the rains which fall on the low country itself; for the lands in the neighborhood are overflowed some time before the bed of the river is filled. It must be observed, that the ground on the bank of the river, and even to some miles distance, is higher than that which is more remote; and thus a separation is made for a considerable time between the waters of the land-flood and those of the river.

As some of the lands in Bengal would receive damage from such a copious inundation, they must for this reason be guarded by strong dykes to resist the waters, and admit only a certain quantity. These, collectively taken, are said to be more than 1000 miles in length, and are kept up at an enormous expense; yet they do not always answer the purpose, on account of the looseness of the earth of which they are composed, even though some are of the thickness of an ordinary rampart at the base. One particular branch of the Ganges (navigable only in the rainy season, and then equal in size to the Thames at Chelsea) is conducted for 70 miles between dykes; and when full, the passengers look down upon the adjacent country as from an eminence.

As the tide loses its power of counteracting such an impetuous torrent of fresh water, the height of the inundation gradually diminishes as it approaches the sea, and totally vanishes at the point of confluence; which is owing to the facility with which the waters of the inundation spread over the level of the ocean. But when the force of winds conspires with that of the tide, the waters are retarded in such a manner as sometimes to raise the inundation two feet above the ordinary level; which has been known to occasion the loss of whole crops of rice. In the year 1763, a melancholy accident happened at Luckipour, when a strong gale of wind, conspiring with a high spring-tide, at a season when the periodical flood was within a foot and an half of its highest pitch, the waters are said to have risen five feet above their ordinary level. Thus the inhabitants of a particular district were swept away with their houses and cattle; and to aggravate the distress, it happened in a part of the country where it was scarce possible to find a tree for a drowning man to escape to.

For some days before the middle of August the inundation is at a stand, and then begins to abate by a cessation of rains in the mountains, though great quantities still continue to fall on the low country. The inundation does not, however, in its decrease, always keep pace with that of the river, by reason of the height of the banks; but after the beginning of October, when the rain has nearly ceased, the remainder goes off quickly by evaporation, leaving the ground exceedingly fertilized.

From the time that the monsoon changes in October to the middle of March, the rivers are in a state of tranquility; when the north-west winds begin, the north-west winds may be expected once in three or four days till the commencement of the rainy season. These are the most formidable enemies of the inland navigation carried on by the large rivers. They are sudden and violent squalls, attended with rain; and though their duration is commonly but short, sometimes produce fatal effects, whole fleets of trading boats having been sunk by them almost instantaneously. They are more frequent in the eastern than the western part of Bengal, and happen oftener towards the close of the day than at any other time; but as they are indicated some time before they approach by the rising and singular appearance of the clouds, the traveller has commonly time enough to seek for a place of shelter. It is in the great rivers alone that they are so formidable, and that about the end of May or beginning of June, when the rivers are much increased in width. After the commencement of the rainy season, which varies in different parts from the middle to the end of June, tempestuous weather occasionally happens. At this season places of shelter are more common than at any other time by the filling up of the creeks and inlets as the river increases; and on the other hand, the bad weather, when it happens, is of longer continuance than during the season of the north-westers. The rivers being now spread to the distance of several miles, large waves are raised on them, particularly when blowing in a direction contrary to the rapid parts of the stream, which for obvious reasons ought to be avoided.

This navigation is performed in safety during the interval between the end of the rainy season and the beginning of the north-westers; an ordinary degree of attention being then only requisite to pilot the boat clear of shallows and stumps of trees. The season of the north-westers requires the greatest care and attention. Should one of these squalls approach, and no creek or inlet offer for shelter, the steep bank of the rivers should be always sought as a place of shelter, if it is not in a crumbling state, whether it be to the windward or leeward, rather than the other. If this cannot be done, the flat side must be taken up with; and if it be a lee shore the anchor should be thrown out to prevent driving upon it. In these cases the mast... Bengal is always supposed to be struck; and, provided this be done, and the cargo judiciously disposed of, there is little danger of any of the boats commonly made use of being overfet.

The boats used in the inland navigation of Bengal are called budgerous, and are formed somewhat like a pleasure-barge. Some have cabins 14 feet broad and proportionally long, drawing from four to five feet water. Their motion is very slow, not exceeding the rate of eight miles a-day when moved by their oars; so that their progress down the river must depend principally on the motion of the current. From the beginning of November to the middle or latter end of May, the usual rate of going down the stream is about 40 miles in twelve hours, and during the rest of the year from 50 to 70 miles. The current is strongest while the waters of the inundation are draining off, which happens in part of August and September. In many of the shallow rivers, however, the current is exceedingly slow during the dry months; inasmuch that the track-rope is frequently used in going downwards. In towing against the stream the steep side of the river is generally preferred on account of the depth of water, though the current runs much stronger there than on the opposite side. On these occasions it is necessary to provide a very long track-rope, as well for avoiding the falling pieces of the steep bank on the one side as the shallow water on the other, when it becomes necessary to change sides through the badness of the tracking ground. The anchor should always be kept ready for dropping in case the track-rope breaks. The usual rate of towing against the stream is from 17 to 20 miles a-day; and to make even this progress the windings of the river require the boats to be dragged against the current at the rate of four miles and an half per hour for 12 hours. When the waters are high, a greater progress will be made, notwithstanding the superior strength of the current; because the filling of the river-bed gives many opportunities of cutting off angles and turnings, and sometimes even large windings, by going through creeks.

Bengal produces the vegetables and animals common to other countries in the torrid zone. Its great produce of grain is rice, which is commonly exported from thence into other countries. By various accidents, however, the crop of rice sometimes fails, and a famine is produced; and of this there have been many instances in Bengal as well as in other parts of India. One of the most deplorable of this kind happened in the year 1770. The nabob and several great men of the country distributed rice gratis to the poor until their stocks began to fail, when those donations were of consequence withdrawn. Vast multitudes then came down to Calcutta, the capital English settlement in the province, in hopes of meeting with relief at that place. The granaries of the Company, however, being quite empty, none could be afforded; so that when the famine had prevailed a fortnight, many thousands fell down in the streets and fields; whose bodies, mangled by the dogs and vultures, corrupting in the air, seemed to threaten a plague as the consequence of the famine. An hundred people were daily employed on the Company's account, with doolys, sledges, and bearers, to throw them into the river. At this time the fish could not be eaten, the river being fo full of carcases; and many of those who ventured to feed upon them died suddenly. Hogs, ducks, and geese, also fed mostly on carrion; so that the only meat that could be procured was mutton; and this, from the dryness of the season, was so small, that a quarter of it would scarcely weigh a pound and an half.

In the month of August a most alarming phenomenon appeared, of a large black cloud at a distance in the air, which sometimes obscured the sun, and seemed to extend a great way over and about Calcutta. The hotter the day proved the lower this cloud seemed to descend, and for three days it occasioned great speculation. The bramius pretended, that this phenomenon, which was a cloud of insects, should make its appearance three times; and if ever they descended to the earth, the country would be destroyed by some untimely misfortune. They said, that about 150 years before there had been such another bad time, when the earth was parched for want of water; and this cloud of insects made its appearance, though it came much lower the second time than it had done before. On the third day, the weather being very hot and cloudy, they descended so low that they could be plainly seen. They seemed to be about the size of a horse-flies, with a long red body, large head and eyes, keeping close together like a swarm of bees, and, to appearance, flying quite on a line. None, however, were caught, as the people were so much frightened by the prognostications of the bramius. Whilst it rained they continued in one position for near a quarter of an hour; then they rose five or six feet at once, and in a little time descended as much, until a strong north-west wind blew for two days successively. During its continuance they ascended and descended, but more precipitately than before; and next morning the air was quite clear. For some days before the cloud made its appearance, the toads, frogs, and insects, which, during the rains, make a continual noise through the night, disappeared, and were neither heard nor seen, except in the river.

This dreadful famine was occasioned by a preternatural drought. In this country they have two harvests, one in April, called the little harvest, which consists of the smaller grain; the second, called the grand harvest, is only of rice. But by a drought which happened in 1769 the great harvest of that year failed, as did also the little one of 1770, which produced the dreadful consequences already mentioned.

Among the vegetables produced in Bengal Mr Ives Vegetable mentions the areca tree, the woody part of which is produced as tough as whalebone. Here is also a beautiful tree, called chulta, the flower of which is at first a hard green ball on footstalks about four inches in length. This opens, and the calyx is composed of five round, thick and succulent leaves; the corolla consists of the like number of fine beautiful white petals. After one day the corolla falls off and the ball closes again, and is sold in the markets. There is a succession of these for several months. The mango tree grows here also in plenty. Its fruit is preferred to all others in the country excepting very fine pine-apples; the gentlemen eat little else in the hot months when these fruits are in season. If no wine is drunk with them they are apt to produce boils which are troublesome but healthful. healthful. In the walks of Bengal they have a tall tree called the tatoon, said to have been first brought into England by Captain Birch. The leaves are of a deep thinning green, the lower part rather paler where it is ribbed, and undulated round the edges. The fruit is of the size, shape, and colour of an olive, with a moderately thin husk, and a kernel like that of the date; five or six grow on the same pedicel. Near Calcutta is a large spreading tree called the rufa, which makes a fine appearance when in full bloom. The natives say that this and another near the Dutch settlement are the only two in Bengal. They pretend likewise that they can never find the seed; but Mr Ives informs us that this is to be met with in plenty, though in a bad condition, the ants and other vermin being fond of them, that not a single pod is ever to be met with that is not touched by one or other of these species of insects. This tree bears flowers of bright crimson, and all the shades from thence down to a bright yellow. They are in such plenty as almost to cover the tree, but have little or no smell. The fruit is a pod of the shape and size of a large garden-bean, containing four or five fleshy seeds, which easily fall into two when dry. They are brown on the outside, white within, and nearly square, but convex on the sides.

Among the animals to be met with in Bengal Mr Ives makes mention of a kind of birds named argill or burgill (see Ardea, fp. 6.). They are very large, and in the evenings would majestically talk along like as many naked Indians, for which our author at first mistook them. On discovering that they were birds he resolved to shoot one of them; which, however, was very difficult to be done. The Indians showed evident marks of dissatisfaction at the attempt; and informed him that it was impossible to succeed, because these birds were possessed by the souls of bramins. At last, however, he succeeded; and informs that the bird he shot extended 14 feet 10 inches between the tips of the wings; from the tip of the bill to the extremity of the claw was seven feet and a half; the legs were naked, as was also one-half of the thighs; the naked parts being three feet in length. The feathers of the wings and back were of an iron colour, and very strong; those of the belly were very long, and on the breast was a great deal of down all of a dirty white. The bill was 16 inches round at the base, nearly of a triangular shape, and of different colours. In the craw was a land-tortoise 10 inches long; and a large black male cat was found entire in its stomach.

Bengal is reckoned the richest and most populous province in the empire of Indostan. Besides its own consumption, which is certainly very considerable, its exports are immense. One part of its merchandise is carried into the inland country. Thibet takes off a quantity of its cottons, besides some iron and cloths of European manufacture. The inhabitants of those mountains fetch them from Patna themselves, and give musk and rhubarb in exchange.

But the trade of Thibet is nothing in comparison of that which Bengal carries on with Agra, Delhi, and the provinces adjacent to those superb capitals, in salt, sugar, opium, silk, silk-fluffs, and an infinite quantity of cottons, and particularly muslins. These articles, taken together, amounted formerly to more than L.1,750,000 a-year. So considerable a sum was not conveyed to the banks of the Ganges; but it was the means of retaining one nearly equal, which must have flowed from thence to pay the duties, or for other purposes. Since the viceroys of the Mogul have made themselves nearly independent, and send him no revenues but such as they choose to allow him, the luxury of the court is greatly abated, and the trade we have been speaking of is no longer so considerable.

The maritime trade of Bengal, managed by the natives of the country, has not suffered the same diminution, nor was it ever so extensive, as the other. It may be divided into two branches, of which Catek is in possession of the greater part.

Catek is a district of some extent, a little below the most western mouth of the Ganges. Balafore, situated upon a navigable river, serves it for a port. The navigation to the Maldives, which the English and French have been obliged to abandon on account of the climate, is carried on entirely from this road. Here they load their vessels with rice, coarse cottons, and some silk fluffs, for these islands; and receive cowries in exchange, which are used for money in Bengal, and are sold to the Europeans.

The inhabitants of Catek, and some other people of the Lower Ganges, maintain a considerable correspondence with the country of Asham. This kingdom, which is thought to have formerly made a part of Bengal, and is only divided from it by a river that falls into the Ganges, deserves to be better known, if what is asserted here be true, that gun-powder has been discovered there, and that it was communicated from Asham to Pegu, and from Pegu to China. Its gold, silver, iron, and lead mines, would have added to its fame, if they had been properly worked. In the midst of these riches, which were of very little service to this kingdom, salt was an article of which the inhabitants were so much in want, that they were reduced to the expedient of procuring it from a decoction of certain plants.

In the beginning of the present century, some Bramins of Bengal carried their superstitions to Asham, where the people were guided solely by the dictates of natural religion. The priests persuaded them, that it would be more agreeable to Brama if they substituted the pure and wholesome salt of the sea to that which they used. The sovereign consented to this on condition that the exclusive trade should be in his hands; that it should only be brought by the people of Bengal; and that the boats laden with it should stop at the frontiers of his dominions. Thus have all these false religions been introduced by the influence and for the advantage of the priests who teach, and of the kings who admit them. Since this arrangement has taken place, 40 vessels from 500 to 600 tons burden each are annually sent from the Ganges to Asham laden with salt, which yields 200 per cent. profit. They receive in payment a small quantity of gold and silver, ivory, musk, eagle-wood, gum-lac, and a large quantity of silk.

Excepting these two branches of maritime trade, which, for particular reasons, have been confined to the natives of the country, all the rest of the vessels sent from the Ganges to the different sea ports of India belong to the Europeans, and are built at Pegu. See Pegu. A still more considerable branch of commerce, which the Europeans at Bengal carry on with the rest of India, is that of opium. Patna, situated on the Upper Ganges, is the most celebrated place in the world for the cultivation of opium. The fields are covered with it. Besides what is carried into the inland parts, there are annually 3000 or 4000 chests exported, each weighing 300 pounds. It sells upon the spot at the rate of between 24l. and 25l. a chest on an average. This opium is not purified like that of Syria and Persia, which we make use of in Europe; it is only a paste that has undergone no preparation, and has not a tenth part of the virtue of purified opium.

The Dutch send rice and sugar from their settlements to the coast of Coromandel, for which they are paid in specie, unless they have the good fortune to meet with some foreign merchandise at a cheap rate. They send out one or two vessels laden with rice, cottons, and silk; the rice is sold in Ceylon, the cottons at Malabar, and the silk at Surat; from whence they bring back cotton, which is usefully employed in the coarser manufactures of Bengal. Two or three ships laden with rice, gum-lac, and cotton stuffs, are sent to Baffora; and return with dried fruits, rose-water, and a quantity of gold. The rich merchandise carried to Arabia is paid for entirely in gold and silver. The trade of the Ganges with the other sea-ports of India brings 1,225,000l. annually into Bengal.

Though this trade passes through the hands of the Europeans, and is carried on under their protection, it is not entirely on their own account. The Moguls, indeed, who are usually satisfied with the places they hold under the government, have seldom any concern in these expeditions; but the Armenians, who, since the revolutions in Persia, are settled upon the banks of the Ganges, to which they formerly only made voyages, readily throw their capitals into this trade. The Indians employ still larger sums in it. The impossibility of enjoying their fortunes under an oppressive government does not deter the natives of this country from labouring incessantly to increase them. As they would run too great a risk by engaging openly in trade, they are obliged to have recourse to clandestine methods. As soon as an European arrives, the Gentoo brokers, who know mankind better than is commonly supposed, study his character; and, if they find him frugal, active, and well informed, offer to act as his brokers and cashiers, and lend or procure him money upon bottomry, or at interest. This interest, which is usually nine per cent. at least, is higher when he is under a necessity of borrowing of the Cheyks.

These Cheyks are a powerful family of Indians, who have, time immemorial, inhabited the banks of the Ganges. Their riches have long ago procured them the management of the bank belonging to the court, the farming of the public revenue, and the direction of the money, which they coin afresh every year in order to receive annually the benefit arising from the mint. By uniting so many advantages, they are enabled to lend the government 1,750,000l., 2,625,000l., or even 4,375,000l. at a time. When the government finds it impossible to refund the money, they are allowed to indemnify themselves by oppressing the people.

The Europeans who frequent the Ganges have not been sufficiently alarmed at this despotism, which ought to have prevented them from submitting to a dependence upon the Cheyks. They have fallen into the snare, by borrowing considerable sums of these avaricious financiers, apparently at nine, but in reality at thirteen, per cent. if we take into the account the difference between the money that is lent them and that in which they are obliged to make their payments. The engagements entered into by the French and Dutch companies have been kept within some bounds; but those of the English company have been unlimited. In 1755, they were indebted to the Cheyks about 1,225,000l.

The Portuguese, who first frequented this rich country, had the wisdom to establish themselves at Chatigan, a port situated upon the frontier of Arracan, not far from the most eastern part of the Ganges. The Dutch, who, without incurring the resentment of an enemy at that time so formidable, were desirous of sharing in their good fortune, were engaged in searching for a port which, without obstructing their plan, would expose them the least to hostilities. In 1603, their attention was directed to Balasore; and all the companies, rather through imitation than in consequence of any well-conceived schemes, followed their example. Experience taught them the propriety of fixing as near as possible to the markets from whence they had their merchandise; and they failed up that branch of the Ganges which, separating itself from the main river at Murecha above Caflimibuzar, falls into the sea near Balasore under the name of the river Hugli. The government of the country permitted them to erect warehouses wherever there was plenty of manufactures, and to fortify themselves upon this river.

The first town that is met with in passing up the river Principal is Calcutta, the principal settlement of the English towns company. See Calcutta.

Six leagues higher is situated Frederic Nagore, founded by the Danes in 1756, in order to supply the place of an ancient settlement where they could not maintain their ground. This new establishment has not yet acquired any importance, and there is all the reason imaginable to believe that it will never become considerable.

Two leagues and an half higher lies Chandernagore, a settlement belonging to the French. See Chandernagore.

At the distance of a mile from Chandernagore is Chinsura, better known by the name of Dougli, being situated near the suburbs of that anciently renowned city. The Dutch have no other possessions there, but merely their fort; the territory round it depending on the government of the country, which hath frequently made it feel its power by its extortions. Another inconvenience attending this settlement is a sandbank that prevents ships from coming up to it: they proceed no farther than Tulta, which is 20 miles below Calcutta; and this of course occasions an additional expense to the government.

The Portuguese had formerly made Bandel, which is eighty leagues from the mouth of the Ganges, and a quarter of a league above the Hugli, the principal seat of their commerce. Their flag is still displayed, and there are a few unhappy wretches remaining there, who have forgotten their country after having been for- forgotten by it. This factory has no other employment than that of supplying the Moors and the Dutch with mitresses.

The exports from Bengal to Europe consist of musk, gum-lac, Nicaragua wood, pepper, cowries, and some other articles of less importance brought thither from other places. Those that are the immediate produce of the country are borax, salt-petre, silk stuffs, muslins, and several different sorts of cottons.

It would be a tedious and useless task to enumerate all the places where ticken and cottons, fit for table-linen or intended to be worn plain, painted, or printed, are manufactured. It will be sufficient to refer to Daca, which may be looked upon as the general mart of Bengal, where the greatest variety of finest cottons are to be met with, and in the greatest abundance. See Daca.

The sum total of the purchases made in Bengal by the European nations, amounted a few years ago to no more than 870,000l. One third of this sum was paid in iron, lead, copper, woollens, and Dutch spices; the remainder was discharged in money. Since the English have made themselves masters of this rich country, its exports have been increased, and its imports diminished, because the conquerors have carried away a greater quantity of merchandise, and pay for it out of the revenues they receive from the country. There is reason to believe, that this revolution in the trade of Bengal has not arrived at its crisis, and that sooner or later it will be attended with more important consequences and effects.

For the history of Bengal, and its conquest by the British, see the article Indostan.