In the utmost extent of the word, signifies a knowledge of plants, and of the uses to which they may be applied, either in medicine, chemistry, or in the different arts. But as the medical virtues of plants fall properly under the province of the physician, their chemical properties belong to the chemist, &c.; hence the science of botany is commonly restricted to a bare knowledge of the different plants themselves, and of the distinguishing marks whereby each individual species may be known from every other. This knowledge is indispensably necessary for those who propose to apply plants to any useful purpose: for example, though we should suppose a physician ever so well acquainted with the virtues of opium, and a chemist ever so well acquainted with the method of preparing it, yet if both of them were entirely ignorant of botany, so as to be unable to distinguish the particular species of poppy which produces opium from others of the same genus, it is evident their medicinal and chemical skill could be of no use.
The utility of botanical classifications may be further illustrated from the following considerations.
1. With regard to Food. Many animals are endowed with an instinctive faculty of distinguishing with certainty whether the food presented to them be salutary or noxious. Mankind have no such instinct. They must have recourse to experience and observation. But these are not sufficient to guide us in every case. The traveller is often allured by the agreeable smells of smell and taste to eat poisonous fruits. Neither will a general caution, not to eat anything but what we know from experience to be salutary, answer in every emergency. A ship's company, in want of provisions, may be thrown upon an uninhabited coast or a desert island. Totally ignorant of the nature of the plants they meet with, diseases, or scarcity of animals, may make it absolutely necessary to use vegetable food. The consequence is dreadful: they must first eat before any certain conclusion can be formed. This is not the description of danger arising from an imaginary situation. Before the vegetables that grow in America, the East and West Indies, &c. became familiar to our sailors, many lives were lost by trials of this kind: neither has all the information received from experience been sufficient to prevent individuals from still falling a prey to ignorance or rashness.—If the whole science of botany were as complete as some of its branches, very little skill in it would be sufficient to guard us infallibly from committing such fatal mistakes. There are certain orders and classes which are called natural, because every genus and species comprehended under them are not only distinguished by the same characteristic marks, but likewise possess the same qualities, though not in an equal degree. For example: Show a botanist the flower of a plant whose calyx is a double-valved glume, with three stamens, two pistils, and one naked seed; he can pronounce with absolute certainty, that the plant from which the flower was taken, bears seeds of a farinaceous quality, and that they may be safely used as food. In like manner, show him a flower with 12 or more stamina... mina all inserted into the internal side of the calyx, tho' it belonged to a plant growing in Japan, he can pronounce without hesitation, that the fruit of it may be eaten with safety. On the other hand, show him a plant whose flower has five stamens, one pistil, one petal, or flower-leaf, and whose fruit is of the berry kind, he will tell you to abstain from it, because it is poisonous.
Facts of this kind render botany not only a respectable, but a most interesting, science.
2. With respect to Medicine, the same thing holds good. It is found by experience, that plants which are distinguished by the same characters in the flower and fruit have the same qualities, though not always in an equal degree as to strength or weakness; so that, upon inspection of the flower and fruit, a botanist can determine a priori the effects that will result when taken into the stomach. In order, therefore, to determine the medical virtues of all the plants belonging to a natural class, the physician has nothing to do but to ascertain by a set of clear and unquestionable experiments, the virtues of any one of them. This greatly shortens the labour of investigation. Supposing the number of known species to be 20,000; by ascertaining the virtues of one genus, at a medium, you determine the virtues of 12 species. But by ascertaining the virtues of one genus belonging to a natural order, the virtues of perhaps 300 or 400 species are ascertained.
Sect. I. History of Botany.
The origin of this science, like that of most others, cannot be found out from the most ancient histories; but it is very probable, that some degree of botanical knowledge has existed in every age of the world. The first botanical writings of which we have any account are those of Solomon, who we are informed by scripture wrote a treatise upon this subject; which, however, is absolutely lost, not being quoted by any ancient author, nor the least fragment of it remaining. Among the Greeks, Anaxagoras, Pythagoras, and other ancient philosophers, wrote treatises on plants; but their works are also lost; and from the quotations that yet remain in the works of Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny, we learn, that those first botanical writings could convey but very little knowledge.
The historical era of botany, therefore, commences with Theophrastus the disciple of Aristotle. He was born at Eresinum, in the island of Lesbos; and flourished in the third century before the Christian era, being about 100 years posterior to Hippocrates. His work is entitled The History of Plants, and treats of their origin, propagation, anatomy, and construction; of vegetable life, and of vegetation. It consisted originally of ten books; but of which only nine are now extant. In these, vegetables are distributed into seven classes or primary divisions: which have for their object, the generation of plants; their place of growth; their size, as trees and shrubs; their use, as pot-herbs and esculent grains; and their lactescence, or the liquor, of whatever colour, that flows from plants when cut. In his work, about 500 different plants are described.
The next botanist of any note was Dioscorides, a Grecian by birth, but under the Roman empire, being near 400 years posterior to Theophrastus. He describes about 600 plants; and these he has arranged, from their uses in medicine and domestic economy, into four classes, which are thus designed: aromatics; alimentary vegetables, or such as serve for food; medicinal, and vinous plants.
Almost contemporary with Dioscorides flourished Antonius Musa, Cato, Varro, Virgil, and Columella; the first, author of a treatise still extant on the plant betony; the four others celebrated for their useful tracts on agriculture and rural economy.
Pliny the Elder, in his voluminous work intitled The History of the World, hath a botanical part which is contained in 15 books. In these, besides the plants of Theophrastus and Dioscorides, he has given descriptions of several new species, extracted probably from works which would otherwise have been totally lost. Pliny uses scarce any mode of arrangement, except the ancient, but very incorrect, distinction into trees, shrubs, and herbs. His plan, however, extends not only to botanical distinctions, but to gardening, agriculture, and whatever is connected either more nearly or remotely with the science of plants. He gives descriptions of above 1000 different species; but from the want of a proper systematic arrangement, it is often difficult, and perhaps impossible, to determine what plants he or other ancient botanists do really describe.
This want of precision in properly arranging their plants was the reason why the botany of the ancients was always very limited, and after the time of Pliny declined so rapidly. On the destruction of the western empire by the Goths and other barbarous nations, it is not to be thought that botany could survive any more than the other sciences. It was not till near the close of the eighth century, that the ancient botany began again to appear in Arabia. Serapion, well known in medicine, stands first in the Arabian catalogue of botanists; to him succeeded Razis, Avicenna, Averrhoes, Actuarius, &c. An author known by the name of Plato Apulius, or Apuleius, of whose Herbarium very old manuscript copies are preserved in some curious libraries, is supposed to have lived near this period. The works of most of these botanists, however, were only translations and compilations from the Greek writers; so that, for want of a proper systematic arrangement, the science sunk a second time into total oblivion. For near 400 years after Abengueti, an Arabian physician who flourished in the end of the 12th century, scarce any attempts were made in the botanical way. Some obscure writers indeed appeared in several parts of Europe; as Arnoldus de Villa Nova; Platearius; Matthew Sylvaticus; and Bartholomew Glanvil, commonly called Bartholomeus Anglus, a Franciscan monk, descended of the family of the Earls of Suffolk, who lived in the reign of King Edward III. and wrote a book of natural history, intitled De proprietatibus rerum, which was translated into English by John de Trevifa in 1398: but though all these wrote of plants, they were so totally destitute of method, that their works remain one great chaos, from whence it is impossible to extract anything intelligible.
On the revival of letters in the beginning of the 16th century, the botany of the ancients was restored a second time. The Greek writings were translated into Latin, the common language of Europe. Gaza, a Greek refugee at Rome, made elegant translations of Aristotle. Aristotle and Theophrastus, who afterwards were commented upon by Scaliger and Stapel. Dioscorides was also translated and commented on. His best commentators are Hermolaus Barbarus, Fuchsius, Ruelius Cordus, Géfner, and Matthiolius. The most distinguished commentators of Pliny are Dalechamp in 1604, Salmasius in 1689, Harduin, and Guilandinus. Meurrius and Urfinus have written commentaries upon Cato; Campegius and Monardes upon Mefue the Arabian, and Lonicer upon Avicenna. This last hath been translated by several writers, particularly Alpagus, Costaeus, and Plemius, into Latin; and by one writer, Amaltheus, into Hebrew.
Hieronymus Bock, or Bouc, a German, generally known by the name of Tragus, is the first modern who has given a methodical distribution of vegetables. In 1532, he published a History of Plants, in which he describes 800 species; and these he divides into three classes, founded on the qualities of vegetables, their figure, habit, and size. The same method of arrangement was followed by Lonicer, Dodonaeus, L'Obel, Clusius, Brunfelsius, Menordes, Cordus, and some other botanists of this period. How far such a method was deficient, shall be considered in the following section; however, it was not till 1560 that Conrad Géfner first proposed to the world an arrangement of vegetables from the parts of the flower and fruit. He did not establish any plan founded upon this principle; but, having suggested the idea, left the application to be made by others: and in 1582, Dr Andrew Cesalpinus, physician at Pisa, and afterwards professor of botany at Padua, first availing himself of the ingenuity of his predecessor, proposed a method of arrangement which has the fruit for its basis; and thus gave origin to systematic botany, the second grand era in the history of that science.
Even this improved method of Cesalpinus was not without very great inconveniences, which shall be taken notice of hereafter. As it was, however, so greatly superior to every thing that had appeared before, it might have been expected that the learned would have immediately adopted it, and that all the former equivocal and insufficient characters would have been rejected. But the fact was otherwise. Cesalpinus's method of arrangement died with him; and it was not till near a century after, that Dr Robert Morison of Aberdeen, attaching him to the principles of Géfner and Cesalpinus, re-established scientific arrangement upon a solid foundation; so that, from being only the restorer of system, he has been generally celebrated as its founder. In the long interval between Cesalpinus and Morison, flourished some eminent botanists. The most noted are, Dalechamp, author of A general History of plants; Theodore, surnamed Tabernamontanus, and Thalus, two German writers; Porta, an Italian, famous for an arrangement of plants from their relations to the stars, to men, and other animals; Prosper Alpinus, author of a Catalogue of the plants of Egypt; Fabius Columna, inventor of many of the botanical terms now used; the two Bauhins; Gerard, and Parkinson; Zahuzianski, a Pole, author of an arrangement from the qualities and habit of plants; Marcgrave and Piso, celebrated for their Natural History of Brazil; Hernandez, equally celebrated for his History of Mexico; Paflæus, or Du Pas, author of an arrangement of plants from the time of flowering, of all characters the most uncertain and insufficient; Johnston; Bontius, a Dutchman, author of a Natural History of the East Indies; Aldrovandus, the celebrated naturalist; and Rheede, governor of Malabar, and author of the well-known Hortus Malabaricus.
The method proposed by Morison has the fruit for its basis, as well as that of Cesalpinus; to which, however, it is greatly inferior both in the plan and execution. It is indeed of all others the most difficult in practice; and was therefore not adopted by any succeeding writer, except Bobart, who in 1699 completed Morison's Universal History of Plants, and an anonymous author whose work appeared in 1720. Imperfect, however, as his method is, it furnished many useful hints, which succeeding botanists have not failed to improve. Ray and Tournefort have owed him much, and are not ashamed to own the obligation. The fame has been done even by Linnaeus; who hath established the science of botany on the most solid foundation, by introducing a method of arrangement, if not absolutely perfect, at least as nearly approaching to perfection as can be expected; and therefore hath been deservedly followed, in preference to every other, by all botanists, since its first publication. But to give a particular account of all the different botanical systems, with the particular advantages and disadvantages attending each, shall be the business of the subsequent sections.
Sect. II. Of the Ancient Method of arranging Vegetables.
In giving an account of the works of Theophrastus and Dioscorides, we have already taken notice that the former chose seven distinguishing characters, viz., the generation of plants; their place of growth; their size, as trees and shrubs; their use, as pot-herbs and eculent grains; and their lactescence, or liquor that flows from them when cut. Dioscorides divided them into aromatics, alimentary, medicinal, and vinous plants. The good properties of this method are, that the botanist as it were comes to the point at once; and when he knows the plant, knows also its virtues and uses, or at least part of them: but this convenience is greatly overbalanced by innumerable disadvantages; for the qualities and virtues of plants are neither fixed and invariable, nor are they impressed in legible characters on the plants themselves. The different parts of a plant often possess different and even opposite virtues; so that supposing the virtues to be known, and applied to the purpose of vegetable arrangement, the root must frequently fall under one division, the leaves under a second, and the flower and fruit under a third. Besides, if we reflect that the sole end of such arrangement is to facilitate the knowledge of plants to others, the insufficiency and even absurdity of methods founded upon their virtues will immediately appear. A talk of vermin, for instance, is presented to me, which I am to investigate from a supposed knowledge of the virtues of plants. Before I can settle the case to which it belongs, I must discover whether or not it has the virtues belonging to any of the plants I know; and this discovery covery being the result of repeated experiments on various parts of the human body, may require many years for its accomplishment.
The same causes which render methods founded on the virtues of plants unfavourable for the purpose of investigation, must evidently disqualify all their other variable quantities and accidents from having a place in a genuine systematic arrangement. The natale solum of plants, which is one of Theophrastus's divisions, affords no better distinctive characters than their powers and virtues. Many countries as well as many soils produce the same individual plants. The same species which crown the mountains, frequently cover the fens; and plants which have long been reckoned the peculiar inhabitants of some parts of Asia and America, are now found to grow naturally in equal perfection in the very different climates of Lapland and Siberia. The size of plants, which suggested the ancient division into trees and shrubs, is no less an equivocal mark of distinction than the circumstances already mentioned. The vine, which modern botanists denominate a shrub, was ranged by Theophrastus in his third class containing trees. In fact, everything respecting size is so much affected by differences of soil, climate, and culture, that the same plant, in different circumstances, shall differ exceedingly in height; and in a method founded upon the size, would sometimes be ranged as a tree, and sometimes as a shrub, or even an under-shrub, according as it happens to exceed, equal, or fall short of, a given standard. No less insufficient are characteristic marks drawn from the colour, taste, and smell of plants. Of all the attributes of vegetable nature, colour is perhaps the most inconstant. Heat, climate, culture, soil, &c., contribute to the production of endless diversities of colour, and render the transition from one to another natural and easy. Red and blue pass easily into white, white into purple, yellow into white, red into blue, blue into yellow, &c. In the same leaf or flower, different colours are frequently observed. Variations too in point of colour are frequently observed to take place not only in different individuals of the same species, but even in similar parts of the same plant. Marvel of Peru and Sweet William produce flowers of different colour upon the same stalk. Objections equally valid lie against characteristic marks drawn from the taste and smell. The former varies in different individuals from differences of age, and even in the same individual at different times, according to the morbid or sound state of the organ. The latter is different in different subjects, and varies in each; nor are the effluvia sent forth from the same body always of equal intensity. In plants, taste is subject to continual variations from differences of climate, soil, and culture. Garlic in some climates, particularly in Greece, is said to lose its rankness; apples and pears, that grow naturally in the woods, are intolerably acid; celery and lettuce, which culture renders sweet and palatable, are in their wild uncultivated state bitter, disagreeable, and in some cases noxious.
These considerations are abundantly sufficient to show the imperfection of the ancient system of botany; and, indeed, considering the vague and uncertain marks by which the ancients distinguished one plant from another, we may rather wonder how such a science as botany came to have an existence among them, than that they arrived at no greater perfection in it, or suffered it so soon to fall into oblivion.
Sect. III. Of the different Botanical Systems from the time of Gesner to that of Linnæus.
The insufficiency of the ancient botanical system being so fully shown in the last section, we think it needfuls to take much notice of the methods used by Traugus and his contemporaries and followers. The virtues of plants being found an insufficient characteristic, succeeding botanists had taken in the root, stem, and leaves; but these being also found insufficient and variable, Gesner turned his eye to the flower and fruit, as being the most permanent and unchangeable parts of the plant. In proposing the parts of fructification, however, as the most proper for arranging plants, he communicated no hints respecting the choice of some of those parts in preference to others. Each particular organ of the flower and fruit furnishes sufficient variety to serve as the foundation of a method; but all of them are not equally proper for this purpose. Cæsalpinus, the first follower of Gesner, made a mistake in his choice, and took his distinguishing characteristics only from the fruit. The parts of the flower, therefore, being employed by the first systematic writers only as subaltern distinctions in finding out orders and genera, it is evident that the plant could not be fully investigated for several months. Suppose a plant ripens its fruit in October, and does not produce flowers till the following May: the clas, upon inspection of the fruit in the month of October, is immediately ascertained; but the plant still remains unknown, and will continue to upwards of six months after, if the characters of the order and genus have been made to depend on any part of the flower. Methods founded on the fruit have another inconvenience; plants constantly ripen their fruit in those countries where they grow naturally, but not always in the countries to which they may be accidentally transported. So far from this, many plants that are natives of a warm climate neither ripen nor form fruit in a cold one. Few of the African, Asiatic and West-Indian plants produce fruit in Britain. A method, therefore, founded upon the fruit, could only facilitate the knowledge of such plants to the inhabitants of those countries where they grow; to the English botanist they could be of little or no service. The same objection cannot reasonably be urged against methods founded on the flower, since the influence of climates much colder than that of Britain has not been able to destroy the faculty of producing flowers in many, perhaps in most, of the plants just mentioned.
Cæsalpinus sets out with an ancient distinction of vegetables, from their duration, into trees and herbs. With the former he combines shrubs; with the latter, under-shrubs; and distributes his plants into the following classes. 1. Trees with the germ (radicle or principle of life in the seed) on the point of the seed. 2. Trees with the germ on the base of the seed. 3. Herbs having one feed only. 4. Herbs having two feeds. 5. Herbs having four feeds. 6. Herbs having many feeds. 7. Herbs having one grain or kernel. 8. Herbs having one capsule. 9. Herbs having two capsules. 10. Herbs having fibrous roots. 11. Herbs having bulbous roots. 12. Herbs having succory or endive-like flowers. 13. Herbs having common flowers. 14. Herbs having several follicles or seed-bags. 15. Herbs having neither flower nor seed.
The inconveniences of this method have been already pointed out pretty fully, and will evidently appear upon an attempt to refer any common plant to one of the above-mentioned classes. His sections, orders, or secondary divisions, are 47 in number, and depend upon a variety of parts and circumstances. The principal of these are, the dilposition, situation, and figure, of the flowers; the nature of the seed-vessel, or cover of the seeds; the situation of the radicle in the seed; the number of seed-lobes, or seminal leaves; the dilposition of the leaves, and colour of the flowers. The lacteference too, or milkiness, which is observed in the compound flowers with flat florets, is made a characteristic distinction, and discriminates the first order of the 12th class. Thus, in the first systematic arrangements, the characters of the classes only were borrowed from the parts of fructification; while those of the subaltern divisions were very numerous, and respected every part of the plant; but that such divisions might be perfect, they should be constituted, like the classes, from the modifications of a single part of the fructification.
The great object had in view by Morifon, who comes next in order to Casalpinus, was to investigate the order of nature, not to fabricate an easy method of arranging plants. Hence his system is devoid of uniformity, and clogged with a multiplicity of characters; his classes are frequently not sufficiently distinguished from one another, and the key of arrangement seems totally lost. He sets out with a division of plants, from their consistence, into ligneous or woody, and herbaceous. He founds his system on the fruit, the corolla or blossoms, and the habit of the plants. His classes are as follow: 1. Trees. 2. Shrubs. 3. Under-shrubs. 4. Herbs climbing. 5. Herbs leguminous or papilionaceous. 6. Herbs podded. 7. Herbs tricarpular or with three capsules. 8. Herbs with four or five capsules. 9. Herbs corymbiferous. 10. Herbs having a milky juice, or downy tops. 11. Herbs culmiferous, as grasses. 12. Herbs umbelliferous. 13. Herbs having three kernels. 14. Herbs having helmet-shaped flowers. 15. Herbs having many capsules. 16. Herbs berry-bearing. 17. Herbs called capillary plants, as the fern kind. 18. Anomalous or irregular herbs.
Of these classes, the fourth and eighth possess no genuine distinctive character; nor are the ninth and tenth classes sufficiently distinguished; the fifteenth class is not sufficiently distinguished from the eighth, nor the sixteenth from the fourth. His sections or secondary divisions, which are 108 in number, arise from the figure and substance of the fruit; the number of seeds, leaves, and petals; the figure of the root; the direction of the stem; the colour of the flowers; the place of growth; and, in one class, from the medicinal virtues of some of the plants that compose it.
In 1682, Ray proposed his method to the world, two years after the publication of Morifon's, which served in some measure as its basis. It consisted originally of the following 25 classes: 1. Trees. 2. Shrubs. 3. Herbs imperfect. 4. Herbs having no flower. 5. Capillary plants. 6. Staminate herbs having only the stamens. 7. Those having one naked seed. 8. Umbelliferous herbs. 9. Verticillated, annular, or ring-shaped ones. 10. Rough-leaved plants. 11. Stellated or star-shaped ones. 12. Apple-bearing herbs. 13. Berry-bearing herbs. 14. Herbs having many pods. 15. Monopetalous uniform, or regular herbs. 16. Monopetalous irregular, or having different forms. 17. Tetrapetalous, having large pods. 18. Tetrapetalous, having small pods. 19. Papilionaceous. 20. Pentapetalous herbs. 21. Corns. 22. Grasses. 23. Grass-leaved plants. 24. Bulbous-rooted plants. 25. Plants near akin to the bulbous.
This method Ray carefully corrected and amended at different times; so that the plan of arrangement which now bears the name of that author, and was first published in 1700, is entirely different from what had appeared in 1682. It now consists of 33 classes. Their distinguishing marks are taken from the part or habit of the plants; their greater or less degree of perfection; their place of growth; the number of seed-lobes, or seminal leaves, petals, capsules, and seeds; the situation and disposition of the flowers, flower-cup, and leaves; the absence or presence of the buds, flower-cup, and petals; the substance of the leaves and fruit; and the difficulty of clasping certain plants. They are as follow:
1. Submarine, or sea-plants. 2. Fungi. 3. Mollusks. 4. Capillary plants. 5. Those without petals. 6. Plinpetalos, those with compound flowers; semiflacculous, or half-florets. 7. Those with compound flowers radiated. 8. Those with compound flowers, flacculous, or with whole florets. 9. Plants with one seed. 10. Plants umbellated. 11. Those stellated or star-shaped. 12. Rough-leaved plants. 13. Plants verticillate or whorled. 14. Those with many seeds. 15. Apple-bearing herbs. 16. Berry-bearing herbs. 17. Those with many pods. 18. Monopetalous herbs. 19. Those with two and three petals. 20. Those with great and small, or long and short, pods. 21. Leguminous plants. 22. Pentapetalous ones. 23. Bulbs, and bulbous-like plants. 24. Staminate ones, or those having only the stamens. 25. Anomalous plants, or those of an uncertain family. 26. The palms. 27. Trees without petals. 28. Trees with an umbilicated fruit. 29. Trees with fruit not umbilicated. 30. Trees with a dry fruit. 31. Trees with podded fruit. 32. Anomalous, or irregular trees.
The distinction into herbs and trees with which Ray's method sets out, acknowledges a different, though not more certain, principle than that of Casalpinus and Morifon. The former, in making this distinction, had an eye to the duration of the stem; the latter, to its consistence. Ray called in the buds as an auxiliary; and denominates trees, "all such plants as bear buds;" herbs, "such as bear none." But against this auxiliary there lies an unanswerable objection; namely, that though all herbaceous plants rise without buds, all trees are not furnished with them: many of the largest trees in warm countries, and some shrubby plants in every country, being totally destitute of that fealty appearance which constitutes the essence of a bud. In other respects, it is evident that neither Mr Ray's plan nor execution is in any degree calculated to facilitate the knowledge of plants. In fact, it seems to have been Ray's great object, no less than Morifon's, to collect as many natural classes as possible; and these being separately investigated, a multiplicity of characters and steps was necessarily required to connect them: and hence hence the intricacy complained of in both these methods, which must always take place where the classes give rise to the connecting characters, and not the characters to the classes. The characters of the orders, or secondary divisions, in Ray's method, are no less multifarious than those of the classes. They respect the place of growth of plants; their qualities; the figure of the stem; the number, situation, substance, and division, of the leaves; the situation and disposition of the flowers and calyx; the number and regularity of the petals; with the number and figure of the fruit. In his improved method, Ray has adopted Tournefort's characters of the genera, wherever his plan would permit. His general History of Plants contains 18,655 species and varieties. The third volume, which was not published till 1704, and was designed as a supplement to the two former, contains the plants discovered by Tournefort in the Levant, and by Camelli at Luzon one of the Philippine islands. Ray's method was followed by Sir Hans Sloane, in his Natural History of Jamaica; by Petiver, in his British Herbal; by Dillenius, in his Synopsis of British plants; and by Martyn, in his Catalogue of plants that grow in the neighbourhood of Cambridge.
To Ray's original method succeeded that of Christopher Knaut, a German; which acknowledges the same principle, and is manifestly founded upon it. In his enumeration of the plants that grow round Hal in Saxony, published in 1687, he divides vegetables into 17 classes, which have for their basis the size and duration of plants, the presence or absence of the petals, the disposition of the flowers, the substance of the fruit, the number of capsules or seeds, the number and figure of the petals, and the presence, absence, or figure of the calyx. His classes are:
1. Herbs berry-bearing. 2. Monopetalous, or with one flower-leaf. 3. Tetrapetalous and regular, with four petals. 4. Tetrapetalous and irregular. 5. Pentapetalous, or with five petals. 6. Hexapetalous, or fix petals. 7. Polypetalous, or many petals. 8. Multicapular, or many capsules. 9. Naked seeds. 10. Solid, or not downy. 11. Downy seeds. 12. Without petals. 13. Staminous, without petals or calyx. 14. Imperceptible. 15. Imperfect. 16. Trees. 17. Shrubs.
The sections or subdivisions of the classes in Knaut's method are 62 in number; and arise from the figure of the stem and petals, the number of capsules and cells, their figure, the number of seeds and leaves, and situation of the flowers.
In 1696, a new method, proposed by Dr Herman professor of botany at Leyden, was published by Zumbac, who arranged according to it the plants contained in the public garden of Leyden. Rudbeckius the Younger, in a dissertation published the same year, on the fundamental knowledge of plants, adopted Herman's method with a few inconsiderable variations. The classes of Dr Herman are 25 in number. They are founded on the size and duration of the plants; the presence or absence of the petals and calyx; the number of capsules, cells, and naked seeds; the substance of the leaves and fruit; the form and confluence of the roots; the situation and disposition of the flowers, leaves, and calyx; and figure of the fruit.
1. Herbs having one naked seed and a simple flower. 2. Having one naked seed and a compound flower. 3. With two naked seeds, and stellated or star-shaped. 4. Two naked seeds, and umbelliferous. 5. Four naked seeds, and rough leaves. 6. Four naked seeds, and verticillated or whorl-shaped. 7. With many naked seeds. 8. Having seed-vessels, bulbous and tricarpular. 9. Having one seed-vessel. 10. With two seed-vessels. 11. With three seed-vessels. 12. With four seed vessels. 13. With five seed-vessels. 14. Podded, which are always tetrapetalous. 15. Leguminous and papilionaceous. 16. With many capsules. 17. Having fleshy fruit, berry-bearing. 18. With fleshy fruit, apple-bearing. 19. Without petals, but having a calyx. 20. Without petals, chaffy or flammeous. 21. Without petals, calyx, chaff, or flamina, i.e., a naked anthera, as the moffes. 22. Trees, imperfect fructification, bearing catkins. 23. Trees with a fleshy fruit umbilicated. 24. Trees with a fleshy fruit not umbilicated. 25. Trees with a dry fruit.
The classes in Herman's method are subdivided into 82 sections or orders; which have for their basis the number of petals, seeds, capsules, and cells, the figure of the seeds and petals, and disposition of the flowers.
To the method of Dr Herman succeeded that of Dr Boerhaave, who succeeded to the botanical chair of Leyden in 1709. His method is that of Herman, blended with part of the systems of Tournefort and Ray; and contains the following classes.
1. Herbs submarine, or sea-plants. 2. Imperfect land-plants. 3. Capillary plants, or the fern kind. 4. Many naked seeds. 5. Four naked seeds, and verticillated. 6. Four naked seeds, and rough leaves. 7. Four naked seeds, and four petals. 8. Plants having one seed-vessel. 9. Two seed-vessels. 10. Three seed-vessels. 11. Four seed-vessels. 12. Five seed-vessels. 13. Many seed-vessels. 14. Two naked seeds, and umbelliferous. 15. Two naked seeds, and star-shaped. 16. One naked seed, and a simple flower. 17. One naked seed, and compound flowers semiflosculous. 18. One naked seed, and compound flowers radiated. 19. One naked seed, and compound flowers corymbiferous. 20. One naked seed, and compound flowers flosculose. 21. Berry-bearing herbs. 22. Apple-bearing herbs. 23. Without petals. 24. One cotyledon, and having petals. 25. One cotyledon, and without petals. 26. Trees having one cotyledon. 27. Many podded. 28. Podded. 29. Tetrapetalous and cruciform. 30. Leguminous. 31. Having no petals. 32. Bearing catkins. 33. Monopetalous flowers. 34. Rosaceous flowers.
These 34 classes of Dr Boerhaave are subdivided into 104 sections, which have for their characters, the figure of the leaves, stem, calyx, petals, and seeds; the number of petals, seeds, and capsules; the substance of the leaves; the situation of the flowers, and their difference in point of sex. By this method, Dr Boerhaave arranged near 6000 plants, the produce of the botanical garden at Leyden, which he carefully superintended for the space of 20 years, and left to his successor Dr Adrien Royen, in a much more flourishing state than he himself had received it. His Index or Catalogue of the Leyden plants was published in octavo in 1710; and afterwards, with great additions, in quarto, in 1720. This last edition contains descriptions of 5650 plants; of which number upwards of two thirds had been introduced into the garden since the time of Herman, by his illustrious successor. Boerhaave's characters are derived from the habit or general appearance of plants combined with all the parts of fructification; so that, as Linnæus very properly observes, he was the first who employed the calyx, stamens, and style, in determining the genus. About 17 new genera were established by this author; among others, the very splendid family of the protea and silver-tree, which, although partly described by Morison, had remained generally unknown till this period. His method was adopted by one Embling, a German, in a treatise entitled The first principles of Botany, published in octavo at Wolfenbüttel, in 1748.
Hitherto all the botanists had been intent upon investigating the order of nature, rather than facilitating the arrangement of vegetables; therefore their methods were very intricate and perplexed; and their writings, however entertaining to the learned, could afford but very little instruction to the young botanist. In 1690, however, Augustus Quirinus Rivinus, a German, professor of Botany at Leipzig, relinquishing the pursuit of natural affinities, and convinced of the insufficiency of characteristic marks drawn only from the fruit, attached himself to the flower, which, he was sensible, would furnish characters no less numerous, permanent, and conspicuous, than those drawn from the fruit. The calyx, petals, stamens, and style or pointal, which constitute the flower, are sufficiently diversified in point of number, figure, proportion, and situation, to serve as the basis of a mode of arrangement; yet all are not equally proper for this purpose. Rivinus made use of the petals as the largest and most beautiful part, and that from which the flower itself is commonly characterized. His method consists of the following 18 classes, which have for their basis the perfection and disposition of the flowers, and regularity and number of the petals:
1. Regular monopetalous, or having one petal. 2. Dipetalous. 3. Tripetalous. 4. Tetrapetalous. 5. Pentapetalous. 6. Hexapetalous. 7. Polypetalous, or having many petals. 8. Irregular monopetalous. 9. Irregular dipetalous. 10. Irregular tripetalous. 11. Irregular tetrapetalous. 12. Irregular pentapetalous. 13. Irregular hexapetalous. 14. Irregular polypetalous. 15. Compound flowers of regular florets. 16. Compound flowers of irregular florets. 17. Compound flowers of irregular florets only. 18. Incomplete, or imperfect plants.
As Rivinus set out with the professed design of imparting facility to botany, he judged very properly in divesting his method of all extraneous matter, and rendering it as simple and uniform as the nature of the science would admit. The distinction into herbs and trees had been adopted by every writer on plants since the time of Aristotle. Rendered in some measure favored by its antiquity, this distinction maintained a kind of importance to which it was by no means essentially intitled. Rivinus was the first who in this matter dared to think for himself. He was early sensible of the inconveniences to which those had submitted who employed it as a primary division; and therefore resolved at once to get rid of a distinction that is frequently uncertain, always destructive to uniformity, and in its nature repugnant to the genuine spirit of system, because totally unconnected with the parts of fructification. In the uniformity of its orders or secondary divisions, which are 91 in number, and acknowledge the fruit for their principle, Rivinus's method equals, perhaps excels, all that went before or succeeded it. Only three classes of his method were published by Rivinus himself. These are the 11th, 14th, and 15th, which were offered to the public at different times, illustrated with very splendid figures. The method was completed and published entire by Heucher, in a work intitled Hortus Wittenbergensis, printed in quarto at Wittenberg in 1711.
Several German authors have followed Rivinus's method, either wholly or in part, without offering any considerable amendment. The principal of these are, Koening, in a work on vegetables, published at Basle in 1696; Welsch, in his Bafii Botanica, printed at Leipzig in octavo, in 1697; Gemeinhart, in a catalogue of plants published in 1725; Kramer, in a work intitled Tentamen Botanicum, published at Dresden in 1728, and afterwards reprinted with additions at Vienna in 1744; and Heckler, in a dissertation on botany published at Hal in Saxony, in 1734. To these may be added Hebenstreit, an ingenious botanist, who, in a treatise on plants published at Leipzig in 1731, just before his famous African expedition, established generical characters, which had hitherto been wanting in Rivinus's method.
The writers who have attempted to improve upon Rivinus's method are Bernard Ruppius, Christopher Ludwig, and Christian Knaut. Ruppius, in his Flora Jenensis, published at Frankfort in 1718, has arranged the 1200 plants there described by a method partly Rivinus's, and partly his own. It consists of 17 classes, and sets out with the same divisions and subdivisions as that of Rivinus; with this difference, however, that, whereas in Rivinus's method all perfect flowers are divided into simple and compound, in Ruppius's division of regular and irregular flowers precedes that just mentioned, and simple and compound flowers are made subdivisions of the regular flowers only.
Christopher Ludwig's method, which was published in 1737, and consists of 20 classes, differs but little from that of Rivinus. The author accompanied Hebenstreit on his expedition into Africa, and seems to have made plants his favourite study. The improvement, however, which he has made on Rivinus's plan, consists only in rendering it more universal, having enriched it with a multitude of genera collected from the works of Tournefort, Ray, Boerhaave, Dillenius, and other eminent botanists, whose generical characters he has likewise adopted. His plan of arrangement has been followed by two succeeding writers; M. Wedel, in a botanical essay published in 1747; and three years after by M. Boehmer, in his catalogue of the plants which grow in the garden of Leipzig.
The method of Christian Knaut is much more properly his own, and departs in a much greater degree from that of Rivinus than either of the two former. The regularity and number of the petals furnished the classical divisions in Rivinus's method; in that of Knaut, number takes place of regularity; so that it is very properly termed by Linnæus, "The system of Rivinus inverted." This method was published in 1716; and sets out with a division into flowers which have one petal, and such as have more than one. It consists of the following classes:
1. Monopetalous uniform or regular. 2. Monopetalous disform or irregular. 3. Monopetalous compound uniform or regular. 4. Monopetalous compound disform or irregular. 5. Monopetalous compound uniform and disform together. 6. Dipetalous uniform. uniform or regular. 7. Dipetalous disform or irregular. 8. Tripetalous uniform or regular. 9. Tripetalous disform or irregular. 10. Tetrapetalous uniform or regular. 11. Tetrapetalous disform or irregular. 12. Pentapetalous uniform or regular. 13. Pentapetalous disform or irregular. 14. Hexapetalous uniform or regular. 15. Hexapetalous disform or irregular. 16. Polypetalous uniform or regular. 17. Polypetalous disform or irregular.
The sections or secondary divisions in Knaut's method are 121, and depend upon the internal divisions of the fruit; and upon this his opinions are somewhat singular. Every kind of fruit, whether pulpy or membranaceous, is termed by our author a capsule. Neither is the term restricted to fruits properly so called; it is extended also to those termed by botanists naked seeds, the exsistence of which Knaut absolutely denies. Agreeable to this opinion, capsules, he says, with respect to their consistence or substance, are of two sorts; pulpy, or membranaceous. The former correspond to the fruits of the apple, berry, and cherry kind; the latter to the capsules properly so called, and naked seeds of other botanists. Again, with respect to their cells or internal divisions, capsules are either simple or compound. Simple capsules have an undivided cavity or a single cell; compound capsules are internally divided into two or more cells. With other botanists, the umbelliferous flowers bear two, the lip-flowers four, naked seeds; according to Knaut, the former produce two, the latter four, simple capsules. Ranunculus, adonis, anemone, herb-bennet, and some other plants, have their flowers succeeded by a number of naked seeds collected into an aggregate or head; each of these seeds passes with Knaut for a simple capsule; so that the whole is an aggregate of several capsules with an undivided cavity or single cell. In numbering the cells or internal divisions of the pulpy fruits, our author has adopted a very singular method. Some fruits of the apple kind include a capsule that is divided into five membranaceous cells. It might then be very reasonably expected to find such fruits arranged with compound capsules of five cells; but, instead of this, the author whimsically enough combines in their arrangement the idea both of a simple and compound capsule. The pulpy part is undivided; in other words, it is a simple capsule furnished with one cell; the compound capsule inclosed contains five cells, which added to that of the pulp make the number six; and thus these kinds of fruits are arranged with those having capsules of six cells. By the same kind of reasoning, the fruit of the dogwood, which is of the cherry kind, and contains a stone with two cells or cavities, is placed by Knaut among compound capsules with three cells; the pulp passing for one division, and cavities of the stone or nut for the remaining two. This method of calculation is not the only singularity for which Knaut is remarkable. The essence of the flower is made by Ray, Tournefort, Rivinus, and most other botanists, to consist in the stamens and style. This position Knaut absolutely denies; and has established for a principle, that the flower is essentially constituted by the petals only. With him, the flower-cup, stamens, and style, are of little significance; their presence does not constitute a flower, if the petals are wanting; neither is their absence sufficient to destroy its existence, if the petals are present.
From this it follows, 1. That there can be no flowers without petals; and, 2. That the regularity or irregularity of the flower can never depend on the stamens and style, which are only occasionally present, and not wise essential to its existence; both of which are evidently false to every botanical reader.
Since the time of Rivinus, no leading method in botany has appeared except that of Tournefort and Linnæus. Tournefort sets out with revising the distinction of plants into herbs and trees, which had been exploded by Rivinus. His system is founded on the regularity and figure of the petals, together with the two-fold situation of the receptacle of the flowers; his orders, on the pistillum or calyx. The classes are,
1. Herbs with simple flowers monopetalous, and bell-shaped. 2. Simple flowers monopetalous, tunnel and wheel-shaped. 3. Simple flowers monopetalous, lipped or lipped. 4. Simple flowers monopetalous, anomalous, or irregular. 5. Simple flowers polypetalous, cruciform or cross-shaped. 6. Simple flowers polypetalous, and rosette-like or like a rose. 7. Simple flowers polypetalous, umbrellated. 8. Simple flowers polypetalous, caryophyllaceous, clove-form. 9. Simple flowers polypetalous, lilaceous or lily-form. 10. Simple flowers polypetalous, papilionaceous, or butterfly form. 11. Simple flowers polypetalous, anomalous or irregular. 12. Compound flowers, flocculous, tubular or whole florets. 13. Compound flowers filiform-flocculous, flat or half florets. 14. Compound flowers radiated, like the spokes of a wheel. 15. Apetalous, having no petals. 16. No flower, but bearing seed. 17. No flower nor seed, in the vulgar estimation. 18. Trees with no petals, but bare stamens. 19. Trees with no petals bearing catkins. 20. Trees polypetalous. 21. Trees racemose. 22. Trees papilionaceous.
The secondary divisions in Tournefort's method, which are 122 in number, have obtained the name of sections. Their general distinctions are founded principally upon the fruit, as those of the classes are upon the flower.
Tournefort hath been followed by a vast number of botanical writers, of whom the most considerable are, Dr William Sherard, an eminent botanist of the last and present centuries. In 1689, he published the first sketch of Tournefort's method, under the title of Scola Botanica; or a catalogue of the plants demonstrated by Dr Tournefort, in the royal garden at Paris. It was not till five years after, that the Elementa Botanica, a work which contains the rudiments and illustration of his method, was published by Tournefort himself.—Father Plumeri, termed by way of eminence the Tournefort of America, published in 1703, at Paris, a description of American plants, which he has arranged according to the system of Tournefort. In this work he accurately characterized 96 new genera. Falugi, an Italian, has described, in pretty elegant Latin verse, all the genera of Tournefort, in a work entitled Protopoetria Botanica, published at Florence, 12mo, 1705. Several celebrated French academicians, particularly Marchant, Dodart, Nissle, Jussieu, and Vaillant, have also occasionally paid their tribute of acknowledgment to this author, from the year 1700 to 1740. The other authors of note who have followed Tournefort's method, are, M. Petit, an ingenious French botanist; Johren, a German, author of a treatise published at Colberg. Colberg in 1710, intitled *Vade mecum Botanicum, seu Odeus Botanicus*; Feuille, in his description of the plants of Chili and Peru, published at Paris in quarto, 1714; Christopher Valentin, a German, author of a book intitled *Tournefortius Contractus*, published at Francfort, in folio, 1715; Ripa, an Italian, in a work intitled *Historia Universalis Plantarum Confraterniendi Propositum*, published in quarto, at Padua, in 1718; Michael Valentin, a German, in his *Viridarium Reformatum*, published in folio, at Francfort, in 1719; the celebrated Dillenius, professor of botany at Oxford, and author of several much esteemed publications on botany, particularly the *Hortus Elthamensis*, and History of Mosses, in his *Flora Gilbertis*, printed at Francfort in 1719; Pontedera, an Italian, author of the delineation of a method which combines those of Tournefort and Rivinus, published at Padua, in his botanical dissertations, in 1720; Monti, an Italian, in a work published at Bologna in 1724, under the title of *Indices Plantarum Varii*; Lindem, a German, in his *Tournefortius Alaticus*, first published in 1728; Signior Michelini, author of several curious discoveries respecting mosses and mushrooms, in his *Nova Genera Plantarum*, published in folio at Florence in 1729; Elvebeams, a Swede, in a work published in the Swedish language at Upsal in 1730; Fabricius, a German, author of a work intitled *Primitiae Florae Butijbacerys, seu sex Decader Plantarum Rariorum*, published in 1743; Sabatini, an Italian, in his catalogue of the plants that grow in the neighbourhood of Rome, printed at Rome in 1745; and the ingenious Dr Charles Allton, late professor of botany at Edinburgh, in his *Tyrocinium Botanicum*, published at Edinburgh in 1753.
Of all this numerous list of writers, Father Plumier and Pontedera alone have ventured to quit the track pointed out by Tournefort. The former, in his arrangement of American plants, has relinquished the distinction into herbs and trees; but the latter has attempted more considerable variations. His classes are, 1. Uncertain. 2. Having no flowers. 3. Without buds, imperfect plants. 4. Anomalous or irregular. 5. Labiate. 6. Bell-shaped. 7. Saucer-shaped. 8. Wheel-shaped. 9. Tunnel-shaped. 10. Flocculous. 11. Semiflocculous. 12. Radiated. 13. Irregular. 14. Papilionaceous. 15. Liliaceous. 16. Caryophyllaceous. 17. Cruciform, or cross-shaped. 18. Umbellated. 19. Staminous, or with naked stamens. 20. Bearing buds, apetalous, or without petals. 21. Bearing buds irregular. 22. Bearing buds bell-shaped. 23. Bearing buds wheel-shaped. 24. Bearing buds tunnel-shaped. 25. Bearing buds, papilionaceous. 26. Bearing buds, rofaceous.
Besides all these methods, there have been invented two others, founded upon the calyx. The first of these was the invention of Peter Magnol, a celebrated professor of botany at Montpelier, and published in 1720, five years after the author's death. The other was delineated by Linnæus, and published in his *Classe Planatarum* in 1738, three years after the publication of the sexual system. Magnol distinguishes two kinds of calyx; one external, which envelopes and sustains the flower, and is the flower-cup properly so called; the other internal, which is the seed vessel or fruit. According to this idea, all plants, whether herbaceous or woody, are furnished with either the external calyx only, or with both. His classes are, 1. Herbs with the calyx external, including a flower unknown. 2. Calyx external, including a flower staminous. 3. Calyx external, including a flower monopetalous. 4. Calyx external, including a flower compound. 5. Calyx external, supporting a flower monopetalous. 6. Calyx external, supporting a flower polypetalous. 7. Calyx external, supporting a flower polypetalous. 8. Calyx internal only, which is the corolla. 9. Calyx external and internal, flower monopetalous. 10. Calyx external and internal, flower with two and three petals. 11. Calyx external and internal, tetrapetalous. 12. Calyx external and internal, polypetalous. 13. Trees with the calyx external only. 14. Calyx internal only. 15. Calyx external and internal both.
The characters of the orders, or secondary divisions, in Magnol's method, are derived chiefly from the figure of the calyx, petals, and seeds; from the disposition of the flowers, from the number of petals, and substance of the fruit. Fifty-five sections or orders arise from the combination of these characters with those of the classes; and these are again subdivided into genera, which possess this singularity, that, in place of distinctive characters hitherto employed, they exhibit complete descriptions of all the parts of fructification of one or two species of each genus. From this improvement Linnaeus manifestly borrowed the hint of his generic characters.
Sir John Hill, in his vegetable system, endeavours to clas plants according to their internal structure. Vol. I. "Perhaps (says he), upon the foundation of a true anatomy of plants a natural method may be established: for it is certain, the forms of all the external parts of vegetables depend on the disposition of the internal; and all their differences are founded there. On the different inner structure of the vegetable body, under certain courses of its vessels, evidently depend the differences which characterize the seven first families, to the distinctions of which all classes are subordinate; and as these original distinctions are truly natural, we may here begin very safely.
"The seven families are these, 1. The mushrooms. 2. The algae, or foliaceous sea and land plants. 3. The mosses. 4. The ferns. 5. The grasses. 6. The palms. 7. The common race of plants. Their distinctions one from another are these:
1. The mushrooms are fleshy; and are destitute of leaves and visible flowers. 2. The algae are merely foliaceous, the entire plant consisting of a leafy matter without other visible parts. 3. The mosses have processes of the inner rhind for leaves. 4. The ferns consist of a single leaf raised on a stalk; and bear their flowers upon its back. 5. The grasses have jointed stalks and undivided leaves, and bulbs to hold the seeds. 6. The palms have a simple trunk, with leaves only on the top, and have the flowers and fruit in divided ears."
Lastly, the seventh class, which he calls the common race of plants, are such as have their roots, leaves, stalks, flowers, and fruits, distinct and obvious; and have not the characters of any of the other six families.
To this natural method his artificial one, consisting of 43 classes, and which takes up the whole of his voluminous work, is designed only as an index; but as this is universally allowed to be inferior to Linnæus's, though he pretends to improve that system, we think it needless to take any farther notice of it.
Vol. III. Part I. Besides the sexual system of Linnaeus, which is now almost universally followed, he formed another, which, like that of Magnol, had the calyx for its basis; but greatly inferior both in the idea and execution, being indeed singularly serviceable to the novice in botany, by familiarizing to him various appearances of an organ so important in its nature, and so diversified in its form, as the calyx is. The classes are,
1. Spathaceous, like a fleath or hose. 2. Glumose or chaffy. 3. Amentaceous, or catkins. 4. Umbellated. 5. Common calyx or flower-cup. 6. Double calyx. 7. Flowering; the petals and stamens inserted into the flower-cup. 8. Crowned, or crown-shaped, with a radius. 9. Irregular. 10. Differing, or different shapes. 11. Caducous, which fall off or shed their leaves. 12. Not caducous, uniform and monopetalous. 13. Not caducous, uniform and polypetalous. 14. Not caducous, differing and monopetalous. 15. Not caducous, differing and polypetalous. 16. Incomplete calyx. 17. Apetalous, or a bare calyx without petals. 18. Naked, or neither petals nor calyx.
Sect. IV. Of the Method of reducing Plants to Classes, Orders, Genera, and Species, according to Linnaeus's Sexual System.
Before proceeding to explain this system, it will be proper to make the reader acquainted with the principal outlines of a plant, as delineated by our author in his Principia Botanica.
A plant consists of Root, Trunk, Leaves, Props, Fructification, and Inflorescence; to which may be added the Habit.
I. The ROOT consists of two parts, viz. the caudex and the radicula, distinguished according to shape, direction, duration, &c.
1. CAUDEX, or stump, is the body or knob of the root from which the trunk and branches ascend, and the fibrous roots descend; and in different plants is either solid, bulbous (placed under a bulb), or tuberous. Solid, as in trees, shrubs, and many of the herbs. Bulbous will be explained under Hybernaceae.—Tuberous knobs are also solid and hard, containing one or more embryos or eyes. They are either only one knob, as turnip, carrot, &c., containing only one eye at the top; or consist of many knobs connected together by slender fibres, as in potatoes, Jerusalem artichokes, &c., each containing many eyes dispersed over the surface; and are either pitted, when the eyes lie inward, as in potatoes, &c., or tuberculated, containing the eyes outward, as in Jerusalem artichokes, &c. In tuberous knobs, the fibres or stringy parts issue from every part of the surface; which is an essential difference from bulbous knobs, where they are confined to the caudex of the bulb only, and are the true and genuine roots, the bulb itself being only a large bud underground. Those tuberous knobs with only one eye, differ as to duration, but are in general biennial; those with many eyes are perennial; both seem to be produced by the nutriment of the stem-like buds, and not by the fibrous roots, for the stem is first formed and becomes strong, and as it grows to maturity, the tuberous knobs increase.
2. RADICULA, a little root, is the stringy or fibrous part of the root, descending from the caudex; it is really the principal and essential part of every root, and by which the nourishment is drawn from the earth for the support of the plant.
II. The TRUNK, which includes the branches, is that part which rises immediately from the caudex, and produces the leaves, flowers, and fruit. It is either herbaceous, shrubby, or arborecent; and is distinguished according to its shape, substance, surface, &c., and admits of the following sorts.
1. CAULIS, a stalk or stem, is the main or universal trunk which elevates the leaves and fructification, and is applied to trees, shrubs, and herbs: It is denominated simple when it doth not divide, and compound when it is divided into branches.
2. CULMUS, a straw or baulm, is the proper trunk of grasses; and also elevates both the leaves and fructification: It is sometimes jointed, and sometimes not; it is also sometimes round, and sometimes angular.
3. SCAPUS, a stalk, is an herbaceous trunk, which elevates the fructification, but not the leaves; that is, it is a stalk proceeding immediately from the root, and terminated by the flowers, as in narcissus, hyacinth, &c.
4. STIPES, a trunk, used by Linnaeus for the trunk of mushrooms: as also for that slender thread or footstalk which elevates the feathery or hairy down with which some seeds are furnished, and connects it with the seed.
III. The LEAVES are said by Linnaeus to be the muscles or organs of motion of a plant; by others, the organs by which perspiration and inspiration are performed. They are defined as proceeding from the expansion of the vessels of the stalk, forming several ramifications like net-work, extended in length and breadth in a determinate manner, having the interstices filled up with a tender pulpy substance; and the external covering is supposed to be a continuation of the scarf-skin of the stalk.
Leaves are either simple or compound; and are distinguished by their figure, situation, insertion, number, divisions, &c.
A simple leaf, is such as either adheres to the branch singly, or whose footstalk is terminated by a single simple expansion, not parted to the middle rib; and is determined by its shape, surface, and divisions.
A compound leaf, is such whose footstalk is furnished with several separate simple expansions; or, in other words, whose divisions extend to the middle rib, now called a common petiole or footstalk, supporting several lobes or little simple leaves, of which the compound leaf consists: they are distinguished by shape, &c., and the form by which they are attached to the common footstalk, as palmated, winged, feathered, &c. Sometimes leaves are twice or more compounded; which divisions admit of many modifications, and give rise to as great variety of terms. It may sometimes be difficult, at first sight, to know a common footstalk to a compound leaf, from a branch: but it may be observed, that a common footstalk, where it issues from the branch, is either flat or hollow on one side, and convex on the other; whereas branches are alike on both sides, whether round, flat, or angular: again, buds are never found at the angles formed by the lobes of a compound leaf with the footstalk, but at the angles formed by the footstalk of the whole compound leaf and the stem: and it may always certainly be distinguished by its falling off with the little leaves which it supports. The manner or place in which leaves are attached to the plant, is called the determination of leaves; and is distinguished by several terms, according to number, disposition, insertion, figure, &c.
IV. The PROPS, folia, a term used to express those external parts which strengthen, support, or defend the plants on which they are found, or serve to facilitate some necessary secretion; and are as follow:
1. PETIOLES, the footstalk or support of a leaf. 2. PEDUNCULUS, the footstalk or support of a flower. 3. STIPULA, haule or hulk, a sort of scale or small leaf, stationed on most plants (when present) on each side the base of the footstalks of leaves and flowers, at their first appearance, for the purpose of support: They are placed either single or double; and sometimes on the inside, as in the fig and mulberry; or on the outside, as in the birch, lime, and papilionaceous flowers: They are also either fitting, extended downwards, or sheathing along the stem, as in the plane tree. As to duration, they sometimes fall before the leaves, and sometimes are equally persistent: They often afford a good distinction for the species.
4. CIRRHUS, a curl, meaning a clasper or tendril, is the fine spiral string or fibre by which plants fasten themselves to some other body for support: They are sometimes placed opposite to the leaves; sometimes at the side of the footstalks of the leaves; sometimes they issue from the leaves themselves; and sometimes they put out roots, as in ivy, &c.
5. PUBES, a term applied to the hair, down, wool, beard, bristles, glands, and several other appearances on different parts of plants, serving the double purpose of defence and vessels of secretion.
6. ARMA, the defensive weapon of plants; as thorns, prickles, &c.
7. BRACERAE, thin plates of metal, are the floral leaves; and mean not only those leaves situated on the stalk nearest to the lower parts of the flower, but those which sometimes terminate the flower stalk; being composed of large bracteae, resembling a bush of hair, and are then called bracteae comosae, as in crown-imperial, lavender, and some species of sage.
V. The FRUCTIFICATION, or mode of fruit-bearing, consisting of the calyx, corolla, stamens, pistil, pericarpium, feminia, and receptaculum; which will be afterwards explained.
VI. The INFLORESCENCE, or mode by which flowers are joined to their several peduncles, whether common or partial.
A flower in the Sexual botany hath a very different signification from the same term of former writers; for if the antheræ and stigma be present, though the calyx, corolla, filaments of the stamens, and style of the pistillum be wanting, it is still a flower; and if all the parts are present, it is a complete flower. The seed also constitutes the fruit, whether there be a pericarpium or not.
Complete flowers are either simple or aggregate; simple, when no part of the fructification is common to many flowers or florets, but is confined to one only; aggregate, when the flower consists of many florets collected into a head by means of some part of the fructification common to them all, as by a common receptacle, or common calyx; as in dipsacus, scabiosa, &c.
From the different structure, disposition, and other circumstances of the receptacle or calyx, being the only common part to aggregate flowers, arise seven divisions.
1. AGGREGATE, properly so called, consisting of such flowers as are formed by the union of several lesser flowers, or florets, placed on partial peduncles, on a common dilated receptacle, and within a common perianthium; and in those flowers where each floret hath its proper calyx, that is also a perianthium. [A flower is said to be radiate, when the florets in the radius or circumference differ from those in the disk; in which case they are generally larger, and are called semi-florets, from their difference in form, and in distinction from those of the disk, which are called proper florets; and they also differ as to sex, which gives rise to several of the orders in the clas syngenesia, which contains the compound flowers.]
2. COMPOUND AGGREGATE, consisting also of several florets, placed fitting (or without partial peduncles) on a common dilated receptacle, and within a common perianthium; and where each floret hath its proper calyx, it is also a perianthium. Compound flowers also admit of a further description, viz., each floret consists of a single petal, with generally five divisions, and having five lamina distinct at the base, but united at the top by the antheræ into a cylinder, through which passeth the style of the pistillum, longer than the lamina, and crowned by a stigma with two divisions that are rolled backwards, and having a single seed placed upon the receptacle under each floret. This is the general character of a compound flower, to which there are a few exceptions; it also differs when the flower is radiate; but the essential character of a regular floret consists in the antheræ being united so as to form a cylinder, and having a single seed placed upon the receptacle under each floret.
3. UMBELLATE AGGREGATE, when the flower consists of many florets placed on fatiguate peduncles proceeding from the same stem or receptacle; and which, though of different lengths, rise to such an height as to form a regular head or umbel, whether flat, convex, or concave; and both the common and partial calyx Linnaeus calls an involucrum. It is called a simple umbel, when it hath no lesser divisions; a compound umbel, when each peduncle is subdivided at its extremity into many lesser peduncles for supporting the flowers, so as to form several little umbrellas, uniting in one head; the whole together is called an universal umbel, and the little umbrellas are called partial umbels. In some genera, that have radiated umbels, the florets of the center and those of the circumference, differ both as to sex and size; but in general each hath five petals, five stamens, and two styles, or one that is bifid, with a germ placed beneath and two naked seeds, which when ripe, separate below, but remain connected at the top.
4. CYMOUS AGGREGATE (from cyma, a sprout) called by Linnaeus a receptacle, is when several fatiguate peduncles proceed from the same centre like the umbel, and rise to nearly an even height; but unlike the umbel, the secondary or partial peduncles proceed without any regular order, as in fimbucus, viburnum, &c.
5. AMENTACEOUS AGGREGATE, are such flowers as have a long common receptacle, along which are disposed squamae or scales, which form that sort of calyx called an amentum or catkin, as in corylus, pinus, juglans, &c. Amentaceous flowers generally want the petals, petals, and all of them are of the classes monoecia and dioecia.
6. Glumose aggregate, are such flowers as proceed from a common husky calyx belonging to grasses, called gluma; many of which are placed on a common receptacle called rachis, collecting the florets into the spike, as triticum, hordeum, secale, lolium, &c.
7. Spadiceous aggregate, are also such flowers as have a common receptacle, protruded from within a common calyx called spatula, along which are disposed several florets. Such a receptacle is called a spadix; and is either branched, as in phoenix; or simple, as in narcissus, &c.: In this last case the florets may be disposed, either all around it, as in calla, draconium, pothos, &c.; on the lower side of it, as in arum, &c.; or in two sides, as in zofera, &c. These flowers have generally no partial calyx.
These are the several distinctions of aggregate flowers (according to Linnaeus); besides which there are several other modes of flowering, properly so called, that come under the general term Inflorescence, and often afford the best marks to discriminate the species. These modes of flowering are chiefly expressed as follows:
1. Verticillus, a whorl, when the flowers are placed in whorls at each joint, round the common stalk: they have very short partial peduncles; are all of the labiatus kind; and have either two or four stamens, and four naked seeds, as in salvia, marriubium, mentha, &c. A verticil hath several divisions, as naked, bracted, &c.; and all those genera with four stamens are of the class didynamia.
2. Capitulum, a little head, is when many flowers are connected into nearly a globular form or head, on the summit of the common stalk, sometimes with and sometimes without partial peduncles, as in gomphrena, &c. and is distinguished by its shape and other circumstances.—Under capitulum is now introduced the term fasciculus (a little bundle), which in former editions stood distinct. It means when the peduncles are erect, parallel, approaching each other, and raised to the same height as in sweet William, where they generally proceed from different parts of the common stalk, opposite to each other.
Spica, a spike, when the flowers, having no partial peduncles, are arranged alternately around a common simple peduncle. It is called spica secunda (a single-row'd spike), when the flowers are all turned one way, following each other; and spica disticha (a double-row'd spike), when the flowers stand pointing two ways, as in lolium, &c.: And it is distinguished by shape and other circumstances.
4. Corymbus, (a cluster of ivy-berries), when the lesser peduncles of the flowers proceed from different parts of the common peduncle or stalk; and though of unequal lengths, and sometimes simple, and sometimes branched, yet form a regular surface at the top; as in the filique plants (class Tetradynamia.) The corymbus may be supposed to be formed from a spike, by adding partial peduncles to the flowers; and seems to be the mean between racemus and umbella, the peduncles rising gradually from different parts of the common stalk, like those of the raceme, and proceed to a proportionable height like those of the umbel.
5. Thyrsus (a young stalk); a mode of flowering resembling the cone of a pine: Linnæus saith, it is a panicle contracted into an ovate or egg-shaped form; the lower peduncles, which are longer, horizontally; and the upper, which are shorter, mount vertically, as syringa, &c.
6. Racemus, (a bunch of grapes), is when the flowers are placed on short partial peduncles, proceeding as little lateral branches, from and along the common peduncle. It resembles a spike in having the flowers placed along a common peduncle, but differs from it in having partial peduncles: it also differs from a corymbus in the shortness and equal length of its peduncles, not forming a regular surface at the top; as in ribes-rubrum, vitis, &c.
7. Panicula, (the tall upon reeds), is when the flowers are dispersed upon peduncles variously subdivided; or it is a sort of branching spike, composed of several smaller spikes, attached along a common peduncle, as in avena panicum, and several other grasses, and many other plants. When the partial peduncles diverge and hang loose, it is called a diffuse, and when they converge, it is called a close, panicle.
To these may be added the term Axillares, (from axilla, the arm-pit), being such flowers as proceed from the angle formed by the leaf and the stem, as is most common: And Terminales, being such flowers as terminate the stalk or branch. All other mode of flowering is called the Inflorescence, whether opposite to the leaves, lateral, single, double, erect, bending, &c.
Under this head of Inflorescence may be explained Luxuriant Flowers, (commonly called double-flowers); which, as they are considered only as varieties and unnatural, belong properly to the head, Habit of plants. A luxuriant flower is supposed generally to be owing to superabundant nourishment; the luxuriant part is generally the corolla, but sometimes the calyx also. It is divided into three degrees: 1. multiplicatus; 2. plenus; 3. prolifer: To which may be added, as an opposite imperfection, flos mutilatus.
1. Multiplicatus, when the petals of the corolla are only so far multiplied as to exclude part of the stamens; and is called duplicata, triplicata, quadruplicata, &c. according to the number of rows of petals.
2. Plenus, when the corolla is so much multiplied, as to exclude all the stamens; which is occasioned by the stamens turning petals, and the flower is often so crowded as to exclude or choke the pistillum also. Therefore, as the essential parts of generation are thus wholly, or in part destroyed, the plants become barren and imperfect, and no seed, or very little, can be expected from them. Flowers with one petal are not very subject to fulness; when they are, it generally arises from an increase of the divisions of the petal. It is most usual in flowers of many petals, where it arises various ways; sometimes by multiplication of the petals only, sometimes of the calyx or nectarium, and sometimes of all. Compound flowers are also subject to luxuriance, arising several ways.
3. Prolifer, when one flower grows out of another; this generally happens in full flowers, from their greater luxuriancy. In simple flowers, it rises from the centre, and proceeds from the pistillum shooting up into another flower, standing on a single footstalk. In aggregate flowers (properly so called) many footstalked flowers are produced out of one common calyx. In umbel, umbellate flowers, a second umbel proceeds from the centre of the first umbel, producing little umbels; which by a greater exertion of luxuriancy may produce others with little umbels, and thus may proceed several heads of flowers, each growing out of that immediately below it, furnished with little umbels variously compounded. A prolific flower is also called leafy (frondosus), when it produces branches with flowers and leaves, which, though rare, sometimes happens in rosa, anemone, monarda, and others. [As in luxuriant flowers many parts of the natural character are deficient in the whole or in part, they can only be distinguished by the general habit, and by such parts as remain in the natural state; as very often by the calyx, and in polypetalous flowers, the lowest series or rows of petals remain the same, as in rosa, papaver, nigella, &c.]
Flos mutilatus, is such a flower as occasionally is deprived of all, or the greatest part, of the petals, yet bears seeds, as in some species of tussilago, campanula, &c. This term is opposed to luxuriance, and is supposed by Linnaeus to be caused by a defect of heat, though it may also happen by other causes.
Under this head of flowers, may also be mentioned the different sexes.
Flowers, in respect to Sex, are distinguished into male, female, hermaphrodite, and neuter. Male flowers are such as have only the stamens or males, as in the classes monoecia, dioecia, and polygamia. Female flowers are such as have only the pistils or females, as in the same classes monoecia, dioecia, and polygamia. Hermaphrodite flowers are such as have both the stamens and pistils in the same flower, as in all the other classes; hermaphrodites are also distinguished into male hermaphrodites, when the female is ineffectual; and female hermaphrodites, when the male is ineffectual. Neuter flowers are such as have neither stamens nor pistils perfect. The plants themselves also take a denomination from the sex of their flowers; as male plants are such as bear male flowers only; female plants are such as bear female flowers only; hermaphrodite plants are such as bear hermaphrodite flowers only. Androgynous (male and female) plants are such as bear both male and female flowers, distinct, upon the same root, as in the class monoecia. Polygamous plants are such as bear hermaphrodite flowers, and male or female flowers, or both distinct, on the same or on different roots; if on the same root, the flowers are either male hermaphrodites and female hermaphrodites; or hermaphrodites and male; or hermaphrodites and female, distinct; if on different roots, the flowers are either hermaphrodites and male; hermaphrodites and female; hermaphrodites and both male and female; or are androgynous and male; and sometimes androgynous and male and female on three distinct plants.
VII. The HABIT of plants, by which ancient botanists meant the whole external appearance of every part thereof, whereby they were arranged in their several systems; but by Linnaeus it is meant to be the agreement of plants of the same genus or natural order; chiefly in the following circumstances.
Gemination. The structure and disposition of the bulb, as solid, coated, fleshy, stem-bulb. All of the bud; its origin petioled, stipuled, cortical; its contents leafy, floral, common.
Vernation. The complication of the leaves within the bud, as conduplicate or doubled together; convolute or rolled together; involute or rolled in; revolute or rolled back; imbricated or tiled; equitant or rising; obvolute or rolled against each other; plaited or folded over; spiral or coiled like a watch-spring, one end in the centre.
Affixation. The state of the bud in summer, as convolute, imbricated, conduplicate, valved, unequal-valved.
Tortion. The twisting or bending of the parts, as uniform, dissimilar, from the right, from the left, reciprocal, refusine, spiral.
Nuptials. Male, female, androgynous, hermaphrodite.
Semination. The shape and other circumstances of the seed, as tail, wing, tuft, awn, hooks, gluten, curvature. Also of the pericarpium; as berrying, inflation, viscoity, elasticity, structure.
Placentation. The number and disposition of the cotyledons; or if wanting.
Variation. Of colour, size, pubescence, age.
External: plaited, bundled, broad-leaved, curled, awnless.
Internal: mutilated, great-flowered, luxuriant, crested; viviparous, bulb-bearing.
By variation or variety are meant such differences as are only incidental to vegetables, and are not found constant and unchangeable; that is, where plants raised from the same seed, by some accidental cause differ in form and appearance, from the true character of the species to which they belong; which cause being removed, the plant is restored to its true specific character: and these incidental varieties chiefly arise by difference of soil or culture, in some of the above circumstances. And though it is as necessary to collect varieties under their proper species, as the species under their proper genera; yet it is often more difficult; first, from the difficulty of ascertaining the genus, and secondly, from the variety of confounding the species; and sometimes some parts of the specific character itself are also subject to variety, particularly the leaves; though in general the true specific character is constant and unchangeable, arising only from such circumstances wherein plants of the same genus are found to disagree, which distinctions are commonly taken with most certainty, from the following parts, (viz.) root, trunk, leaves, fulcrum, hybernacle, inflorescence; all which parts have been already explained, except hybernacle.
The HYBERNACULUM, (winter lodgement), is that part of a plant which defends the embryo or future shoot from external injuries during the winter; and, according to Linnaeus, is either a bulb or a bud.
I. A Bulb (bulbus), is a large fort of bud produced under ground, placed upon the caudex of certain herbaceous plants, hence called bulbous plants; all of which are perennial, that is, perpetuated by their bulbs or ground buds, as well as by seeds; they are therefore improperly called roots, being only the hybernacle of the future shoot. Bulbs are of the following forts:
1. Squamos; consisting of scales laid over each other like tiles, as in the lily. 2. Solid; consisting of a close substance, as in tulips. 3. Coated; consisting of many coats infolding each other, as in onions. 4. Cauline; produced not only from the sides of the principal bulb, called a sucker or offset, but from other parts of the item; as in crow or wild garlic, and in some species of onion (hence called bulbiferous); where they are produced at the origin of the umbel of flowers. II. A Bud (gemma), is the embryo of the plant, seated upon the stem and branches, covered with scales. In general there are three sorts of buds:—That containing the flower only, as in poplar, ash, &c. where the leaf-buds and flower-buds are distinct;—That containing the leaves only, as in birch, &c.:—and, That containing both flower and leaves, as in the generality of plants; and these last sometimes contain leaves and male flowers, sometimes leaves and female flowers, sometimes leaves and hermaphrodite flowers.
Annual plants are only renewed from seeds; and several other plants, both trees and shrubs, have no winter buds: It is also observed in hot countries, that few plants have buds; or at least they are without that scaly covering which seems essential to a bud, and constitutes the hibernacle; instead whereof are protruded small feather-like branches from the wings of the leaves, (defence and protection from cold not being necessary); whereas in cold countries most plants have buds, which are wrapped up all the winter, in readiness to greet the approaching spring.
Lastly, What is called the Sleep of plants, according to Linnæus, happens various ways; as by converging, including, surrounding, fortifying, conduplicating, involving, diverging, depending, inverting, imbricating. This disposition in plants is very remarkable in chickweed, pimpernel, dandelion, goat's-beard, &c. which expand their flowers only at certain times of the day, and shut them up at the approach of night or a storm: which shows the great care nature takes to protect and invigorate her feeble offspring; and from hence may often be prognosticated a change of weather. In many plants, not only the flowers, but the young shoots, are defended from external injuries, by the nearest leaves converging and inclosing the tender rudiments.
The Sexual Method of reducing plants to classes, genera, and species, is founded upon the supposition that vegetables propagate their species in a manner similar to that of animals. Linnæus endeavours to support this hypothesis by the many analogies that subsist between plants and animals, which shall be more particularly pointed out in the next section. It is from this circumstance that Linnæus's system of botany has got the name of the sexual system. The names of his classes, orders, &c. are all derived from this theory. He calls the stamens of flowers, as we have seen, the males, or the male parts of generation; the pistils he calls females, or the female parts of generation; and plants whose flowers contain both male and female parts, are said to be hermaphrodites, &c. His classes, orders, and genera, are all derived from the number, situation, proportion, and other circumstances attending these parts, as will appear from the following
**SCHEME of the SEXUAL SYSTEM, or TABLE of the CLASSES.**
Either publicly, i.e. have visible flowers:
- **Monochlora**, males and females in the same bed:—i.e. The flowers are all hermaphrodite, having stamens and pistils in the same flower. - **Diffinitas**, the males or stamens unconnected with each other. - **Indifferentissimus**, the males or stamens having no determinate proportion betwixt each other as to length.
1. **Monandra**, i.e. one male or stamen in a hermaphrodite flower. 2. **Diandra**, two males or stamens. 3. **Triandra**, three males. 4. **Tetranandra**, four males. 5. **Pentandra**, five males. 6. **Hexandra**, six males. 7. **Heptandra**, seven males. 8. **Octandra**, eight males. 9. **Enneandra**, nine males. 10. **Decandra**, ten males. 11. **Dodecanandra**, eleven males. 12. **Icosandra**, twenty, or more males inserted into the calyx, and not into the receptacle. 13. **Polyandra**, all above twenty males inserted into the receptacle.
Subordinate, two of the males or stamens uniformly shorter than the rest.
14. **Didynamia**, four males, two of them uniformly shorter than the other two. 15. **Tetradynamia**, six males, two of which are uniformly shorter than the rest.
Affinitas, the males or stamens either connected to each other, or to the pistil.
16. **Monodelphia**, the males or stamens united into one body by the filaments. 17. **Diadelphia**, the stamens united into two bodies or bundles by the filaments. 18. **Polyadelphia**, the stamens united into three or more bundles by the filaments. 19. **Syngenesia**, the stamens united in a cylindrical form by the antheræ. 20. **Gynandra**, the stamens inserted into the pistil.
Diclinia, males and females in separate beds; i.e. plants that have male and female flowers in the same species.
21. **Monoecia**, male and female flowers in the same plant. 22. **Dioecia**, male flowers in one plant, and females in another, of the same species. 23. **Polygamia**, male, female, and hermaphrodite flowers in the same species.
Or clandestinely, i.e. whose parts of fructification are invisible.
24. **Cryptogamia**, the flowers invisible, so that they cannot be ranked according to the parts of fructification. These 24 Classes comprehend every known genus and species. It is an easy matter to clas a plant belonging to any of the first 11 classes, as they all depend on the number of stamens or male parts, without regard to any other circumstance; only it is to be observed, that the 11th class, Decandria, although its title is expressive of 12 stamens only, consists of such plants as are furnished with any number of stamens from 11 to 19 inclusive. The reason of the change in the classes from 10 to 12 stamens, is, that no flowers have yet been found with only 11, so as to form a class. Reseda hath sometimes only 11, but oftener more, yet never exceeding 15. The 12th class requires more attention than the preceding. When the stamens amount to above 20, a tyro will be apt to imagine that the plant belongs to the polyandria class. In reducing plants of this kind to their classes, particular regard must be had to the insertion of the stamens. If they are inserted into the calyx or cup, the plant belongs to the isoandria class; if to the receptacle or basis of the flower, it belongs to the polyandria. This distinction it is very necessary to observe, as the fruits of the latter class are frequently poisonous.
The 14th class is likewise in danger of being confounded with the 4th. In the 4th, the number of stamens is the same with that of the 14th; but in the 14th, two of the stamens are uniformly much shorter than the other two; at the same time each particular stamen belonging to the different pairs stands directly opposite to one another.
The 15th class may be mistaken for the 6th, as they consist of the same number of stamens. But in the 15th, four of the stamens are uniformly longer than the other two; and these two are always opposite to each other.
ORDERS.
In the first 14 classes, the Orders, which are inferior divisions, and lead us a step nearer the genus, are taken from the pistils or female parts, in the same manner as the classes from the stamens: Monogynia, digyny, trigynia, tetragynia, &c. i.e., one, two, three, four, &c. female parts. When the pistils or female parts have no stalk or filament like the stamens, they are numbered by the stigma or tops of the pistils, which in that case adhere to the capsule in the form of small protuberances, as may be observed in the flowers of the poppy, &c.
The Orders of the 14th class are derived from a different source. The plants belonging to it have their seeds either inclosed in a capsule, or altogether uncovered. Hence they naturally admit of a division into the following orders, viz., gymnopermia, comprehending such as have naked seeds; and angiopermia, which comprehends such as have their seeds covered, or inclosed in a capsule.
The 15th class is divided into two Orders, viz., the filiculosa, or those which have a short filica or pod; and the filiquea, or those which have a longer filica.
The Orders of the 16th, 17th, 18th, and 20th classes, are taken from the number of stamens; e.g., monodelphia pentandra, decandra, polyandra, &c.
The 19th class consists of plants whose flowers are compounded of a great number of small flowers or florets inclosed in one common calyx. The Orders of this class are,
Polygamia equilateral, or such whose florescules are all furnished with stamens and pistils.
Polygamia spuria, comprehends those which have hermaphrodite florescules in the disk, and female florescules in the margin. This circumstance is made the foundation of the three following orders. 1. Polygamia superflua, includes all those whose hermaphrodite flowers in the disk are furnished with stigmas, and bear seed; and whose female flowers in the radius likewise produce seeds. 2. Polygamia frufranica, include such as have hermaphrodite seed-bearing florescules in the disk; but whose florescules in the radius, having no stigmas, are barren. 3. Polygamia necessaria, is the reverse of the former; the hermaphrodite flowers in the disk want stigmas, and are barren; but the female florescules in the radius are furnished with stigmas, and produce seeds.
Polygamia segregata, many florescules inclosed in one common calyx, and each of the florescules likewise furnished with a perianthium proper to itself.
Monogamia. This order consists only of seven genera, viz., the drumphia, feriphiun, corymbium, jahone, lobelia, viola, and impatiens; none of which have properly compound flowers, but are ranked under this class purely from the circumstance of having their stamens united by the antheræ.
The Orders of the 21st class are partly taken from the number of stamens, and partly from the names and characters peculiar to some of the other classes; e.g., monococcia triandra, monococcia syngenesia, monococcia gyndandra.
The Orders of the 22d class are founded upon the number, union, and situation of the stamens in the male flowers.
The Orders of the 23d are all taken from classical characters; e.g., polygamia monococcia, polygamia diecia, and polygamia triciacia.
The 24th class is divided into the four following Orders: 1. Filices, comprehending all plants that bear their seeds in the back or edges of the leaf, and those that are called capillary plants. 2. Musci, which comprehends all the mosses. 3. Algae, including the lichens, fuci, and many others whose parts of fructification are either altogether invisible or exceedingly obscure. 4. Fungi, comprehending all the mushroom tribe.
TABLE of the Orders.
| Class | Orders | |-------|--------| | I. | Monogynia, Digynia; comprehending 18 genera. | | II. | Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia; 35 genera. | | III. | Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia; 76 genera. | | IV. | Monogynia, Digynia, Tetragynia; 85 genera. | | V. | Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, Tetragynia, Pentagynia, Polygynia; 264 genera. | | VI. | Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, Tetragynia, Polygynia; 82 genera. | | VII. | Monogynia, Digynia, Tetragynia, Heptagynia; 7 genera. |
CLASS- Orders.
Class VIII. consists of 4: Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, Tetracygynia; 45 genera.
IX. 3: Monogynia, Trigynia, Hexagynia; 6 genera.
X. 5: Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, Pentagynia, Decagynia; 94 genera.
XI. 5: Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, Pentagynia, Dodecagynia; 33 genera.
XII. 5: Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, Pentagynia, Polygynia; 29 genera.
XIII. 7: Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, Tetracygynia, Pentagynia, Hexagynia, Polygynia; 77 genera.
XIV. 2: Gymnofpermia, Angiospermia; 102 genera.
XV. 2: Siliquofa, Siliculofa; 32 genera.
XVI. 7: Triandria, Pentandria, Octandria, Decandria, Ennecandria, Dodecandria, Polyandria; 36 genera.
XVII. 4: Pentandria, Hexandria, Octandria, Decandria; 56 genera.
XVIII. 3: Pentandria, Icoandria, Polyanndria; 12 genera.
XIX. 6: Polygamia æqualis, Polygamia superflua, Polygamia fruistranea, Polygamia neceffaria, Polygamia fegregata, Monogamia; 116 genera.
XX. 9: Diandria, Triandria, Tetrandria, Pentandria, Hexandria, Octandria, Decandria, Dodecandria, Polyandria; 33 genera.
XXI. 11: Monandria, Diandria, Triandria, Tetrandria, Pentandria, Hexandria, Hepandria, Polyandria, Monadelphia, Syngenesia, Gynandria; 80 genera.
XXII. 14: Monandria, Diandria, Triandria, Tetrandria, Pentandria, Hexandria, Octandria, Enneandria, Decandria, Dodecandria, Polyandria, Monadelphia, Syngenesia, Gynandria; 55 genera.
XXIII. 3: Monococcia, Dioecia, Tricoccia; 34 genera.
XXIV. 4: Filices, Mulci, Algæ, Fungi; 51 genera.
Appendix, Palmæ.
These last, though capable of being arranged in the several classes of the system, yet, on account of their singular structure, have been placed in an appendix containing such genera as have a spatix and spathe, i.e., whose flowers and fruit are produced on that particular receptacle or seat called a spatix, protruded from a common calyx in form of a sheath called spathe. This order consists of trees and shrubs only. These have always a simple stem, not branched, bearing leaves at the top, resembling those of fern, being a composition of a leaf and a branch, called frondes; and the corolla hath always three petals, or three deep divisions. The known genera are 10 in number.
Genera.
Having thus explained the distinctions of classes and orders, the next step is the investigation of the genus or family.
The essence of every vegetable, says Linnæus, consists in the fructification (or mode of fruit-bearing), and the essence of the fructification consists in the flower and fruit; the essence of the flower consists in the antheræ and stigma, and the essence of the fruit consists in the seed. Hence, in his sexual theory, he necessarily makes the flower and fruit the foundation of his generic distinctions. These are generally composed of seven parts; the calyx, the corolla, the stamens, the pistillum, the pericarpium, the semen, the receptaculum; and the presence or absence, the number, figure, proportion, and situation of the several parts, constitute the genus. But as there are few genera wherein all the parts of the natural character are constant in every one of the species, it is necessary to fix upon such circumstances as are constant in both genus and species, and call those the essential or ruling character, as well the more easily to distinguish one genus from another, as to regulate and fix the several species and their varieties to their respective genera; for which purpose, in some cases, Linnæus was obliged to have recourse to the nectarium, afterwards explained. The first four parts of the fructification are properly parts of the flower, and the last three are parts of the fruit.
1. The CALYX (A), a cup, is the termination of the outer bark (cortex) of a plant. Its chief use is to inclose, support, and protect the other parts of the fructification. When present, it is seated on the receptacle:
(a) The calyx is considered a part of the flower, though it more generally attends, and is permanent with, the fruit, as in the clas didynamia, and most other plants; yet sometimes it drops before or with the corolla, and before the fruit is ripe, as in the clas tetradynamia, and many other plants. It is also considered a part of the flower, as there is no instance of its coming out after the plant has done flowering; yet in patagonia it is observed to grow to a much larger size in the fruit than it had in the flower: In some plants there is none, or scarce perceptible; in others, it is only a rim or border (margo). The germen is also considered as part of the flower, as being the base of the pistillum, though it afterwards becomes the seed-vessel.
No 51. ceptacle: and is distinguished by its figure; by the number, division, and shape of its leaves, or segments; and by the following names, according to the circumstances with which it is attended.
Perianthium, (surrounding the flower), when its station is close to, and surrounds the other parts of the fructification, and it is then called the perianthium of the fructification: If it includes many floecules, as in fabiola, and other aggregate and compound flowers, it is called a common perianthium; if it includes only one floecule, in such flowers it is called a proper perianthium: if it includes the stamina, and not the germen, it is the perianthium of the flower, and is said to be above, as in lonicera, ribes, campanula, &c.; if it includes the germen, but not the stamina, it is the perianthium of the fruit, and is said to be below, as in linnea and morina, each of which have two calyxes and two receptacles above each other, one of the flower and the other of the fruit, and may therefore serve as instances in both cases.
Involucrum, (a cover), when stationed at the foot of an umbel, below the common receptacle, and at a distance from the flower: it is called universal, if placed under the universal umbel; and partial, if placed under a partial umbel.
Amentum, (a thong), meaning a catkin, when it consists of a great number of chaffy scales, disposed along a slender axis or common receptacle, which, from its resemblance to a cat's tail, hath obtained the name catkin; and these flowers have generally no petals: Sometimes the same amentum supports both male and female flowers, distinct, on the same plant, as in carpinus, &c.; sometimes the male and female flowers are removed from each other on the same plant, and the amentum supports only the male flowers, and the female flowers are inclosed by a perianthium, as in corylus, juglans, fagus, &c.; and sometimes an amentum only supports male flowers on one plant, and female flowers on another plant, as salix, populus, &c.
Spatha, (a sheath), being a sort of calyx growing from the stalk, bursting lengthways, and protruding a spadix or receptacle, supporting one or more flowers, which have often no perianthium; and consists either of one leaf, with a valve or opening on one side only, as in narcissus, galanthus, and the greater number of spathaceous plants; or of two leaves, with two valves or openings, as in fritillaries, &c.; or is imbricated, as in ruta, &c., with one or two valves.
Gluma, (a hilt;) this chiefly belongs to corn and grass, consisting of one, two, three, or more valves, folding over each other like scales, and frequently terminated by a long, stiff, pointed prickle, called the aristae (beard or awn).
Calyx, (a veil or covering), the proper calyx to mosses; it is placed over the antheræ of the stamina, resembling an extinguisher, a hood, or monk's cowl.
Volva, from its infolding or involving, is the proper calyx to fungiflora, being membranaceous, and surrounding the stalk or pillar before their expansion.
[It is often difficult to distinguish the calyx from the bractæ, or floral leaves, which are found on many plants, situated on the flower-stalks; and are often so near to the lower parts of the fructification as to be confounded with, and mistaken for, the calyx, as in tilia, helleborus, paflflora, &c. (in helleborus the calyx is wanting): but they may be best distinguished by this rule; the floral leaves differ in shape and colour from the other leaves of the plant, but are commonly of the same duration; whereas the calyx always withers when the fruit is ripe, if not before.]
II. The COROLLA, (a wreath or little crown), is the termination of the inner bark (liber) of the plant; which accompanies the fructification, in the form of leaves variously coloured: it is generally seated on the receptacle, sometimes on the calyx; serving as an inner work of defence to the part it incloseth; as the calyx, which is usually of stronger texture, does for an outer work. The leaves of which the corolla are composed are called petals, by the number, division, and shape of which it is distinguished. It is said to be below, when it includes the germen, and is attached to the part immediately below it, as in salvia, borage, convolvulus, primula, &c.; and it is said to be above, when it is placed above the germen, as in lonicera, ribes, crataegus, &c. In respect to duration, the corolla either continues till the fruit is ripe, as in nymphæa; or falls off at the first opening of the flower, as in actea, thalictrum; or falls off with the stamina and other parts of the flower, as in most plants; or does not fall, but withers, as in campanula, cucumis, and others.
There is also a part which Linnaeus says principally belongs to the corolla, as an appendage to the petals; which he calls the nectarium (from nectar the fabled drink of the gods); and is that part containing the honey, which is the principal food of bees and other insects. But, though in such plants where it is found, it may more commonly be attached to the corolla, and be then most evident; yet it is almost as often attached to other parts of the fructification: Linnaeus therefore chiefly makes use of it as an essential character in many of the genera, as being less variable than his other distinctions; and observes, that when it is distinct from the petals, that is, not united with their substance, those plants are generally poisonous: The tube or lower part of monopetalous flowers, he considers as a true nectarium, because it contains a sweet liquor. But as it affords very singular varieties in other instances, it hath obtained the following distinctions.
1. Calycine Nectaria, such as are situated upon, and make a part of, the calyx; as in tropæolum, monotropæum, &c.
2. Corollaceous Nectaria, such as are attached to the corolla. These are called calcariate (from calcar), when they resemble a spur or horn: which are either on flowers of one petal, as valeriana, antirrhinum, &c.; or on flowers of many petals, as in orchis, delphinium, viola, fumaria, &c. Or the nectarium lies within the substance of the petals, as in fritillaria, lilium, berberis, iris, ranunculus, &c.
3. Staminate Nectaria, such as attend the stamina, and are either seated upon the antheræ, as in adenandra; or upon the filaments, as in laurus, dictamnus, campanula, &c.
4. Pistillaceous Nectaria, such as accompany the pistillum, and are placed upon the germen, as in hyacinthus, butomus, cheiranthus, hesperis, &c.
5. Receptaculaceous Nectaria, such as join to the receptacle, as in polygonum, sedum, sempervivum, &c. 6. Nectaria, that crown the corolla, that is, when placed in a series or row within the petals, though entirely unconnected with their substance, as in paffitora, lychnis, filene, &c.; and in this situation it often resembles a cup, as in narcissus, &c.
7. Nectaria of singular construction, being such as cannot properly be placed under any of the foregoing distinctions, as in amomum, curcuma, falix, urtica, &c.
The proper use of the nectarium, and why it should have such very different situations, is not yet known; but as it is found in most plants, there is great reason to believe it an essential part in the fructification, though not always perceptible.
III. The Stamina, (threads or chives); the males of the flower, proceeding from the wood of the plant, each stamen consisting of two parts, viz. the filament and the anthera. In most flowers they are placed upon the receptacle, within the corolla, and round the germen; and are chiefly distinguished by number.
The Filament (from filum, a thread), is the thread-shaped part of the stamen, serving as a footstalk to elevate the anthera, and is sometimes found to have jags or divisions (laciniae); which are either two, as in falcia; three, as in fumaria; or nine, as in the clas diadelphia. They are also distinguished by their form or figure, as awl-shaped, thread-shaped, hair-like, spiral, revolute, &c.: by their proportion, as equal, unequal, irregular, long, or short: and by their situation, being generally opposite to the leaves or divisions of the calyx, and alternate with the petals; that is, when the divisions of the calyx are equal in number to the petals, and to the stamina. In monopetalous flowers they are generally inserted into the corolla; but scarcely ever in flowers of more than one petal, but into the receptacle: Yet in the clas icoandria they are inserted into the calyx or corolla (though the flowers have many petals), as also in a few other plants. But in the clas polyandria, and most other polypetalous plants, they are inserted into the receptacle, like the calyx and corolla. The clas gynandria, however, is an exception to the above rules, where the stamina are placed upon the pistillum, or female part of the flower; and are sometimes without filaments.
The Anthera (from anthos, a flower), emphatically so called from its great utility in the fructification, is the top or summit of the filament, containing the impregnating pollen or farina; and is either one to each filament, as in most plants; or one common to three filaments, as in cucurbita, &c.; or one common to five filaments, as in the whole clas syngenesia; or sometimes there are two antherae to each filament, as in ranunculus and mercurialis; three to each filament, as in fumaria; five to three filaments, as in bryonia; or five to each filament, as in theobroma. The anthera is also distinguished by its form or figure, as oblong, round, angular, &c. It also consists of one or more cells, which burst differently in different plants; either on the side, as in most plants; on the top; or from the top to the base. It is also fastened to the top of the filament, either by its base, as in most plants, or horizontally by its middle, to the top of the filament, so poised as to turn like a vane (veratilis): or it is fixed by its side, leaning to the top of the filament, then called incumbent: or it sometimes grows to the nectarium, as in costus; to the receptacle, as in arum; to the pistillum, as in the clas gynandria.
IV. The Pistillum, or the female of the flower, proceeding from the pith of the plant. It is that erect column which is generally placed in the centre of the flower, amidst the stamina; and consists of three parts, the germen, the style, and the stigma.
1. Germen (a bud), is the base of the pistillum, supporting the style. After a process of nature, it becomes a seed-vessel, and may therefore be considered as the rudiment of the pericarpium. It is distinguished by its shape, number, and situation; and is said to be above or below, according to its situation above or below the attachment of the corolla.
2. The Style (from stylus, a pillar), is that part which elevates the stigma from the germen, in order to receive the influence of the stamina, and to convey the effects down to the germen as through a tube. It is distinguished either by its number, which, when present (or when absent, the number of stigmata), gives rise to most of the orders, and are called so many females; or by its divisions (laciniae), being double, treble, or quadruple, &c. though joined at the base; or by its length, being longer, shorter, or equal with the stamina; or by its proportion, being thicker or thinner than the stamina; or by its figure, being angular, cylindric, awl-shaped, bent, &c.; or by its situation, being generally on the top of the germen, tho' in some instances supposed to be both above and below, as in capparis and euphorbia; unless the lower part in these genera be considered as the extension of the receptacle: It is also often placed on the side of the germen, as in hirtella, furiana; also in rofa, rubus, and the rest of the plants in the clas and order icoandria polygynia. With respect to duration, it generally falls with the other parts of the flower; but in some plants is permanent, and attends the fruit to its maturity, as in the clas tetradynamia. In flowers which have no style, the stigma adheres to the germen.
3. The Stigma (a mark), when single, is generally placed like a head on the summit of the style: when several, they are either placed on the top, or regularly disposed along the side; and covered with a moisture, to retain the pollen of the anthera. It is distinguished either by its number, being single in most plants; by its divisions; by its figure or shape; by its length; by its thickness; and by its duration, as in most plants it withers when the germen is become a seed-vessel; in some it is permanent, as in papaver.
V. The Pericarpium, (round the fruit); the germen grown to maturity, and now become a matrix or seed-vessel. All plants, however, are not furnished with a seed-vessel, as in corylus, &c. In many, it is supplied chiefly by the calyx, which converging incloses the seeds till they arrive at maturity; as is the case with the rough-leaved plants, and the labial and compound flowers of the several classes pentandra, didyma, and syngenesia. Sometimes the receptacle supplies the office of seed-vessel, as in grundelia; and sometimes the nectarium, as in carex. The pericarpium is situated at the receptacle of the flower, either above or below, or both, as in faxifraga and lobelia; and is distinguished by the following appellations, according to its different structure.
1. Capsula, 1. **Capsula** (a little chest or casket), which is frequently succulent whilst green; but when ripe, it is a dry husky seed-vessel, that cleaves or parts in some determinate manner to discharge its contents; and by some sort of elastic motion, the seeds are often darted forth with considerable velocity, as in dictamnus, &c. It opens also various ways; either at the top, as in most plants; at the bottom; at the side; horizontally across the middle; or longitudinally; and if it is articulated or jointed, it opens at each of the joints, which contains a single seed. It is further distinguished externally, by its number of valves; and internally, by the number of its cells or divisions, wherein the seed is inclosed; as also by its shape and substance.
2. **Silicua** (a pod), which is a pericarpium of two valves; but as some are long, others round or broad, Linnaeus thought it necessary to distinguish them by their form into *silicua* and *silicula*; which gives rise to the two orders in the class tetradynamia. The *silicua* means a long pod, being much longer than broad, as in brachica, finapis, &c.; the *silicula* (a little *silicua*), is a roundish pod, either flat or spherical, and the length and breadth nearly equal, as in lunaria, draba, thlaspi, &c. In both, the apex, which had been the style, is often so long beyond the valves, as to be of equal length with the pod; and the seeds in both are fastened alternately by a slender thread, to both the sutures or joinings of the valves.
3. **Legumen** (pod), is also a pod, and is likewise a pericarpium of two valves, wherein the seeds are fastened to short receptacles along the upper future only, on each side, alternate: this chiefly belongs to the papilionaceous or butterfly flowers of the class diadelphia.
4. **Folliculus** (a little bag, in former editions called *conceptaculum*), is a pericarpium of one valve only, opening lengthwise on one side, and the seeds not fastened to the future, but to a receptacle within the fruit, as in apocynum, aclepias, &c.
5. **Drupa** (from *drupa*, unripe olives), is a pericarpium that is succulent, or pulpy, having no valve or external opening. It contains within its substance a stone or nut; that is, a seed inclosed with an hard ligneous crust, as olea, cornus, juglans, prunus, amygdalus, &c.: and when the drupa is seated below the calyx, it is furnished with an umbilicus like the pomum.
6. **Pomum** (an apple), is also a pericarpium that is succulent or pulpy, and without valve; but containing in the middle a membranous capsule, with several cells or cavities containing the seeds; and at the end opposite to the footstalk there is generally a small cavity called *umbilicus* (the navel), from its resemblance to that part in animals, and which was formerly the calyx, seated above the fruit, and persistent, as in pyrus, cucumis, cucurbita, &c.
7. **Bacca** (a berry), is also a pulpy pericarpium without valve, inclosing one or more seeds, which have no membranous capsule or covering, but are disposed promiscuously through the pulp, as in ribes, &c. and are generally placed on footstalks attached to receptacles within the pulp, as in ribes, &c. The berry also admits of the following distinction: It is said to be proper, when it is a true pericarpium formed of a germen; and improper, when it is formed from other parts of the fructification; as in morus, rosa, juniperus, taxus, &c. A large succulent calyx becomes a berry; and in juniperus the three petals become the umbilicus; in poterium the berry is formed of the tube of the corolla; in fragaria, &c. it is formed of the top of the receptacle; in rubus, &c. it is formed from a seed, which is the receptacle of the berry; in rufus, &c. it is inclosed within and is a part of the nectary. The berry is commonly either round or oval, and is frequently furnished with an umbilicus, as in ribes, &c. It does not naturally open to disperse the seeds like the capsule, that office being performed by birds and other animals.
8. **Strobilus** (a cone), is a pericarpium formed of an amenum, being a seed-vessel composed of woody scales placed against each other in the form of a cone, opening only at the top of the scales, being firmly fixed below to a sort of axis or receptacle, occupying the middle of the cone; as in pinus, thuja, cupressus, &c.
VI. **Semina** (the seeds). A seed is the essence of the fruit of every vegetable; and is defined by Linnaeus to be "a deciduous part of the plant, containing the rudiments of a new vegetable, fertilized by the sprinkling of the pollen;" and they are distinguished according to number, shape, texture, appendage, &c. A seed, properly so called, consists of the five following parts; to which is added the nux and propago.
1. The **Corculum** (from cor, a heart), is the essence of the seed, and principle of the future plant; and consists of two parts, viz. plumula and rostellum. Plumula is the fleshy part and essence of the corculum, which ascends and becomes the stem or trunk of the plant: it extends itself into the cavity of the lobes or cotyledons, and is terminated by a small sort of branch resembling a feather. Rostellum is the plain or simple part of the corculum, which descends into the earth, and becomes the root: its form is that of a small beak, placed without the lobes, and adhering internally to the plumula.
2. The **Cotyledons** (from cotyledon, the hollow of the huckle-bone), are the thick porous side-lobes of the seed, consisting of farinaceous matter, and which involve and for some time furnish nourishment to the embryo plant, but wither and die away when it becomes strong. If a plant be cut below the cotyledons, it will scarce ever put out fresh leaves, but withers and decays; if it is cut above the cotyledons, it generally shoots out afresh, and continues to grow: Therefore, if plants whose cotyledons rise above ground, as turpips, &c. be cut or eat to the ground by cattle, they decay; but where the cotyledons remain below ground, as in graffles, and are cut or eaten to the ground, they will shoot out afresh. The cotyledons are also called the seminal or seed leaves: some plants have only one, as in graffles and in cucufita, &c.; others two, as in vicia, &c.; linum hath four; cupreiflora hath five; and pinus, Linnaeus saith, hath ten. The cotyledons in mushrooms, ferns, and mosses, are not sufficiently ascertained to know if they have any.
3. The **Hilum** (the black spot on a bean, called the eye), is the external mark or scar on the seed, where it was fastened within the pericarpium.
4. The **Arillus**, a term used to express the proper exterior coat or covering of the seed; which falls off spontaneously, and is either cartilaginous or succulent: lent: yet seeds are said to be naked, when not inclosed in any sort of pericarpium, as in the clasps and order didynamia gymnospermia.
5. The Coronula, is either a little fort of calyx adhering to the top of the seed, like a little crown, and afflicting to disperse it by flying, as in scabiosa, knautia, &c. where the little calyx of the floret becomes the crown of the seed; Or a down; which is either feathery, as in valeriana, leontodon, gnaphalium, &c.; or is hairy, as in tufiflaga, fencio, hieracium, &c. [This down has generally been thought intended to disperse the seeds; yet as it frequently breaks off when those have flown to some distance, and is seen flying alone, some have imagined that the down is only intended as a defence of the seed till arrived at maturity.]
—The coronula is also either sitting (Jofflitis), that is, attached close to the seed, as in hieracium, &c.; or footstalked (flpitatus), by a thread elevating and connecting the crown or tuft with the seed, as in lactuca, crepis, &c. Some seeds are also furnished with a wing, a tail, a hook, an awn, &c. all coming under the term coronula, and tending either to disperse or fix the several seeds to which they belong. Some seeds are also furnished with an elastic force, in order to disperse them; which is either in the calyx, as in oats and some others; in the pappus, as in centaurea-cupina; or in the capsule, as in geranium, fraxinella, spurring cucumber, &c. Other seeds, especially those whose pericarpium is a berry, as also the nutmeg and other nuts, are dispersed by birds and other animals.
Nux (Nat.), a seed inclosed in an hard woody substance, called the shell, which is one-celled, two-celled, &c. and the inclosed seed is called the kernel.
Propago. The seed of a moss, not coming under the above description, Linnaeus calls Propago (a slip or shoot); which hath neither coat nor cotyledon, but consists only of a naked plumula where the rostellum is inserted into the calyx of the plant.
VII. The Receptaculum is the base which receives, supports, and connects the other parts of the fructification; but it is only mentioned by Linnaeus (in his Gen. Pl.) when it can be introduced as a character varying in shape and surface, as principally in the claspsyngenesia. It hath the following distinctions.
Proper, when it supports the parts of a single fructification only: When it is a base to which only the parts of the flower are joined, and not the germen, it is called a receptacle of the flower; in which case, the germen being placed below the receptacle of the flower, hath a proper base of its own, which is called the receptacle of the fruit: And it is called a receptacle of the seeds, when it is a base to which the seeds are fastened within the pericarpium. In some simple flowers, where the germen is placed above the receptacle of the flower, the fruit hath a separate receptacle, as in magnolia, uvaria, &c. in which genera the numerous germina are seated upon a receptacle rising like a pillar above the receptacle of the fructification.
Common, when it supports and connects a head of flowers in common; as in the amenum, and other aggregate flowers.
Umbrella, which Linnaeus calls a receptacle. See aggregate flowers, under the head of Inflorescence, above, p. 427.
Cyma (a sprout), is also called a receptacle. Ibid.
Rachis (the back-bone); a filiform receptacle, collecting the florets longitudinally into a spike, in many of the glumose flowers, as wheat, barley, rye, &c.
Spadix, anciently only signified the receptacle of a palm (Phoenix) issuing out of a spathe, and branched; but now every flower-stalk that is protruded from a calyx called spathe, is denominated a spadix, as in narcissus, &c.
When all these parts are understood, the genus may be easily investigated. But in order still further to assist the young botanist, we shall give a systematical description of a few common plants belonging to different classes. [The numbers refer to the figures in the subjoined Explanation of the Plates.]
DIANDRIA MONOGYNYA.
Veronica, or Speedwell.
The Calyx is a perianthium (18) divided into four parts or segments, and persistent (i.e. does not fall off till the seeds are ripe); the segments are sharp and lance-shaped.
The Corolla (11) consists of one rotated petal; the tubus (11) is about the same length with the calyx; the limbis (11) is plane, and divided into four oval segments, the lowest of which is narrower than the rest, and the one immediately opposite broader.
The Stamina (12) are two, narrower below, and inclined upwards; the antherae (12) are oblong.
The Pistillum (12) has a compriméd germen (12), a filiform or thread-like stylos (12), about the same length with the stamina, and a little declined to one side: the stigma (12) is simple.
The Pericarpium (12) is a heart-shaped capsule, compriméd at the top, and having two cells or partitions, and four valves.
The Seeds are roundish and numerous.
ICOSANDRIA POLYGAMIA.
Fragaria, or Strawberry.
The Calyx is a perianthium consisting of one plain leaf, divided into ten segments, each alternately narrower.
The Corolla has five roundish open petals inserted into the calyx.
The Stamina are 20 in number, subulate or tapering, shorter than the corolla, and inserted into the calyx. The antherae are lunulated, or shaped like a crescent.
The Pistillum consists of many small germina collected into a little head or knob. The styli are simple, and inserted into the sides of their respective germina. The stigmata are simple.
The Pericarpium is wanting in this plant. But the common receptacle of the seeds, which supplies the place of a pericarpium, is a roundish oval berry, plain at the base, pretty large, soft, pulpy, coloured, and deciduous, i.e. falls off before the seeds be ripe.
The Seeds are small, pointed, very numerous, and dispersed through the superficial part of the receptacle.
DIDYNAMIA ANGIOSPERMIA.
Digitalis, or Fox-glove.
The Calyx is a perianthium divided into four deep- deep-cut segments, which are roundish, sharp at the top, persistent, and the highest one is narrower than the rest.
The Corolla consists of one bell-shaped petal; the tubus is large, open, ventricose or bellied at the backside; the base is cylindrical and narrow; the limb is small, and divided into four segments; the superior segment is more open and more emarginated than the rest.
The Stamina are four, subulated (44), inserted into the base of the corolla, and inclined to the same side; two of them are longer than the other two; the antherae are divided into two parts, and pointed at the top.
The Pistillum consists of a germen sharp at the top, a simple style situated like the lamina, and an acute stigma.
The Pericarpium has an oval capsule, of the same length with the calyx, sharp at the top, having two cells, and two valves which burst open at both sides.
The Seeds are many and small.
TETRADYNAMIA SILIQUOSA.
Sinapis, or Mustard.
The calyx is a perianthium consisting of four open or spreading leaves; the leaves are linear (43), concave, furrowed, disposed in the form of a cross, and deciduous.
The Corolla consists of four cruciform petals: the petals are roundish, plain, open, entire or not emarginated, with erect linear ungues (13) scarcely so long as the calyx.
The Nectaria (14, &c.), or glandula nettarifera, are four, of an oval figure, one of which is situated on each side between the short lamina and style, and likewise one on each side between the long lamina and the calyx.
The Stamina have six subulated erect filaments, two of which are of the same length with the calyx, and always opposite to each other, and the other four are uniformly longer; the antherae are erect, and sharp at the top.
The Pistillum has a cylindrical germen; the style is of the same length with the germen, and the same height with the lamina; the stigma is entire, with a little knob or button.
The Pericarpium is an oblong, scabrous, double-celled, two valved pod, gibbous, and full of little protuberances on the under parts; the dissepimentum (29) is large, compressed, and often twice the length of the valves.
The Seeds are many and round.
MONODELPHIA POLYANDRIA.
Malva, or Common Mallow.
The Calyx is a double perianthium: the exterior one consists of three lanceolate, loose, persistent leaves; the interior has but one large, broad, persistent leaf, divided into five segments.
The Corolla has five plain leaves united at the base, heart-shaped, and premorse, (54).
The Stamina consist of numerous filaments, united into a cylindrical form below, loose above, and inserted into the corolla; the antherae are kidney-shaped.
The Pistillum has an orbicular germen, a cylindrical short style, and many bristly stigmata of an equal length with the style.
The Pericarpium consists of several distinct capsules joined by an articulation, resembling a depressed globe, and opening from within when ripe: the receptaculum is a kind of column binding the capsules together.
The Seeds are solitary, and kidney-shaped.
SYNGENESIA POLYGAMIA-AEQUALIS.
Leontodon, or Dandelion.
The common Calyx is oblong, and imbricated: the interior scales are linear, parallel, equal, and open at the top; the exterior scales are fewer in number, and frequently reflexed at the base.
The compound Corolla is uniform and imbricated.
The small hermaphrodite corollae are very numerous and equal.
The corolla proper to each floscule consists of one ligulated (i.e., plain and expanded outwards), linear, truncated (i.e., terminated by a transverse line), and five-teethed petal.
The Stamina consist of five very small capillary filaments: the antherae are connected together, and form a cylindrical tube.
The Germen of the pistillaris situated below the proper corolla. The style is filiform, and nearly of the same length with the corolla: the stigmata are two, and turned back in a spiral form.
This plant has no pericarpium.
The Seeds are solitary, oblong, rough, and terminated by a long pappous fippe (31).
The receptacle, or common base of the floscules (9), is naked, and full of small hollow points.
GYNANDRIA PENTANDRIA.
Passiflora, or Passion-Flower.
The Calyx is a perianthium consisting of five plain coloured leaves, similar to those of the corolla.
The Corolla consists of five plain obtuse semi-lanceolate leaves, of the same magnitude and figure with those of the calyx.
The nettarium is a triple corona, the exterior of which is longest, surrounding the style within the petals, and straitened above.
The Stamina are five, subulated, open, and connected to the style at the base of the germen; the antherae are oblong, obtuse, and incumbent.
The Pistillum consists of an erect cylindrical style, upon the top of which an oval germen is placed: the styles are three, thicker and wider above: the stigmata are roundish knobs.
The Pericarpium is a fleshy, suboval, one-celled berry, resting upon the style.
The Seeds are numerous, oval, and each of them inclosed in a small membrane.
MONOECIA TETRANDRIA.
Urtica, or Common Nettle.
The Calyx of the male flowers is a four-leaved perianthium; the leaves are roundish, concave, and obtuse.
The Corolla has no petals; but there is a small urceolate The Stamina consist of four filiform open filaments, of an equal length with the calyx, and one of them is placed between each leaf of the calyx: the anthers have no cells.
The Calyx of the female flowers is a double-valved, oval, concave, erect, persistent, perianthium.
The Corolla is wanting.
The Pistillum has an oval germen, no stylus, and a downy stigma.
They have no pericarpium.
The Seed is single, oval, shining, and a little compressed.
SPECIES.
The genera include a great number of relative species, distinguished by the specific difference of the root, the trunk, the branches, the leaves, &c. (yet all agreeing in the essential generic character); and are called by trivial names (expressive of the difference or some other circumstance) added to the generic name. In order to investigate the species, therefore, it is necessary to understand those differences, and be acquainted with the names by which they are expressed. Several of these have been already incidentally explained; but for a complete enumeration, the reader must have recourse to the nomenclature subjoined to this section. And to illustrate the manner in which those terms are used, we shall here give a few examples; referring, by numbers, to the figures on the plates.
Class II. DIANDRIA.
Order, MONOGYNYA.
Genus, VERONICA, or SPEEDWELL.
Species, Veronica arvensis, has solitary flowers; cut, fleshy (130), and cordated (46), leaves.
Veronica agrestis, has solitary flowers; cut, cordated (46), and petiolated (129), leaves.
Class XV. MONODELPHIA.
Order, POLYGYNYA.
Genus, MALVA, or MALLOW.
Species, Malva spicata, has tomentose (84), crenate (74), and cordated (46), leaves, and oblong hairy spike (34).
Malva sylvestris, has an erect (119) herbaceous stalk (148), with acute (74), seven-lobed (50) leaves, and hairy pedunculi and petioles (129).
Class XIX. SYNGENESIA.
Order, POLYGAMIA AQUALIS.
Genus, CARDUUS, or THISTLE.
Species, Carduus helioides, or melancholy thistle, has lanceolate (42), toothed (66), amplexicaule (132) leaves; with unequal, ciliated (86), small spines (157).
Class XXIV. CRYPTO GAMIA.
Order, FILICES,
Genus, ASPLENIUM, or MAIDENHAIR.
Species, Asplenium trichomanes, has a pinnated (104) fronds (144); the pinnae are roundish (38), and crenate (74).
To these examples we shall add a description of a plant, according to the natural character, from the Genera Plantarum; and according to the essential character, with the several species, from the Systema Vegetabilium, as translated by the Litchfield Society.
PAPAVER, POPPY.
NATURAL CHARACTER.
Calyx. A perianthium two-leaved, ovate, end-nick'd; leaflets subovate, concave, obtuse, deciduous.
Corolla. Petals four, roundish, flat, expanding, large, narrower at the base, lefs alternately.
Stamina. Filaments numerous, capillary, much shorter than the corolla; anther oblong, compressed, erect, obtuse.
Pistillum. Germ. roundish, large; stylus none; stigma pellated, flat, radiated.
Pericarpium. A capsule crown'd with the large flat stigma, unilocular, semi-multi-unilocular, gaping at the top under the crown with many apertures.
Semina. Seeds, numerous, very small; receptacles longitudinal folds, of equal number with the rays of the stigma adhering to the sides of the pericarpium.
ESSENTIAL CHARACTER.
PAPAVER. Corolla four-petal'd, calyx two-leav'd, capsule one-cell'd, gaping with pores under the permanent stigma. Poppy.
* With hispid capsules.
1 P. hybrdum. Capsules subglobular, brawny, hispid, stem leafy, many-flower'd. *nule.
2 P. argemone. Capsules club'd, hispid, stem leafy, many-flower'd.
3 P. alpinum. Capsules hispid, scape one-flower'd, naked, hispid, leaves twice-feather'd. alpine.
4 P. nudicaule. Capsules hispid, scape one-flower'd, naked, hispid, leaves simple, feather-fringed.
** With smooth capsules.
5 P. rhoes. Capsules smooth, globular, stem hairy, many-flower'd, leaves feather-cleft, gash'd.
6 P. dubium. Capsules oblong, smooth, stem many-flower'd, with bristles appress'd, leaves feather cleft, gash'd. dubious.
7 P. somniferum. Calyxes and capsules smooth, leaves stem-clasping, gash'd. somniferous.
8 P. cambricum. Capsules smooth, oblong, stem many-flower'd, polished, leaves feather'd, gash'd.
9 P. orientale. Capsules smooth, stem one-flower'd, rugged, leafy, leaves feather'd, saw'd. oriental.
Lastly, we shall subjoin a complete description of a plant reduced to its clas, order, genus, and species, with figures of all the parts necessary for that purpose.
or True Rhubarb,
Plate CVII.
The flower of this plant has no Calyx.
The Corolla, dd, consists of one petal, narrower at the base, not perforated, and divided in the margin into six obtuse segments, one less and one larger alternately; the petal is marcescent, i.e., decays, but does not fall off till the seeds be ripe.
The Stamina, ee, consist of nine capillary filaments, inserted into the corolla, and about the same length with it. The anthera are didymous (i.e., appear to be double), oblong, and obtuse.
The Pistillum, f, has a short three-sided germen. It can hardly be said to have any styli; but has three reflected plumose stigma.
The Pericarpium is wanting.
Each flower contains but one large, three-sided, acute Seed g, with a membranaceous edge.
The number of Stamina determines this plant to belong to the Enneandra Class; and the number of Stigmata fixes its Order to be Trigynia. The other parts of the above description clearly demonstrate the genus to be the Rheum or Rhubarb, and sufficiently distinguish it from the Laurus, Tinus, Cassyta, and Butomus, the only other genera belonging to this class.
The Specific mark is taken from the leaves, which are palmated (58), and sharp and tapering at the points. There are but five species of Rheum, none of whose leaves are palmated, except the species now described.
EXPLANATION of the PLATES.
Plate CII. exhibits the 24 classes; fig. 1, representing the first clas, or Monandria; fig. 2, the second clas, or Diandria; fig. 3, the third clas, or Triandria; and so on, according to the enumeration in the table.
Plate CIII. represents the parts of a plant upon which the investigation of the GENUS depends.
Parts of the Flower.—Fig. 1. Spatha. Fig. 2. Spadix. Fig. 3. Gluma, or glume; b, arista, or awn. Fig. 4. Umbella and involucrum: a, Umbella universalis, or universal umbel; b, partialis, or partial umbel; c, Involucrum universale, universal involucre; d, partiales, or partial involucre. Fig. 5. Calyptra: a, capitulum; b, operculum; parts of mosses. Fig. 6. Amentum. Fig. 7. Strobilus. Fig. 8. a, Pileus; b, volva; c, stipes; parts of fungi or mushrooms. Fig. 9. a, Receptaculum commune nudum, the common receptacle, or base of the flower, when the stamina, pistillum, capsule, &c. are taken off. Fig. 10. Receptaculum commune palae imbricatum, or common receptacle imbricated with paleae or membranaceous lamellae. Fig. 11. Corollae unispetala— a, tubus; b, limbus: i.e., a the tube, b the edge or margin, of a monopetalous corolla. Fig. 12. is a flower laid in a proper position for showing its different parts. a, Germen, which includes the seeds and capsule in which they are inclosed; b, stylus, a continuation of the germen; c, stigma, or top of the stylus; d d d d d, filaments, or threads; e e e e e, anthera; f f f f f, Petala, or flower-leaves. Fig. 13. a, the angues or claws, b the laminae or plates, of a poly-petalous corolla. Fig. 14. a, Nectarium campanula-tum in narcisso, or bell-shaped nectarium of the narcissus. Fig. 15. Nectaria cornuta in acorio, horned nectarium of the monkshood. Fig. 16. Horned nectarium in the calyx of the tropaeolus. Fig. 17. a a a a, Nectarium in parnassia; the nectaria of the parnassia grals are fix in number, each of which have 13 styli, with round buttons on their tops.
Parts of the Fructification.—Fig. 18. a, Perianthium; b, germen; c, stylus; d, stigma; e e, filaments; f f, anthera debiscens, or anthera shedding the pollen or dust; g, anthera integra, i.e., the appearance of the anthera before it sheds the pollen. Fig. 19. a the filament, and b the anthera, separated from the flower. Fig. 20. a, one grain of the pollen magnified by a microscope; b, halitus elaticus, i.e., an elastic aura supposed to be necessary for impregnating the seeds. Fig. 21. a, Germen; b, stylus; c c, stigma. Fig. 22. Folliculus: The seeds not adhering to the suture, are inclosed in a particular receptacle a. Fig. 23. Legumen, or a double-valved pericarpium, having the seeds fixed only to one of the sutures a a. Fig. 24. Siliqua, or a double-valved pericarpium with the seeds fixed to both sutures or margins a b. Fig. 25. Pomum, or a fleshy pericarpium, containing a capsule in which the seeds are inclosed, as in the apple, &c.; a, the pericarpium; b, the capsule or seed-case. Fig. 26. a, Drupa, or pericarpium containing a nut or stone, and having no valve. b, The nucleus, or stone. Fig. 27. Bacca, or berry, a pericarpium containing naked seeds dispersed through the pulpy part. Fig. 28. Capsula apice dehiscent, a capsule opening at the top to allow the seeds to fall out. Fig. 29. Four capsules included in a common pericarpium. a a, The valves; b b, the diphilamentum, or partition which separates the different seed-capsules from one another; c, columella, or central column, by which the capsules are connected. Fig. 30. A capsule cut open longitudinally, to show the receptacle of the seeds. Fig. 31. Pappus, or down; a, pilosus, resembling hair; b, plumosus, or feathered; c, semen; d, filifer.
Pedunculi or Footstalks of Flowers.—Fig. 32. Corymbus. 33. Racemus. 34. Spica. 35. Verticillatus. 36. Panicula.
Plates CIV. CV. CVI. contain delineations relative to the SPECIES of plants.
1. Leaves as to figure. A, Simple.—Fig. 37. Orbiculatum, of a circular figure. Fig. 38. Subrotundum, roundish or nearly circular. Fig. 39. Ovatum, ovate. Fig. 40. Ovalis, fove Ellipticum, oval or elliptical. Fig. 41. Oblongum, oblong. Fig. 42. Lanceolatum, lanceolate. Fig. 43. Lineare, linear. Fig. 44. Subulation, subulated, or awl-shaped. Fig. 45. Reniforme, reniform, kidney-shaped. Fig. 46. Cordatum, cordate, heart-shaped. Fig. 47. Lunulatum, lunulated. Fig. 48. Triangulare, triangular. Fig. 49. Sagittatum, sagittated. Fig. 50. Cordato-sagittatum, heart-shaped behind and sharp like the point of an arrow before. Fig. 51. Haftatum, halberd-shaped. Fig. 52. Fissum, notched. Fig. 53. Trilobum, trilobous, or having three (55) lobes. Fig. 54. Premoratum, fore bitten. Fig. 55. Lobatum, lobed. Fig. 56. Quinquangulare, quinquangular. Fig. 57. Erofum, eroded. Fig. 58. Palmatum, palmated. Fig. 59. Pinnatum, pinnated. Fig. 60. Laciniatum, laciniated. Fig. 61. Sinuatum, sinuated. Fig. 62. Dentato-sinuatum, tooth-sinuous. Fig. 63. Retrofum sinuatum; sinuous backwards. Fig. 64. Partitum, partite. Fig. 65. Repandum, scollop'd. Fig. 66. Denta-tum, dentated. Fig. 67. Seriatum, serrated or sawed. Fig. 68. Duplicato-serratum, doubly serrated. Fig. 69. Duplicato-crenatum, doubly crenated. Fig. 70. Cartilagineum, cartilaginous. Fig. 71. Acute-crenatum, acutely crenated. Fig. 72. Obtuse-crenatum, obtusely crenated. Fig. 73. Plicatum, plaited. Fig. 74. Crenatum, crenated. Fig. 75. Crispum, curled. Fig. 76. Obtusum, obtuse. Fig. 77. Acutum, acute. Fig. 78. Acuminatum, acuminate. Fig. 79. Obtusum cum acumine, obtuse with a sharp point superadded. Fig. 80. Emarginatum acute, acutely emarginated. Fig. 81. Cuneiforme-emarginatum, cuneiform and emarginated. Fig. 82. Retusum, retuse. Fig. 83. Pilosum, hairy. Fig. 84. Tomentosum, tomentose or downy. Fig. 85. Hirsutum, bristly. Fig. 86. Ciliatum, ciliated, or fringed. Fig. 87. Rugosum, rugose or wrinkly. Fig. 88. Venosum, venose or veined. Fig. 89. Nervosum, nervose. Fig. 90. Papillosum, papillose. Fig. 91. Linguiforme, linguiform or tongue-shaped. Fig. 92. Acinaciforme, scimitar-shaped. Fig. 93. Delabreforme, hatchet-shaped. Fig. 94. Deltoideum, deltoid. Fig. 95. Triquetrum, trigonous or prismatical. Fig. 96. Canaliculatum, channeled. Fig. 97. Sulcatum, sulcated. Fig. 98. Teres, cylindrical. B. Compound Leaves. Fig. 99. Binatum, binate. Fig. 100. Ternatum foliis petiolatis, ternate with fleshy leaflets or leaflets. Fig. 101. Ternatum foliis petiolatis, ternate with petiolated leaflets. Fig. 102. Digitatum, digitated or fingered. Fig. 103. Pedatum, pedate. Fig. 104. Pinnatum cum impari, pinnate with an odd leaflet. Fig. 105. Pinnatum abrupte, abruptly pinnate. Fig. 106. Pinnatum alternatis, pinnate alternately. Fig. 107. Pinnatum interrupte, abruptly pinnate. Fig. 108. Pinnatum cirrhosum, pinnate with a cirrus. Fig. 109. Pinnatum conjugatum, pinnate with only two leaflets. Fig. 110. Pinnatum decussate, pinnate decussively. Fig. 111. Pinnatum articulate, pinnate jointedly. Fig. 112. Lyratum, lyre-shaped. Fig. 113. Biteratum, or duplicato-ternatum, binate (100), or double ternate, or having three ternated (100) leaves upon one petiole. Fig. 114. Bipinnatum, or duplicato pinnatum, bipinnate, or double pinnate, i.e., having the primary pinnae pinnated again a second time. Fig. 115. Trifernatum, or triplicato-ternatum, triple ternate, or consisting of three biterated (113) leaves. Fig. 116. Tripinnatum sine impari, triple-pinnate without an odd leaflet, or having the secondary pinnae pinnated again, and these last pinnae not terminated by an odd leaflet. Fig. 117. Tripinnatum cum impari, triple-pinnate with an odd leaflet.
2. Leaves, as to determination.—Fig. 118. Inflexum, incurved. Fig. 119. Erectum, erect. Fig. 120. Patent, patent or expanding. Fig. 121. Horizontale, horizontal. Fig. 122. Reclinatum, or reflexum, reclined or reflex. Fig. 123. Revolutum, revolute. Fig. 124. Servinale, seminal leaves, or seed leaves. Fig. 125. Caulinum, cauline or stem leaf. Fig. 126. Rameum, a branch leaf. Fig. 127. Florale, floral; leaf next the flower; also termed a bractea or spangle. Fig. 128. Peltatum, peltate. Fig. 129. Petiolatum, petiolated. Fig. 130. Sessile, sessile or fitting. Fig. 131. Decurrent, decurrent. Fig. 132. Amplexicaule, amplexicaule. Fig. 133. Perfoliatum, perfoliate. Fig. 134. Conmatum, connate. Fig. 135. Vaginant, sheathing. Fig. 136. Articulatum, articulated or jointed. Fig. 137. Stella-tum, stellated, or verticillated. Fig. 138. Quaterna, No. 51.
quina, sena, &c. denote different species of stellated, or verticillated leaves, when there are four, five, six, &c. leaves in one verticillus or whirl. Fig. 139. Opposite, opposite. Fig. 140. Alterna, alternate. Fig. 141. Acerata, linear and persifting. Fig. 142. Imbricata, imbricated, or tyled. Fig. 143. Fasciculata, fasciculated or penciled. Fig. 144. Frond, a species of stalk or trunk, consisting of branches and leaves, and sometimes the fructification, all united together; peculiar to the Filices or Ferns, and the Palmae. Fig. 145. Folium spatulatum, (Sauv.) spatulated, or roundish above, with a long linear base. Fig. 146. Folium parabolicum, parabolical; having its longitudinal diameter longer than the transverse, and growing narrower from the base till it terminate somewhat like an oval.
3. Caulis, or Stems.—Fig. 147. Culmus squamosus, a scaly culm or stalk. Fig. 148. Caulis repens, a repent or creeping stalk or stem; appropriated to herbaceous plants. Fig. 149. Scapus, scape. Fig. 150. Culmus articulatus, a jointed culm (147) or stalk. Fig. 151. Caulis volubilis, a twining stem. Fig. 152. Caulis dichotomus, a dichotomous or two-forked stem. Fig. 153. Caulis brasiliensis, brachiated.
4. Fulcra or Supports.—Fig. 154. a, Cirrus, a clasper or tendril; b, Stipulae, the little scales at the base of the petiole or footstalk of the leaf, or at the base of the peduncle or flower-stalk; c, Glandula concava, small hollow glands for the secretion of some particular fluid. Fig. 155. a, Glandula pedicellata, small pedicellate glands. Fig. 156. a, Bractea, a spangle or flower-leaf, differing from the other leaves of the plant. Fig. 157. a, Spina simplex, a simple or one-pointed spine. b, Spina triplex, a triple or three-pointed spine. Fig. 158. Aculeus simplex, a simple or one-pointed prickle. Fig. 159. Aculeus triplex, a triple or three-pointed prickle. Fig. 160. Folia oppo sita, opposite leaves; a, the axilla, or angle betwixt the leaf and the stalk.
5. Roots.—Fig. 161. Bulbus squamosus, a scaly bulb. Fig. 162. Bulbus solidus, a solid bulb. Fig. 163. Bulbus tunicatus, a tunicated or coated bulb. Fig. 164. Radix tuberosa, a tuberous root. Fig. 165. Radix fusiformis, fusiform or spindle-shaped. Fig. 166. Radix ramosa, a branching root. Fig. 167. Radix repens, a repent or creeping root.
ARRANGEMENT and RECAPITULATION of the Botanical Terms used in the Linnean System.
THE ARRANGEMENT.
I. Names of parts.
GENERAL TERMS applicable to all Parts whatever.
II. Terms expressing the mode of Duration.
III. of Magnitude.
IV. of Substance.
V. of Division.
VI. of Direction.
VII. of Figure; as,
1. of Surfaces.
2. of Solids.
3. of Similitude.
VIII. VIII. Terms expressing the mode of Expansion.
IX. of Place.
X. of Situation.
XI. of Surface.
XII. of the Margin.
XIII. of the Point or Top.
SPECIAL TERMS; or such as agree or are applicable only to certain Parts.
XIV. Terms applicable to the Root.
XV. the Trunk.
XVI. the Petiole.
XVII. the Leaf: as being either
1. Simple; or
2. Compound, Decomposed, or Supra-decomposed.
XVIII. the Down, Hair, &c.
XIX. the Armour.
XX. the Floral-leaves.
XXI. the Peduncle.
Under this are included the Inflorescence and its different modes.
XXII. Terms applicable to the Fructification.
Under this are included,
1. The calyx or cup.
2. The corolla, or coloured part of the flower.
3. The stamens, or chives.
4. The pistil.
5. The pericarpium, or seed-case.
6. The receptacle.
XXIII. Terms applicable to the Vernation.
XXIV. Additional Terms.
N° I. The Parts of a Plant are,
1. The root, the organ that nourishes the plant.
2. The trunk or stalk, the organ that multiplies it.
3. The branches, or divisions and subdivisions of the stalk.
4. The petioles, or stalks that support the leaves (6).
5. The peduncles, or stalks that support the fructification (285).
6. The leaves, which are the organs of motion to the plant.
The Fructification, consisting of the Flower and the Fruit.
The Parts of a Flower are,
7. The cup, or outer rind of the plant, continued to and present in the fructification.
8. The corolla, or inner rind of the plant, continued to and present in the coloured part of the flower, fig. 35.
9. The stamens, or chives, the organs destined for the preparation of the pollen (332) or flower-duft, fig. 36, d d d d d, e e e e e.
10. The pistil, or organ adhering to the fruit, for the reception of the pollen, f. 36, a b c.
The Parts of the Fruit are,
11. The pericarpium, or seed-case; the bowel or organ containing the seeds (12), which, when ripe, it lets go, f. 49, a.
12. The seed, or rudiment of a new plant, supposed to be vivified by the irrigation or sprinkling of the pollen or flower-duft, f. 55, c.
13. The receptacle, or base with which the parts of the fructification are connected, f. 33, a. 34.
14. The stipula, or small scaly leaf that usually stands at the base of the petioles when they are rising.
15. A cirrus, tendril, or spiral thread by which a plant is tied to any neighbouring body, f. 178.
16. A bracteae, spangle, or floral leaf, differing in its appearance from the other leaves of the plant, f. 151, 180.
17. The pubes, the down or hairiness of any sort on plants.
18. Arma, the armour or sharp points that defend a plant from being hurt by animals.
19. A bulb, the winter habitation of a plant, consisting of the remains of its former leaves.
20. A gem or bud, consisting of the rudiments of the plant's future leaves, f. 36, a; f. 42, b; 45, a.
GENERAL TERMS.
N° II. The Duration of a Plant is either
21. Annual, or dying within one year.
22. Biennial, or flowering the second year, and then dying.
23. Perennial, or flourishing for many years.
24. Caducous, or falling down and dying before the end of one season.
25. Deciduous, dying at the end of one season.
26. Persisting, not dying after one season.
27. Sempervirent, evergreen, or remaining fresh and green through all the seasons of the year.
N° III. Magnitude.
"I very seldom admit," says Linnæus, "any other than the proportional measure between the different parts of plants, where this or that part is longer or shorter, broader or narrower, than another."
Phil. Bot. p. 262.
N° IV. Substance is either
28. Solid, filled internally with hard matter.
29. Inane, filled only with spongy matter.
30. Pulpous, filled with tenacious or glutinous matter.
31. Carnous, or fleshy, filled with a hardish pulp.
32. Cartilaginous, consisting of gristly matter.
33. Membranaceous, consisting of dry and skinny matter.
34. Filtulous, tubulated or hollow within.
N° V. Division is either
35. Fissured, or divided by linear (70) notches, with straight (42) margins, f. 76.
36. Bifid, trifid, &c. to quinquefied, according to the number of fissures.
37. Partite, divided almost to the base.
38. Bipartite, tripartite, &c. to quinquepartite, according to the number of divisions.
39. Lobate, or lobed, divided down to the middle into parts standing asunder, f. 77, 79. 40 Sinuated, admitting of wide sinuses or notches on the sides, f. 85, 86, 87.
41 Dichotomous, trichotomous, &c. divided successively into two, three, or more parts, f. 176.
No VI. Direction is either,
42 Right, or straight, free of bendings.
43 Erect, rising nearly to a perpendicular, f. 143.
44 Oblique, departing from a perpendicular, or horizontal line.
45 Ascending, or turned archwise upward.
46 Declining, or declined, turned archwise downward.
47 Incurved, turned archwise inward, f. 142.
48 Nutant, nodding, having the point turned outward.
49 Reflex, having any part turned backward.
50 Revolute (377) rolled back into a spiral line.
51 Procumbent, weak and leaning on the ground.
52 Flexuous, bent hither and thither.
The following terms respect chiefly the direction of branches (3).
53 Patent, expresses the direction of an acute angle, or an angle above 45 degrees, f. 144.
54 Diverging, parting at a right angle.
55 Divaricated, expresses the direction of an obtuse angle.
56 Dependent, looking straight to the ground.
57 Difficil, or difficilated [flowers, leaves, or branches] turning to the two sides, though inserted all round.
58 Sequent, turning all to one side.
59 Appress, approaching so as to be almost parallel to the stalk or trunk.
60 Coarctate, almost incumbent towards the top.
61 Diffuse, having small patent (53) branches.
No VII. Figure is that, either of Surfaces, or Solids, or Similitudes.
1. The figure of Surfaces is either,
62 Orbicular, of a circular form. f. 61.
63 Subrotund, almost circular; and Subglobose, almost spherical, f. 62.
64 Ovate, having its longitudinal diameter longer than the transverse, with the base terminated by a segment of a circle, and the top narrower, f. 63.
65 Parabolical, resembling a parabola, f. 170.
66 Elliptical, resembling an ellipse or oval, f. 64.
67 Cuneiform, wedge-shaped, growing by degrees narrower toward the base.
68 Oblong, having the longitudinal diameter any number of times longer than the transverse diameter, f. 65.
69 Lanceolate, oblong (68), and attenuated (75) on either end, f. 66.
70 Linear, everywhere of equal breadth, f. 67.
71 Triangular, quadrangular, &c. according to the number of angles, f. 72. 80.
72 Rhombous, or rhomboidal, of the shape of a rhombus.
73 Trapeziform, of the shape of a trapezium.
2. The figure of Solids is either,
74 Filiform, everywhere of equal thickness.
75 Attenuated, gradually losing its thickness towards the point.
76 Subulated, awl-shaped; linear, but attenuated towards the point.
77 Clavated, club-shaped, growing thicker towards the point or top.
78 Turbinated, top-shaped like an inverted cone.
79 Globose, globular, like a sphere.
80 Conical, resembling a cone.
81 Teres, round, like a cylinder, f. 132.
82 Semiteres, half round, femicylindrical.
83 Anceps, two-edged, having the two opposite angles acute.
84 Trigonous, tetragonous, &c. having three, four, &c. prominent longitudinal angles.
85 Triquetrous, having three exactly plain sides (109), f. 119.
86 Gibbous, or gibbose, having both upper and under surface convex, by reason of a more copious pulp (30) intervening.
87 Compressed pulposus (30), having the edges flatter than the disc or middle.
88 Depressed pulposus, having the disc flatter than the edges.
89 Lingulated, tongue-shaped; linear (70), carnous (31), convex (112), below, f. 115.
90 Eniform, sword-shaped, acutiposus (83), gradually attenuated, or tapering from the base to the top.
91 Acinaciform, sabre-shaped, compressed (87), carnous, having the one edge convex and thin, and the other straighter and thicker, f. 116.
92 Dolabriform, hatchet-shaped, compressed, subrotund (63), gibbous on the outside (86), with the edge sharp, and roundish below, f. 117.
The tubulated figures that are mostly applied to the corolla, are,
93. Infundibuliform, funnel-shaped, an inverted cone placed upon a tube.
94 Campanulated, bell-shaped, ventricose (107), without any tube.
95 Inflated, hollow, and as it were blown up like a bladder.
96 Rotated, wheel-shaped, plain, and not placed on a tube.
3. The figure of Similitudes is either,
97 Cordate, heart-shaped, subovate, having a notch cut out of the base, without any posterior angles, f. 70.
98 Reniform, kidney-shaped, subround (63), having a notch cut out of the base, without posterior angles, f. 69.
99 Lunular, crescent-shaped, subrotund, having the base notched, with acute posterior angles, f. 71.
100 Sagittated, arrow-shaped, triangular (71.), having acute posterior angles separated by a notch, f. 73, 74.
101 Haftated, halberd-shaped, sagittated (100), having the posterior angles divided by a blunt notch, and prominent toward the sides, f. 75.
102 Lyrated, lyre-shaped, divided across into laciniae, or segments of no determinate form, whereof the under ones are lesser and more remote from one another than the upper ones, f. 136.
103 Runcinate, pinnatifid (i.e. divided across into horizontal oblong segments), in such sort that the segments are convex on the fore-side and transverse behind, e.g. the dandelion.
104. Pan- 104 Panduriform, pandour-shaped, oblong, and coarctated or narrowed below.
105 Spathulated, subrotund or roundish, with a linear and narrower base, f. 169.
106 Palmed, divided past the middle into lobes nearly equal, f. 82.
107 Ventricose, gibbous or swelling out on the sides.
108 Deltoid, rhomboidal (72), consisting of four angles, of which the lateral ones are less distant from the base than the other two; as the leaves of the black poplar. See also the figure of the ancient delta of the Greeks, f. 118.
N° VIII. Expansion is either,
109 Plain, having an equal surface.
110 Canaliculated, hollowed above with a deep longitudinal furrow, f. 120.
111 Concave, by the margin being less in proportion than the disk, and the disk of course depressed or pushed downwards.
112 Convex, by the margin being less in proportion than the disk, so that the disk is elevated or pushed upwards.
113 Cucullated, cowl-shaped, having the edges folded or curling inwards at the base, and spreading at the top like a cowl.
114 Undated, waved, having the disk alternately bending up and down in obtuse plait.
115 Crimped, curled, by having the margin so luxuriant that the disk becomes longer than its rachis (283) or quill.
N° IX. Place.
1. A Leaf is either,
116 Radical, growing out of the root.
117 Cauline, growing on the caulis (197) or stalk, f. 149.
118 Ramous, growing on a branch, f. 140.
119 Axillary, placed under the base of a branch.
120 Floral, next the flower. See Def. 16. f. 151.
2. A stipula, or scale, is either,
121 Lateral, inserted into the side of a petiole.
122 Extrafoliaceous, placed below a leaf.
123 Intrafoliaceous, placed above a leaf.
124 Oppositifolious, placed on the side of the stalk opposite to a leaf.
3. A Cirrhus, or tendril, is either,
125 Petiolar, growing out of a petiole or leaf-stalk.
126 Peduncular, growing out of a peduncle or flower-stalk, &c. &c.
N° X. The Situation of the Parts of a Plant is either,
127 Opposite, when the leaves, &c. are placed in decussated (129) or cross pairs, f. 163, 184.
128 Alternate, growing all round a stalk or branch one after another gradually, f. 164.
129 Decussated, placed opposite in such a manner, that if one look down from the top of the plant, the leaves, &c. represent four distinct rows.
130 Verticillated, whirled; leaves, flowers, &c. surrounding the stalk or trunk at the joints in great number like a whirl, f. 59.
131 Bifarious, leaves, &c. growing only on the opposite sides of a stalk or branch.
132 Sparce, placed without any certain order.
133 Fasciculated, pencilled, growing in numbers out of the same point like a pencil, f. 167.
134 Confert, close-ranged, leaves, &c. almost covering the whole surface.
135 Distant, parts remote from one another.
136 Terminal, placed at the top.
N° XI. A Surface is either,
137 Naked, destitute of setae (245) or bristles, and pili (240) or hairs.
138 Levigated, smooth, of an equal plainness. The same with plain (109).
139 Glabrous, of a slippery nature.
140 Nitid, slippery and thinning.
141 Lucid, as if it were illuminated.
142 Coloured, of a colour different from green (when that is the natural colour).
143 Lineated, lined, the nerves being depressed.
144 Striated, gently furrowed in parallel lines.
145 Sulcated, furrowed in deep lines, f. 121.
a. Alveolated, honey-combed, a receptacle deeply pitted so as to resemble a honey-comb.
b. Hairy, any surface planted with stiff short hairs, f. 109.
c. Rimofoe, full of rents or chinks.
[The following terms, to 156, belong chiefly to Leaves.]
146 Nervous, having unconnected small vessels, resembling nerves, running from the base to the top, f. 113.
147 Trinerved, having three small nerves meeting at the base.
148 Triplinerved, having three nerves meeting above the base.
149 Trinervated, having three nerves meeting below the base.
150 Enervis, nerveless, the opposite to nervous.
151 Venous, having veins or small vessels divided variously, without any regular order.
152 Avenis, veinless, the opposite to venous.
153 Rugose, wrinkled, full of wrinkles, f. 111.
154 Bullated, having the surface, from being rugose, raised up in the form of bubbles, by the veins being contracted, the other side by that means becoming concave.
155 Lacunous, pitted, by the disk being depressed between the interperforated veins.
156 Punctated, beprinkled with hollow points.
157 Papillosus, covered with carnous or fleshy points, f. 114.
158 Papulous, covered with vesicular or bladder-like points.
159 Viscid, besmeared with a glewy moisture.
160 Tomentose, covered with fine down interwoven together, hardly to be discerned, f. 104.
161 Villous, covered with soft hairs. See Villi (241).
162 Sericeous, silky, covered with very fine hairs laid close down.
163 Lanate, woolly, covered as it were with a cobweb (or spontaneously curled hairs). See Lana (242).
164 Piloce, hairy, covered with long distinct hairs. See Pili (240), and f. 107.
165 Bearded, 165 Bearded, covered with parallel hairs. See Barba (243). 166 Setaceous, bristly, set or covered with bristles. See Setae (245). 167 Scabrous, having hard prominent points causing a roughness to the touch. 168 Aculeated, armed with prickles fixed only to the bark. See Aculei (253). 169 Strigose, having stiff lanceolate (69) prickles. See Strigae (244). 170 Paleaceous, chaffy, covered with dry scales resembling chaff. See Pala (246). 171 Muricate, besprinkled with subulated points. 172 Spinous, thorny, beset with spines, or prickles rising out of the wood of the plane. 173 Burning, beset with stimulating and inflaming points, as the nettle, &c.
N° XII. A Margin is either, 174 Entire, linear without the least dent or notch. 175 Crenate, having notches without respect to the extremity, f. 93, 95, 96, 98. 176 Serrated, saw-toothed, all the notches and teeth looking towards the extremity, f. 91, 92. 177 Ciliated, having parallel bristles set in a row lengthwise, like eye-lashes, f. 110. 178 Dentate, toothed, with the points patent and slender, f. 90. 179 Repand, having a plain serpentine form, f. 89.
N° XIII. An Apex or Point is either, 180 Obtuse, terminated within the segment of a circle, f. 96, 100, 103. 181 Emarginate, terminated by a notch, f. 104, 105. 182 Retuse, terminated by a round bottom, f. 106. 183 Truncate, terminated by a transverse line. 184 Acute, terminated by an acute angle, f. 101. 185 Acuminate, terminated by a subulate or awl-shaped point, f. 102. 186 Cuspidate, terminated by a brittle or prickle.
SPECIAL TERMS.
N° XIV. A Root is either, 187 Fibrous, consisting wholly of small fibres. 188 Bulbous, furnished with a bulb (19). 189 1. Solid (28). 190 2. Scaly, with the scales imbricated (392). 191 3. Tunicated, having coats above coats. 192 Tuberculous, consisting of fleshy parts connected by threads to the base. 193 Fasciculate, consisting of fleshy parts connected to the base without the intervention of threads, f. 167. 194 Granulated, composed of small fleshy particles. 195 Fusiform, spindle-shaped, single and tapering, f. 189. 196 Repent, running out a great way, and budding here and there.
N° XV. A Trunk is, 197 1. A stem or stalk (f. 172—177); a trunk supporting both the fructification and the leaves. 198 2. A culm, proper to grasses, f. 171, 174.
199 3. A scapus or shaft; a trunk supporting the fructification, but not the leaves, f. 173. 200 4. A ripes or stock; a trunk changing into leaves, f. 32 c; 55 d. 201 Scendent, climbing, but needing the support of other bodies. 202 Voluble, twining, ascending (45) in a spiral line by the assistance of other bodies. 203 Repent, creeping, lying on the ground and sending out roots here and there. See 196, f. 191. 204 Sarmentose, full of twigs, filiform, with rooting joints. 205 Stoloniferous, putting forth young shoots at the root, or tillering. 206 Simpliciflorus, very simple, having scarcely any branches. 207 Simplex, simple, extended in a continued series towards the top. 208 Entire, very simple, with the branches gathering inwards. 209 Proliferous, putting forth branches only from the middle of the top. 210 Subramose, having only a few lateral branches. 211 Ramose, having many lateral branches, f. 190. 212 Ramosissimus, very ramose, loaded with numerous branches, without any determinate order. 213 Virgated, having small weak pliant branches of unequal length. 214 Panicled, having branches variously subdivided.
N° XVI. A Petiole is either filiform, or, 215 Alated, winged, dilated on the sides. 216 Spinecent, hard and prickling.
N° XVII. A Leaf is either simple or compound.
A. A simple Leaf, f. 168, may be, 217 Submersed, hid under the surface of water. 218 Natant, swimming, lying on the surface of the water. 219 Acerous, chaff-like, linear and persistent (26), f. 141.
The Insertion of Leaves. 220 Petiolated, having a petiole inserted at its base, f. 153. 221 Peltated, or targeted, having the petiole in the disk of the leaf, f. 152. 222 Adnate, connected with the branches at the base on the upper side. 223 Connate, having the opposite pairs united at the base on each side, f. 158. 224 Coadunate, having more than two united. 225 Decurrent, having the base of the leaf running along the stalk downwards, f. 155. 226 Amplexicaul, having the base surrounding or embracing the stalk, f. 156. 227 Perfoliate, having the base surrounding the stalk straight across, without any opening before, f. 157. 228 Vaginatine, or sheathing, having the base forming a tube that covers the stalk, f. 159.
B. 1. A Leaf is called Compound, when the same Petiole produces more Leaves than one. It is 229 Articulated, jointed, when one leaf grows out of the top of another, f. 160. Digitated, when a simple petiole connects leaflets or small leaves at the top. Binate, ternate, &c. are modifications of this according to the number of leaflets thus connected, f. 126.
Pedated, when a bifid or forked petiole connects several leaflets only by the interior side, f. 127.
Pinnated, or feathered, when a simple petiole connects any number of leaflets to its sides. Bijugous (double-paired), quadriguous (four-paired), &c. when only four, eight, &c. &c. leaflets are thus connected, f. 83. 128—135.
Pinnated with an odd one, when terminated by a single or odd leaflet.
abruptly, when terminated neither by a tendril nor by a leaflet.
cirrhous, when terminated by a tendril (15).
with opposite (127) leaflets.
with alternate (128) leaflets.
with interrupted leaflets, when the leaflets are alternately greater and smaller.
with decursive leaflets, or leaflets running down the petioles.
2. A Decomposed Leaf is either,
Bigemino, q. double-twin, leaves, when the petiole is dichotomous, or successively divided into two, and every top carries a pair of leaflets.
Biterminated, doubly ternated (230), f. 137.
Bipinnated, doubly pinnated (232), f. 138.
3. A Supradecomposed Leaf is either,
Tergeminous, when the petiole being twice dichotomous, or divided into two, bears a pair of leaflets.
Trirnated, thrice ternated, f. 139.
Tripinnated, thrice pinnated, f. 140, 141.
Stipula, or Scale.
Cirrus, or Tendril.
N° XVIII. Pubes, the hair, wool, &c. of plants, is either,
Tomentum, a flock, fine interwoven hairs (villi,) scarcely visible. See 160, 241, and f. 104.
Pili (164), excretory ducts of a plant resembling fetus or bristles (166).
Villi (161), soft hairs.
Lana (163), curled thick hairs.
Barba, a beard, parallel hairs.
Striga, comb-teeth, stiff rigid plain hairs.
Setae, bristles, stiff round hairs.
Palea (170), a membranaceous scale (33).
Hamus, hook, an accumulated (185) crooked point.
Glochis, a point or prickle with many teeth turned backwards.
Glandule, a papilla, or small gland secreting moisture, f. 178, b; 179, a.
Utricle, a small vessel full of secreted moisture.
Vilosity, expresses the quality of tenacious moisture.
Glutinosity, expresses the quality of slippery humour.
N° XIX. Arma, the arms of plants, are either,
Aculei, prickles, pricking points affixed only to the bark.
Furce, forks, prickles (253) divided or forked.
Spina (172), thorns, points or prickles put forth from the wood of the plant, f. 181.
Stimuli (273), points producing inflammatory punctures, whereby the parts become itching.
N° XX. A Bractea, or floral leaf.
Coma, the bracteae or spangles on the top of the flalk of some plants, remarkable in size compared to the other leaves.
N° XXI. A Peduncle is either,
Common, to more flowers than one.
Partial, bearing any number of flowers of the common peduncle.
A pedicel, proper to flowers in a common peduncle.
Cernuous, drooping, having the top looking to the ground.
Retrofract, broken backward, reduced to a depending state as if by force.
Multiflorous, producing many flowers.
Inflorescence is the mode in which flowers are connected to the peduncle of a plant; and this is either,
Verticillus, a whirl, when a number of flowers surround the plant in a ring.
Capitulum, a knot, when a number of flowers are collected together in form of a globe. It signifies also the upper parts of the fructification of mosses, f. 29, a.
Fasciculus, a bunch, when erect parallel flowers of equal height are collected together, (392.)
Spica, a spike, when sessile alternate flowers are placed on a common simple peduncle. A spike is either
Simple, continued and undivided.
Compound, when more small spikes stand on one peduncle.
glomerated, when the small spikes are crowded together, without any certain order.
Interrupted, when the smaller spikes are placed alternately and distant one from another.
A corymbus, is formed of a spike (268), having every single flower provided with a pedicel of its own, and the whole elevated to a proportionable height, f. 32.
Racemus, a cluster, when the common peduncle has lateral branches, f. 57.
Unilateral, when all the flowers grow on one side.
Panicula, a panicle, when the flowers are sparse, and grow on peduncles variously divided, f. 50.
Thyrus, a panicle (276) gathered into an ovate (64) form.
Umbella, an umbel; a receptacle (13) lengthened out from one centre into filiform peduncles rising to a proportionable height, so as to resemble an umbrella above, f. 28, a. a. It is
Simple, when all the peduncles spring out of one and the same receptacle.
Compound, when every peduncle carries a small umbel on its top. 281 Umbellula sefiflora, a small sefiflora umbel, when a number of peduncles rise from the same centre, and stand equally all around it.
282 Cyma, a receptacle rising from the same general centre, with partial ones here and there, and lengthened into peduncles all equally high at top.
283 Rachis, a filiform receptacle connecting any number of florets into a long spike.
284 Spadix, the receptacle of a palm-tree rising within a spathe or sheath, and divided into fructifying branches, f. 26.
No XXII. Fructification is,
285 The temporary part of a vegetable, destined to generation. And is either
286 Simple, consisting of few flowers.
287 Compound, when a number of flowers are set together.
A. Calyx, the Cup.
288 1. Perianthium, a cup contiguous to the fructification, f. 42, a.
289 —— of the fructification, containing the stamens (9) and the germen (333).
290 —— of the flower, containing stamens without a germen.
291 —— of the fruit, containing a germen without stamens.
292 a, Proper, belonging to any particular flower. And is either,
293 —— Monophyllous, consisting only of one leaf.
294 —— Polyphyllous, consisting of a number of leaves.
295 —— Superior, having the germen below the receptacle.
296 —— Inferior, having the germen above the receptacle.
297 —— b, Common, containing a number of flowers set together.
298 —— Calculated, a calyx or cup, having as it were another lesser cup round its base.
299 2. Involucrum, or wrapper, a cup remote from a flower, f. 28.
300 —— Universal, set under an universal umbel, (278). a.
301 —— Partial, set under a partial umbel, d.d.
302 —— Proper, set under any particular flower.
303 3. Gluma, a glume or chaff, the cup of any kind of grains, consisting of valves embracing one another, f. 27, a. Either
304 —— Uniflorous, containing a single flower.
305 —— Multiflorous containing any number of flowers.
306 Arista, or awn, f. 27, b, a tapering point growing out of the glume or chaff; either straight, or
307 Tortile, twisted like a cord.
308 4. Anentum, a catkin, consisting of a chaffy common receptacle like a gem or bud, f. 30.
309 5. Spatha, spathe or sheath, a cup opening longitudinally, f. 25.
310 6. Calyptra, hood, the cowl-shaped cup of some mollusks placed over the anthera (331) f. 29.
311 7. Volva, the membranaceous cup of a mushroom.
—— a. Perichetium, a circular tuft of fine hair-like leaves surrounding the bases of the filaments in the genus Hypnum.
B. Corolla, or coloured part of a flower.
312 Petal, a part of a corolla when divided into more parts than one, f. 36, f f f f f.
313 Tube, the inferior part of a monopetalous corolla, f. 25, a.
314 Limb, the superior spreading part of a monopetalous corolla, f. 35.
315 Unguis, heel, the inferior part of a polypetalous corolla affixed to the receptacle.
316 Lamina, lappet, the superior spreading part of a polypetalous corolla, f. 27.
317 Regular, equal in figure, magnitude, and proportion of parts.
318 Irregular, when the segments of the limb differ in figure, magnitude, or proportion of parts.
319 Ringent, irregular (318), gaping like two lips opened very wide.
320 Galea-ringentia, the vizard or upper lip of a ringent corolla.
321 Faux, the throat or opening between the segments of a corolla where the tube (313) terminates.
322 Cruciate, crossed, having four equal and patent petals.
323 Perfonata, masked, ringent (319), but shut close between the lips by the palate.
324 Papilionaceous, butterfly-shaped, irregular; the inferior petal being cymbiform or shaped like a boat (called the carina or keel); the superior ascending, (called the vexillum or flag); the side petals standing single (called the ale or wings).
325 Compound, consisting of a number of florets, on a common receptacle, and within a common perianthium.
326 1. Ligulated, having all the exterior florets plain on the outside.
327 2. Tubulous, having all the small corollae of the florets tubulated.
328 3. Radiated, having all the small corollae of the disc tubulous, and those of the circumference ligulated and of a different form.
329 Nectary, the melliferous part proper to any flower, f. 38, 39, 40, 41.
C. Stamen, a Chive.
330 Filament, the part supporting the anthera, and connecting it with the plant, f. 42, 43, 36, d d d d d.
331 Anthera, the part of a flower which is full of pollen (332) or fine flower-duft, which it discharges as soon as itself comes to maturity, f. 36, e e e e e.
332 Pollen, flower-duft, bursting by being brought into contact with moisture, and throwing out elastic atoms. (According to the principles of the sexual system, this is the origin of generation in plants).
D. Pistillum, a Pistil.
333 Germen, the rudiment of the unripe fruit in a flower. This is either,
334 Superior, included in the corolla.
335 Inferior, placed below the corolla.
336 Style, the part of the pistil that raises the stigma (337) from the germen, f. 36, b; 42, c; 45, b.
337 Stigma, the summit of the pistil bedewed with moisture, f. 36, a; 42, d; 45, c.
E. Pe. E. Pericarpium, a Fruit-case, is a
1. Capsule, a fruit-case, hollow and opening in a certain determinate manner, f. 49, b. 52, 53; 54.
2. Valvule, a screen or defence, with which the fruit is covered on the outside.
Loculamentum, a hole or cavity for lodging the seeds.
Diffepimentum, a partition, by which the fruit is distinguished or divided within into any number of cavities, f. 53, b. b.
Bicapular, having two capsules (338).
Bilocular, having two cavities (340).
Tricoccous, a capsule having three protuberant knobs, and divided into three cavities within, each containing one seed.
Didymous, having two knobs protuberant on the outside.
Siligua, a husk; a fruit-case having two valves, and attaching the seeds along both futures, f. 48.
Torula, having prominences swelling out on each side.
Parallelum diffepimentum, a parallel partition of equal breadth with the valves.
Contrarium diffepimentum, a cross partition narrower than the valves.
Legumen, a cod or swob; a pericarpium having two valves, and attaching the seeds only along the one future, f. 47.
Isthmus interceptum, having parts at regular distances straiter than the rest, so as to divide it across into different internal cavities.
Follicle, a pericarpium of one valve, opening longitudinally on one side, and not having the seeds attached to the future, f. 46.
Drupa, plum; a pericarpium stuffed with fleshy substance, without any valves, and containing a nut or stone in the middle, f. 60, a.
Pomum, apple or pear; a pericarpium stuffed with fleshy substance without valves, and containing a capsule or seed-case in the middle, f. 49.
Bacca, berry; a pericarpium full of pulpy or soft substance, without valves, and containing seeds otherwise naked.
Nidulant, netting; seeds dispersed through a pulpy or soft substance.
Strobilus, cone; a pericarpium formed by the induration of the scales of a catkin, (308). f. 31.
F. Semen, Seed.
Hilum, speck; the external scar or mark of the seed, occasioned by its attachment to the fruit-case before it come to maturity.
Corculum, the original substance of a new plant within a seed.
Corona, crown, or dres adhering to the top of a seed, by which it is enabled to fly about after it is ripe.
Pappus, down; a feathery or hairy crown with which it flies, f. 55, a, b.
Stipitatus, stalked, having a thread betwixt it and the down.
Capillary, consisting of fine undivided hairs.
Plumose, feathery; consisting of hairs feathered on the sides.
Gauda, tail; a thread or membrane at the end of a seed.
Hamus, a hook, (247).
Calculus, the interior and proper integument of a seed.
Nux, kernel; a seed covered with a bony shell.
Arillus; the outer coat of a seed, which falls off of its own accord.
G. Receptaculum, a Receptacle.
Common, containing more flowers and fruits than one.
Compound, or composite flower; having the receptacle dilated and entire, the florets sessile.
Aggregate flower; having the receptacle dilated, and the florets subpedicellated, or standing on very short flower-stalks.
Bulbus, a bulb. Gemma, a gem or bud.
No XXIII. Vernation is the
Disposition of leaves within the bud (20).
Conduplicated, doubled together, having the opposite edges approaching each other in parallel lines.
Convoluted, rolled together spirally like a cowl.
Involved, rolled inwards, having the edges on both sides rolled spirally, so as to be nearly met on the upper surface of the leaf.
Revolved, rolled backwards, having the edges on both sides rolled spirally so as to be nearly met on the back of the leaf, f. 147.
Equitant, riding; when two leaves opposite to each other close their edges, so that the one includes or clasps about the other.
Obvolute, when two edges of one leaf close on the upper surface, so that one edge divides or lies betwixt the two sides of the other.
Plicated, plaited, gathered into various plaits, f. 97.
Circinal, rolled spirally from the top to the base, so that the top comes to occupy the centre.
No XXIV. General Terms to be added.
Laxus, flexible at pleasure. Debilis (weak), and flaccidus (flagging), are almost synonymous.
Rigid, not enduring to be bent.
Articulated (229), jointed or knotted.
Enodis, without joints or knots.
Premonitus, forebitten; having the top as it were bitten off, f. 60.
Radicant, pushing down roots.
Squamous, covered with scales.
Proliferous flowers, having one flower rising within another.
Imbricated parts, one overlapping another like tiles or slates, f. 34, 166.
Squarrose, rough or scurfy, applied to the tops or irregular segments of leaves, &c. when they stand out on all sides.
Fatiguated, trunks, branches, or peduncles rising all alike high. 393 Refupinated, turned upside down. 394 Lacerated, a term applied to the edges of flowers or leaves when divided irregularly as if they were torn. 395 Laciniated, divided into parts or segments in an indeterminate manner, f. 84.
Terms omitted to be inserted in their proper places.
396 Brachiated branches, when each pair stands at right angles with the pairs immediately above and below them, f. 177. 397 Aphyllous, without any leaves. 398 Adverse leaves, turning their faces, not to the sky but to the south; as Annonum. 399 Arboreus, arborecent, of the nature of a tree producing buds. A term of great lubricity. 400 Bulbiferous, bearing bulbs.
Bulbs are either
401 Scaly, consisting of imbricated lamellæ, as the lily root, f. 161. 402 Solid, consisting of solid substance; as the tulip, f. 162. 403 Tunicated, coated, like the common onion, f. 163. 404 Articulated, consisting of lamellæ linked together as the Lathrea. 405 Calcareous, of a hard crumbly nature, like dry lime plaster.
406 Circumscissus, parting as if cut straight over; as the capsule of Stellaria. 407 Cirrhous, terminating in a tendril. 408 Columella, the part of a fruit-case that connects the internal partitions with the seeds, f. 53, c. 409 Intortion, the twisting of any part towards one side: 410 To the right, supposing one's self placed in the centre; 411 To the left, supposing one's self placed in the centre.
412 Cotyledon, the lateral body or lobe of a seed, porous, and imbibing moisture, and afterwards falling off.
413 Acotyledones, plants whose seeds have no lateral bodies or lobes; as the Musci. 414 Monocotyledones, plants whose seeds have only one lateral body; as the Graffes, &c. 415 Dicotyledones, plants whose seeds have two lateral bodies or lobes; as the Leguminæ, &c. 416 Polycotyledones, plants whose seeds have many lateral bodies or lobes; as the Pines, &c. 417 Monofermous, capsules or seed-cases that contain only one seed. 418 Di—tri—penta,—&c., spermous, containing 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. seeds in one capsule. 419 Polypermous, containing many seeds. 420 Suberofus, resembling cork. 421 Echinatus, beset with spines or pickles, so as to resemble a hedge-hog. 422 Muticus, without awn, beard, or prickle. 423 Pileus, the hat or bonnet of a mushroom, which has the fructifications on its under side, f. 32, a. 424 Discus, the middle part of a compound flower, consisting of regular florets. 425 Radius, the rim or outward part, consisting of irregular florets.
Sect. V. Of the Sexes of Plants.
As many philosophers and botanists deny that such a thing as the distinction of sexes takes place in vegetables, it will be necessary to give a narration of the arguments employed by both parties on this subject. We shall begin with the arguments in favour of the sexes.
I. Linnaeus is at great pains in tracing the notion of sexes in plants to the remotest periods of antiquity. He informs us, that Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and other ancient philosophers, not only attributed the distinction of sexes to plants, but maintained that they were capable of perceiving pleasure and pain.
Hippocrates and Theophrastus are next introduced as distinguishing the conyza, the abies, the filix, &c. into male and female. The latter of these writers affirms that the fruit of the male palm will not germinate, unless the pollen of the male be shaken over the spathe of the female previous to the ripening of the seed.
Dioscorides takes notice of a male and female mandragora, mercurialis, citrus, &c.
Pliny does not confine his views of sex to animals, but exclaims that every thing this earth produces is characterized by the distinction of sex.
From the days of Pliny to those of Cæsalpinus, who lived in the 16th century, the analogy between the vegetable and animal seems to have been entirely neglected. Cæsalpinus tells us, that the males of the oxycedrus, taxus, mercurialis, urtica, and cannabis, are barren; and that the females of these plants only bear fruit.
After Cæsalpinus, we find Dr Grew and Sir Thomas Millington engaged in a conversation concerning the utility of the flamina and flyli of plants. The result of this conversation was the mutual agreement of these two eminent naturalists, that the flamina and flyli of vegetables were analogous to the organs of generation in animals, and that they were adapted by nature to answer the same purposes. Dr Grew, in his anatomy of plants, after enumerating the analogies between plants and animals, concludes, that the pollen probably emits certain vivific effluvia, which may serve for the impregnation of the seeds.
Mr Ray gave a further sanction to the doctrine of sexes, by concurring with Grew, and adding some further illustrations from analogy.
In the year 1695, Camerarius attempted to prove the sexes of plants. But, as he trusted solely to the palm-tree, and withal seemed to be doubtful as to the authenticity of the fact, he cannot be considered as having done anything in confirmation of the sexual hypothesis.
Mr Morland, in the year 1703, adopted the same hypothesis; but gave it a new modification, by supposing that the pollen contained the seminal plant in miniature, and consequently that it behoved one pollen at least to be conveyed into every separate seed before it could be properly impregnated. Analogy and the structure of the parts are the only arguments he employs.
Some years after this, Mr Geoffroy wrote a treatise on the sexes of plants: but as he advanced nothing new, we shall take no farther notice of him.
Vaillant, Vaillant, in the year 1717, judiciously considering that the canal in the stylus of most plants was too narrow to admit the pollen itself, republished Dr Grew's theory of impregnation by means of a subtile seminal aura.
These are the sentiments of the principal botanists with regard to the generation of plants, till the celebrated Linnæus made his appearance as a botanical writer, who has extended the idea so far as to compose a complete system upon it.
Although Linnæus can have no claim to the supposed discovery of the sexual hypothesis, his being precisely the same with that of Dr Grew; yet, as he is the chief supporter and improver of this doctrine, we shall give a succinct narration of the arguments he makes use of in order to prove that vegetables propagate their species by a regular commerce of sexes.
In a treatise intitled, *Spongia Plantarum*, published as an inaugural dissertation by Wallbom, in the first volume of the *Amoenitates Academicae*, all the arguments made use of by Linnæus in his *Fundamenta Botanica*, and other works, are collected and arranged in one view. But as Wallbom hopefully attributes all the merit of this dissertation to his great master, we shall here drop his name altogether, and give the arguments as the property of Linnæus, by whom they were originally employed.
Linnæus, then, first attempts to show, that vegetables are endowed with a certain degree of life; and, secondly, that they propagate their species in a manner similar to that of animals.
"That vegetables are really living beings (says he), must be obvious at first sight; because they possess all the properties contained in that accurate definition of life laid down by the great Dr Harvey, namely, *Vita est spontanea propulsio humorum*. But universal experience teaches, that vegetables propel humours or juices; hence it is plain that vegetables must be endowed with a certain degree of life."
Not trusting solely to a syllogism founded on a definition, Linnæus proceeds to support the life of vegetables by arguments drawn from the following particulars in their economy; the first of which he intitles,
"Nutrition.—The very idea of nutrition implies a propulsion of humours, and of course the idea of life. But vegetables derive their nourishment from the earth, air, &c. and consequently must be considered as living creatures.
2. Ages.—Every animal must not only begin to exist, and have that existence dissolved by death, but must likewise pass through a number of intermediate changes in its appearance and affections. Infancy, youth, manhood, old age, are characterized by imbecility, beauty, fertility, dotage. Are not all these vicissitudes conspicuous in the vegetable world? Weak and tender in infancy; beautiful and falacious in youth; grave, robust, and fruitful, in manhood; and when old age approaches, the head droops, the springs of life dry up, and, in fine, the poor tottering vegetable returns to that dust from whence it sprung.
3. Motus.—No inanimate body is capable of self-motion. Whatever moves spontaneously, is endowed with a living principle; for motion depends on the spontaneous propulsion of humours; and wherever there is a spontaneous propulsion of humours, there also is life.
That vegetables are capable of motion, is evident from the following facts: plants, when confined within doors, always bend towards the light, and some of them even attempt to make their escape by the windows. The flowers of many plants, especially those of the syngenesia clausa, pursue the sun from east to west, rejoicing in his beams. Who then can deny that vegetables are possessed of living and self-moving powers?
4. Morbus.—The term disease means nothing more than a certain corruption of life. It is well known, that vegetables are subject to diseases as well as animals: when over-heated, they turn thirsty, languish, and fall to the ground; when too cold, they are tormented with the chillblain, and not unfrequently expire; they are sometimes afflicted with cancers; and every plant is infected with lice peculiar to its species.
5. Mors.—Death is opposed to life, the former being only a privation of the latter. Experience shows, that every living creature must die. But as vegetables are daily cut off by internal diseases and external injuries; as they are subject to death from the attacks of hunger, thirst, heat, cold, &c. with what propriety could vegetables be thus said to die, unless we allow that they previously lived?
6. Anatomia.—Under this article we are referred to Malpighius and Grew for the organic fibres, membranes, canals, vessels, &c. of plants, as additional proofs of their living powers.
7. Organizatio.—Vegetables not only propel humours, but also prepare and secrete a number of different juices for the fruit, the nectar, &c. analogous to the various secretions in animal bodies."
From these facts and observations, Linnæus concludes, that plants are unquestionably endowed with life as well as animals; and then proceeds in the following manner to show how these animated vegetables propagate their species.
After discarding the long exploded doctrine of equivocal generation, he lays hold of another maxim of Dr Harvey, viz. *Omne vivum ex ovo*—It being fully evident (says he), from the foregoing chain of reasoning, that vegetables are endowed with life, it necessarily follows, agreeable to this maxim of Harvey's, that every vegetable must in like manner derive its existence from an egg. But as vegetables proceed from eggs, and as it is the distinguishing property of an egg to give birth to a being similar to that which produced it, the seeds must of course be the eggs of vegetables.
Granting then that the seeds of vegetables are intended by nature to answer the same end as the eggs of animals, and considering at the same time that no egg can be fecundated without receiving an impregnation from the male, it follows, that the seed or eggs of vegetables cannot be fecundated by any other means. Hence also the fecundity of vegetables being provided with organs of generation. But where are these organs situated? The answer is easy:—We have already found impregnated seeds within the flowers of plants; and it is natural to expect that the genitalia should not be at a greater distance. Now, as copulation always precedes birth, and every flower precedes the fruit, the generating faculty must be ascribed to the flower, and the birth to the fruit. Again, as the antheræ and stigma are the only essential parts of flowers, these parts must necessarily be the organs of generation." Being thus far advanced, Linnæus affirms, that the antheræ are the teliers, and that the pollen performs the office of the male semen. These affirmations he attempts to establish by the following arguments; the first of which he terms,
"1. Precedentia.—The antheræ, or vegetable teles, always precede the fruit; and as soon as the antheræ come to maturity, which constantly happens before the maturity of the fruit, they continue to throw out their pollen as long as the flower lasts; but decay and fall off whenever the fruit comes to perfection.
"2. Situs.—The antheræ of all plants are uniformly situated in such a manner that the pollen may with the greatest facility fall upon the stigma or female organ.
"3. Tempus.—The antheræ and stigmata always flourish at the same time, whether the flowers be of the hermaphrodite or dioicous kind.
"4. Loculamenta.—When the antheræ are dissected, they discover as great a variety or structure as the pericarpia or seed capsules: for some of them have one cell, as the mercury; some two, as the heliobore, &c.
"5. Castratio.—If all the antheræ be cut off from an hermaphrodite plant, just before the flowers begin to expand, taking care at the same time that no plant of the same species grow near it, the fruit will either prove entirely abortive, or produce barren seeds.
"6. Figura.—When the pollen of different plants is examined by the microscope, it exhibits as great a variety of figures as is discoverable in the seeds themselves.
"The accumulated force of these arguments (concludes Linnæus) amounts to a full demonstration that the antheræ are the teles, and that the pollen is the semen or genitura of vegetables.
"The male organ being thus investigated, we hope (says Linnæus) that none will hesitate to pronounce the stigma to be the female organ, especially when the following observations are sufficiently attended to.
"The pistillum is composed of the germen, stylus, and stigma. The germen, being only a kind of rudiment of the future fetus or seed, ceases to exist as soon as the flower comes to maturity. Neither is the stylus an essential part, as many flowers have no stylus. But no fruit ever comes to maturity without the assistance of the stigma. It follows, that the stigma must be the female organ adapted by nature for the reception of the pollen or impregnating substance. This will appear still clearer from the following chain of reasoning:
"1. Situs.—The stigmata are always situated so that the pollen may with most ease fall upon them. Besides, it is remarkable, that in most plants (though not in all) the number of the stigmata exactly corresponds with the loculamenta or cells of the pericarpium.
"2. Tempus.—Here the observation, that the stigmata and antheræ constantly flourish at the same time, is repeated.
"3. Decidentia.—The stigmata of most plants, like the antheræ, decay and fall off as soon as they have discharged their proper function; which evidently shows, that their office is not to ripen the fruit, but solely to answer the important purpose of impregnation.
"4. Abstifio.—The argument here is precisely the same with the castration of the antheræ; and the result is likewise the same, namely the destruction of the fruit.
"These arguments (concludes Linnæus) are sufficient to demonstrate, that the stigma is the female organ of generation, or that organ which is suited for the reception and conveyance of the semen to the vegetable eggs. Hence plants may be said to be in actu venereis, when the antheræ or telesculi spread their pollen over the stigma or female vulva."
To show how the coitus of vegetables is effected, is our author's next object of investigation. He affirms, that the pollen is conveyed, by means of the wind or insects, to the moist stigma, where it remains until it discharges a subtile fluid, which being absorbed by the vessels of the stigma, is carried to the seeds or ova, and impregnates them. His proofs are taken from the following particulars.
"1. Ocular.—When the flowers are in full blow, and the pollen flying about, every one may then see the pollen adhering to the stigma. This he illustrates by mentioning as examples the viola tricolor, iris, campanula, &c.
"2. Proprio.—The stamina and pistilla, in most plants, are of equal heights, that the pollen, by the intervention of the wind, may, with the greater facility, fall upon the stigma.
"3. Locus.—The stamina of most plants surround the pistillum, to give the pollen an opportunity of falling upon the stigma at every breeze of wind. Even in the monocota clas, the male flowers stand generally above the female ones, to afford an easier conveyance of the pollen to the stigma.
"4. Tempus.—It is remarkable that the stamina and pistilla constantly appear at the same time, even in plants belonging to the monocota clas.
"5. Pluviae.—The flowers of most plants expand by the heat of the sun, and shut themselves up in the evening or in rainy weather. The final cause of this must be to keep the moisture from the pollen, lest it should be thereby coagulated, and of course prevented from being thrown upon the stigma.
"6. Palmicole.—That the cultivators of palm-trees were in use to pull off the spadices from the males, and suspend them over the spatheæ of the females, is attested by Theophrastus, Pliny, Prosper Alpinus, Kempfer, and many others. If this operation happened to be neglected, the dates were four and destitute of nuts. Kempfer adds this singular circumstance, that the male spadix, after being thoroughly dried and kept till next season, still retained its impregnating virtue.
"7. Flores nutantæ.—As the pollen is specifically heavier than air, such flowers as have their pistillum longer than the stamina, hang down, or incline to one side, e.g., the fritillaria, campanula, &c. An easy admission of the pollen to the stigma is the final cause of this appearance.
"8. Submersæ.—Many plants that grow below water, emerge when their flowers begin to blow, and swim upon the surface till they receive their impregnation, and then sink down.
"9. Omnium florum genuina consideratio."—Here a number of particulars are recited. We shall confine ourselves to those that are most striking and applicable to the subject. When the flowers of the male hemp are pulled off before those of the female are fully expanded, the females do not produce fertile seeds. But as a male flower is sometimes found upon a female plant, this may be the reason why fertile seeds are sometimes produced even after this precaution has been observed.
The tulip affords another experiment to the same purpose.—Cut off all the antherae of a red tulip before the pollen is emitted; then take the ripe antherae of a white tulip, and throw the pollen of the white one upon the stigma of the red; the seeds of the red tulip being thus impregnated by one of a different complexion, will next season produce some red, some white, but most variegated flowers.
In the year 1744, Linnaeus published a description of a new genus, which he called peloria, on the supposition of its being a hybrid or mule plant, i.e., a plant produced by an unnatural commixture of two different genera. The root, leaves, caulis, &c. of this plant are exceedingly similar to those of the antirrhinum linaria; but the flower and other parts of the fructification are totally different. On account of its similarity to the linaria in every part but the flower, Linnaeus imagined it to have been produced by a fortuitous commixture of the linaria with some other plant, although he has never yet been able to point out the father. This doctrine of the production of mule plants has since been greatly prized and carefully propagated by Linnaeus and the other supporters of the sexual hypothesis. In the third volume of the Amoenitates Academicae, there is a complete dissertation, intitled Plante Hybridae, wherein the doctrine of vegetable mules is much improved and extended. This dissertation contains a list of 47 mules, with their supposed fathers and mothers. For example,
The Veronica spuria is said to be a mule plant begot by the Verbena officinalis upon the Veronica maritima.
The Delphinium hybridum, a mule begot by the Aconitum napellus upon the delphinium elatum.
The Arctotis calendula, a mule begot by the Calendula pluvialis upon the arctotis trilis.
The Asclepias nigra, a mule begot by the Cynanchum acutum upon the Asclepias vinctocoxicum, &c.
From the examples given in this dissertation, Linnaeus draws this conclusion, That only two species of each genus existed ab origine; and that all the variety of species which now appear have been produced by unnatural embraces betwixt species of different genera.
Under this head, Linnaeus likewise quotes from Ray the story of Richard Baal gardener at Brentford. This Baal sold a large quantity of the seeds of the brassica floridæ to several gardeners in the suburbs of London. These gardeners, after sowing their seeds in the usual manner, were surprized to find them turn out to be plants of a different species from that which Baal made them believe they had purchased; for, instead of the brassica floridæ, the plants turned out to be the brassica longifolia. The gardeners, upon making the discovery, commenced a prosecution of fraud against Baal in Westminster-hall. The court found Baal guilty of fraud, and decreed him not only to restore the price of the seeds, but likewise to pay the gardeners for their lost time, and the use of their ground. "Had these judges (says Linnaeus) been acquainted with the sexual hypothesis, they would not have found Baal guilty of any crime, but would have ascribed the accident to the fortuitous impregnation of the brassica floridæ by the pollen of the brassica longifolia."
Linnaeus next proceeds to celebrate the utility of insects, because they convey the pollen of the male to the stigma of the female. "In this way (says he), it is reasonable to think that many dioicous plants are impregnated. Nay, even the hermaphrodites themselves are greatly obliged to the different tribes of insects, which, by fluttering and treading in the corolla, are constantly scattering the pollen about the stigma.
"Upon the whole then, (concludes Linnaeus), the coitus of vegetables is evident to a demonstration. This coitus is nothing more than the conveyance of the pollen to the stigma, to which it adheres till it bursts, and discharges a subtle elastic fluid. This fluid or aura is absorbed by the vessels of the tylus, and carried directly to the ovarium or germen, where the mysterious work of impregnation is fully completed."
These are the arguments employed by Linnaeus and other advocates for the sexual commerce of vegetables. Let us next attend to those employed by the opposers of this hypothesis.
It is admitted by Pontedera, Dr Alston, &c. that some of the ancients applied the terms male and female to several plants. But then they deny that these terms conveyed the same ideas to the ancients that they do to the moderns. Male and female, when applied to plants, were to the ancients' mere terms of distinction, serving only as trivial names to distinguish one species or variety from another. The ancients were ignorant of the very characters which constitute the difference between what is called a male and female plant among the moderns. Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Pliny, and, in a word, the whole ancient botanical writers, confound the very notion of the modern sexes: they call the real female, or seed bearing plant the male; and the male, or barren plant, the female. Nay, they have even applied the terms male and female to many plants which bear nothing but hermaphrodite flowers.
Such is the nature of this controversy, that it cannot be determined with any degree of certainty, but by experiments made upon dioicous plants. If a female plant can produce fertile seeds without having any communication with the pollen of the male, the use of this pollen with respect to the impregnation of seeds must of necessity be entirely superseeded.
Now, both Camerarius and Dr Alston tried these experiments with the same success. Those two eminent botanists took female plants of the mercury, spinach, and hemp; transplanted them at a great distance from any males of the same genus, and besides had them inclosed by double rows of hedges. The result was, that each of these plants produced great quantities of fertile seeds. Tournefort made the same trial upon the lupulus, Miller upon the bryony, and Geoffroy upon the mays; and all of them declare that the seeds of these plants were as fertile as if they had been surrounded by a thousand males.
Linnaeus, in his first argument for the coitus of plants, refers every man to the evidence of his senses.
"Do we not see (says he) the stigma of almost every hermaphrodite..." hermaphrodite flower covered over with the pollen or impregnating substance? Do not we see the parietaria, the urtica, &c., by violent explosions, discharging their pollen in the open air, that it may be carried in that vehicle to the stigmata of their respective females?—All this is admitted by the opposers of the sexes; but then they deny that these explosions, &c., are intended to create any intercourse between the male and the female; and further allege, that this ejection of the pollen is intended by nature to throw off something excrementitious, or at least something which, if retained, would prove noxious to the fructification.
Linnaeus takes his second argument from the proportion which the filamina bear to the stylos, alleging that they are generally of the same height.—This observation (say the anti-sexualists) is not only contrary to experience, but allowing it to be universal, no conclusion can be drawn from it either for or against the sexual hypothesis.
The third argument is taken from the locus or situation of the filamina with respect to the stylos: "and as the male flowers in the monoeia clasps stand always above the female flowers, it must be concluded (says Linnaeus), that the intention of nature, in this disposition of the parts, is to allow a free and easy access of the pollen to the stigma."—But the filamina cannot be said to surround the pistillum in the monandria and diandria classes; and the position of the male flowers in the monoeia clasps is a mere chimera; for in the ricius, one of the examples which Linnaeus mentions in confirmation of his doctrine, the female flowers stand uniformly some inches above the males.
That the filamina and pistilla generally come to perfection at the same time, and that this happens even in the dioecious plants, is Linnaeus's fourth argument. But, as it is acknowledged by Linnaeus himself, that there are many exceptions with respect to this fact, the opposers of the sexual hypothesis allege that it carries the best answer in its own behalf.
The fifth argument is founded on the circumstance of some flowers shutting up their petals in rainy or moist evenings.—But many flowers do not shut themselves up, either in the night or moist weather, as the passion-flower, &c. The lychnis noctiflora, mirabilis peruviana, &c., open their flowers in the night, and shut them at the approach of the sun. Hence this is another final cause (say the anti-sexualists) perverted to support a favourite hypothesis.
We come now to the culture of the palm-tree, which is the sixth and most plausible argument employed by the sexualists. Of this, the most authentic account we have is the following by Dr Hafelquist, in one of his letters to Linnaeus, dated Alexandria May 18th, 1750.
"The first thing I did after my arrival was to see the date-tree, the ornament and a great part of the riches of this country. It had already blossomed; but I had, nevertheless, the pleasure of seeing how the Arabs affect its fecundation, and by that means secure to themselves a plentiful harvest of a vegetable, which was so important to them, and known to them many centuries before any botanist dreamed of the difference of sexes in vegetables. The gardener informed me of this before I had time to inquire; and would show me, as a very curious thing, the male and female of the date or palm-trees: nor could he conceive how I, a Frank, lately arrived, could know it before; for, says he, all who have yet come from Europe to see this country, have regarded this relation either as a fable or miracle. The Arab seeing me inclined to be further informed, accompanied me and my French interpreter to a palm-tree, which was very full of young fruit, and had by him been wedded or fecundated with the male when both were in blossom. This the Arabs do in the following manner: When the spadix has female flowers, that come out of its spathe, they search on a tree that has male flowers, which they know by experience, for a spadix which has not yet bursted out of its spathe: this they open, take out the spadix, and cut it lengthwise in several pieces, but take care not to hurt the flowers. A piece of this spadix with male flowers they put lengthwise between the small branches of the spadix which hath female flowers, and then lay the leaf of a palm over the branches. In this situation I yet saw the greatest part of the spadices which bore their young fruit; but the male flowers which were put between were withered. The Arab besides gave me the following anecdotes: First, unless they, in this manner, wed and fecundate the date-tree, it bears no fruit. Secondly, they always take the precaution to preserve some unopened spathe with male flowers from one year to another, to be applied for this purpose, in case the male flowers should miscarry or suffer damage. Thirdly, if they permit the spadix of the male flowers to burst or come out, it becomes useless for fecundation: it must have its maidenhead (these were the words of the Arab), which is lost in the same moment the blossoms burst out of their case. Therefore the person who cultivates date-trees must be careful to hit the right time of afflicting their fecundation, which is almost the only article in their cultivation. Fourthly, on opening the spathe, he finds all the male flowers full of a liquid which resembles the finest dew; it is of a sweet and pleasant taste, resembling much the taste of fresh dates, but much more refined and aromatic: this was likewise confirmed by my interpreter, who hath lived 32 years in Egypt, and therefore had opportunities enough of tasting both the nectar of the blossoms and the fresh dates."
Now, though this account seems fully to confirm the fact, viz. that such a practice obtains among the Arabs, and that they assert its efficacy in fecundating the trees, it is certain (say the opposers of this doctrine), that no intelligent person, who is not already wedded to an hypothesis, will attempt to found an argument upon the assertions of a people so full of ridiculous superstitions. Before Dr Hafelquist, or any other person, can draw any argument from the above mentioned account, he ought to see the experiment several times repeated, with his own eyes, and not take it upon the word of a people who, besides their superstition, may very probably find it their interest to impose upon travellers.
Mr Milne, author of the Botanical Dictionary, however, relates an experiment, near akin to the above-mentioned, which merits some attention: "In the garden of M. de la Serre, of the Rue S. Jacques at Paris, was a female turpentine tree, which flowered every year, without furnishing any fruit capable of vegetation. This was a sensible mortification to the owner, who greatly desired to have the tree increased." Messieurs Duhamel and Jeuffeu very properly judged that they might procure him that pleasure by the affluence of a male pitachio tree. They sent him one very much loaded with flowers. It was planted in the garden of M. de la Serre, very near the female turpentine tree, which the same year produced a great quantity of fruits, that were well-conditioned, and rose with facility. The male plant was then removed; the consequence of which was, that the turpentine-tree of M. de la Serre in none of the succeeding years bore any fruit that, upon examination, was found to germinate.
Upon this experiment it is observed by the antifexualists, that, though it were a thousand times repeated, it never could be decisive. The nature of the controversy, say they, is such, that one experiment is more decisive in favour of their opinion, than 10,000 can be against them. The reason is plain: If there is such a thing as a sexual intercourse in vegetables, it is as wonderful that any seeds should be perfected without that intercourse, as that a virgin should have a child; the last is not in the least more extraordinary than the first. One experiment, therefore, which shows that seeds may be perfected without such sexual intercourse, is either to be resolved into a miracle, or must prove absolutely decisive against the sexual system; while numberless experiments such as that above mentioned could prove nothing, because we know not what effect vegetables may have by growing in each other's neighbourhood, independent of any sexual intercourse.
In Milne's Botanical Dictionary, under the article Sexus Plantarum, the author quotes Dr Allton's experiments partially. The facts recorded by Dr Allton are as follow. 1. Three sets of spinach, planted at a great distance from each other, proved all of them fertile, and ripened plenty of seeds, which were found to answer as well as other spinach seed. 2. A plant of hemp growing by itself, being taken care of, produced about 30 good seeds, though in a situation very much exposed, and plucked up too soon, on account of bad weather, in the autumn. 3. This experiment, which is the most remarkable of the three, we shall give in the Doctor's own words. "In the spring of 1741, I carried two young seedling plants of the French mercury, long before there was any in, from the city physic garden, the only place where it was then to be found in this country, to the king's garden at the Abbey; which are more than 700 yards distant from one another, with many high housetops, trees, hedges, and part of a high hill, between them: and planted one of them in one inclosure, where it was shaded from the sun the greatest part of the day; and the other in another, 25 yards distant, exposed to the south and west. Both plants ripened fertile seeds; and the last shed them so plentifully, that it proved a troublesome weed for several years, though none of the species was to be found in that garden for more than 20 years preceding."
Of this experiment Mr Milne hath not taken any notice; but upon the other two, has the following remark. "The result of these, and such like experiments, can be accounted for, on the principle of the sexes, in no other way than on the supposition that some male flowers have been intermixed with the female, and operated the fecundation in question. This appears the more probable, as only a part of the seeds in the above experiments attained to perfect maturity, so as to be capable of vegetation."
The seventh argument of Linnæus is taken from the flores nutantæ.—The pistils of these flowers, according to Linnæus, are always longer than the stamens; and nature has assigned them this penile posture, that the pollen, which is specifically heavier than air, may the more conveniently fall upon the stigma.—But the pistils of the campanula, lilium, and many other flores nutantæ, are not longer than the stamens. Besides, granting this were uniformly the case; yet, as the pollen is heavier than air, this posture must of necessity either make the pollen miss the pistillum altogether, or, at any rate, it can only fall upon the back part of the pistil in place of the stigma; and, of course, such a direction would rather tend to frustrate than promote the impregnation of the seed.
The eighth argument is taken from the plantæ submersæ, which are said to emerge as soon as their flowers begin to blow, lest the pollen should be coagulated or washed off by the water.—But many submarine and aquatic plants fructify entirely below water; and, supposing they did not, the same argument would equally prove it to be the intention of nature, that the pollen should be blown away by the winds, as that it should be subservient to the impregnation of the seed.
The ninth and last argument is entitled Omniae flororum genuina consideratio; which (say the antifexualists) is nothing more than a collection of vague observations upon the structure and economy of particular plants, some of them true, others false, but all of them evidently thrust in as supports to a favourite hypothesis.
Thus the dispute rested some years ago; but of late there has appeared a translation of one of Linnæus's works upon the subject, which, though published in 1759, was but little known in this country. A treatise on the Sexual System had also been published by the Abbé Spalanzani, in which he not only opposed the Linnæan doctrine, but treated it with ridicule, though without taking any notice of this last publication, which he seems to have been ignorant of. In this he mentions an experiment with hemp similar to some of those already related; but which was also tried by Linnæus, and in his hands turned out the very reverse of what it did with Spalanzani. In the treatise alluded to, Linnæus mentions Sir Thomas Millington as the first among the moderns who thought of the distinction of sexes in plants. He was Savilian professor at Oxford; and Dr Grew, in his anatomy of plants, relates, that, in a conversation on the nature of the antheræa of flowers, Sir Thomas hinted, that those parts might probably be analogous to the male organs of animals, and serve for the impregnation of the fruit. Grew improved on the idea and pursued it. That the subject, however, may be properly understood, our author is of opinion, that we should first accurately understand the nature of vegetable bodies; and in order to do this, we ought first to consider the operations of nature in the human frame, and, from thence continue our researches through the various tribes of inferior animals, till at last we arrive at the vegetable creation. In like manner, to illustrate the generation of plants, we must likewise take our first lights from the animal kingdom, and pursue the same chain till we come to vegetables. This subject, indeed, he owns to be so obscure, that no naturalists has hitherto been able to say anything satisfactory concerning it; he only mentions some remarkable facts concerning the production of mule animals from the copulation of two individuals of different species. In the horse-kind we see two different kinds of mules produced. "From the mare and male ass (says he) proceeds the mule properly so called, which in its nature, that is, in its medullary substance and nervous system, agrees with its mother; but in its cortical substance and outward form, in its mane and tail, resembles the ass. Between the female ass and the horse, the other kind of mule is engendered, whose nature or medullary substance resembles that of the ass; but its cortical structure that of the horse. If the he-goat of Angora copulates with the common she-goat, the kid, by that means procured, inherits the external structure and valuable coat of its father; while, on the other hand, if the common he-goat impregnates the goat of Angora, the kid produced has the same external form, and bears the same worthless hair with its father. Hence it seems probable, that the medullary substance, with what Malpighi calls the keel (carina), and the nervous system, are latent in the egg of the mother; the cortical substance, or vascular system, being derived from the father."
These cortical and medullary substances are previously explained by our author to be those of which both animal and vegetable bodies are composed. By the medullary substance in animal bodies, he means the spinal marrow arising from the organized brain, and sending off the nerves; by the cortical substance the vessels with the heart attached to them, by which the medullary part is nourished. In vegetables, the cortical part nourishes the plant, not only by its root, but with its whole surface. For a small branch torn from the parent stem, and placed in water, imbibes nourishment at its pores. Thus the Fuci, and other marine vegetables, are nourished without a root, solely by the pores dispersed through their whole substance. The bark of trees every year deposits its gelatinous internal layer, which is added to the wood, and affinates itself to it. The medullary, which is the other essential part of vegetables, is multiplied and extended without end; and whenever it is entirely lost, the death of the plant necessarily follows. In examining this substance, we must be careful, in two cases, that we be not misled; first, by the straws of grasses, and by other hollow items, where the medulla lines the inside of the bark; and secondly, by large trees, whose trunks become perfectly solid throughout, except in the very summits of the branches. The wood performs the office of bones, when there is no longer any occasion for the medulla in that part; and trees, although become hollow, continue nevertheless to grow so long as this substance remains in the extreme branches. It is by no means necessary that the medulla should have any connection with the root, as it is only nourished by the cortical substance of the plant, and is therefore increased at its upper extremity without end if it meets with no resistance. In those animals whose spinal marrow is surrounded by a bony covering, as in the larger and more perfect kinds, this substance never comes out of its confinement; and the harder its case, the more absolutely is its increase prevented: but in the smaller tribes of worms, where this covering is less rigid, a perpetual and unlimited increase of the animal takes place.
"The most important parts of the flower, and which are absolutely essential to it, (our author proceeds to observe,) are the stamens and pistils. So Differt. on essential are they, that among the many thousands Plants, of flowers with which we are acquainted, no one can Smith's be found not furnished with both these organs. The translation, stamens derive their origin from the substance of the p. 20. et seq. wood, which was originally formed from the inner bark, and they may therefore be said to spring from the cortical substance of the vegetable. This is perfectly evident in the Avarum (Afarabacca), whose twelve stamens proceed from twelve fibres in the inner bark. Double flowers illustrate the same fact: in them, the stamens being weakened and dissolved by excess of nourishment, the woody substance reaffirms the softness of the inner bark, of which it was originally formed. All stamens consist of vessels containing the pollen, or impregnating powder, which they discharge in due time, not without the strictest observance of certain natural laws. The form of these vessels, like that of the capsules of the fruit, is accurately defined, as well as their cells, their particular manner of bursting, and the pollen which they contain; this pollen, likewise, is no less certain and uniform in its figure, size, and colour, than the seeds themselves.
"The pistilium is the only part which originates from the medullary substance, and is therefore invariably situated in the centre of the flower. It always contains the rudiments of the seed, which, in process of time, ripen into fruit. The rudiments of the fruit are called the germs, or seed-bud; this has constantly another organ connected with it, named the stigma, which is in its highest degree of vigour and perfection during the time of flowering.
"Another circumstance worthy of attention is, that the root, which the first year of its growth is large and filled with medullary pulp, the following season becomes hollow, in producing the stem, flowers, and seed; all this pulp being conveyed to the flowers, and seeming to be only destined to the formation of seed, so many new and distinct animations being formed from it as there are rudiments of new plants. This is particularly observable in the turnip.
"Thus vegetables, like insects, are subject to a metamorphosis; with this difference only, that their flowers are fixed to one spot, instead of being able, like insects, to fly from place to place; and that their nourishment is not given them by means of peculiar organs for the formation of chyle. We have seen, that the outer bark becomes calyx, the internal bark corolla, the wood stamens, and the medulla pistillum; the fructification exhibiting the internal parts of a plant naked and unfolded. We have likewise seen, that the fructification puts an end to vegetation in the part from whence it arises, stopping the progress of the medulla, which would otherwise have extended itself without end by the branches, and occasioning the division of that medulla into a number of seeds, each endowed with a separate living principle. But as the medulla exists naked in the germ, it cannot support itself, or make any farther progress, without the assistance of the cortical substance which it has left; it must therefore receive this assistance by some means or other," other, and in fact does receive it from the stamens and their pollen, which owe their origin to the woody matter derived from the inner bark, and originally generated by the outer bark. But if it happens that the cortical substance is able to invest the medullary rudiments of the seed in the flower itself, the plant becomes viviparous, as in *jeffusa*, *aira*, and *poa vicipara*, in which nearly the same thing takes place as in the medulla of other plants, which remains in the branches, and is variously distributed, being at once both clothed and nourished by the bark, and enabled to form new branches, just as it happens in the compound animals, or *fertulariae*.
"The organs common in general to all plants are,
1. The root, with its capillary vessels, extracting nourishment from the ground. 2. The leaves, which may be called the *limbs*, and which, like the feet and wings of animals, are organs of motion; for being themselves shaken by the external air, they shake and exercise the plant. 3. The trunk, containing the medullary substance, which is nourished by the bark, and for the most part multiplied into several compound plants. 4. The fructification, which is the true body of the plant, set at liberty by a metamorphosis, and consists only of the organs of generation; it is often defended by a calyx, and furnished with petals, by means of which it in a manner flutters in the air.
"Many flowers have no calyx, as several of the lily tribe, the *hippuris*, &c.; many want the corolla, as grasses, and the plants called *apetalous*; but there are none destitute of stamina and pistilla, those important organs destined to the formation of fruit. We therefore infer from experience, that the stamina are the male organs of generation, and the pistilla the female; and as many flowers are furnished with both at once, it follows that such flowers are hermaphrodites. Nor is this so wonderful, as that there should be any plants in which the different sexes are in distinct individuals; for plants being immovably fixed to one spot, cannot, like animals, travel in search of a mate. There exists, however, in some plants, a real difference of sex. From seeds of the same mother, some individuals shall be produced, whose flowers exhibit stamina without pistilla, and may therefore be properly called *males*; while the rest, being furnished with pistilla without stamina, are therefore denominated *females*: and uniformly does this take place, that no vegetable was ever found to produce female flowers, without flowers furnished with stamina being produced, either on the same individual, or on another plant of the same species, and *vice versa*.
"As all seed-vessels are destined to produce seeds, so are the stamina to bear the pollen, or fecundating powder. All seeds contain within their membranes a certain medullary substance, which swells when dipped into warm water. All pollen, likewise, contains in its membrane an elastic substance, which, although very subtle and almost invisible, by means of warm water often explodes with great vehemence. While plants are in flower, the pollen falls from their anthers, and is dispersed abroad, as seeds are dislodged from their situation when the fruit is ripe. At the same time that the pollen is scattered, the pistillum presents its stigma, which is then in its highest vigour, and, for a portion of the day at least, is moistened with a fine dew. The stamina either surround this stigma, or, if the flowers are of the drooping kind, they are bent towards one side, so that the pollen can easily find access to the stigma; where it not only adheres by means of the dew of that part, but the moisture occasions its bursting, by which means its contents are discharged. What issued from it, being mixed with the fluid of the stigma, is conveyed to the rudiments of the seed. Many evident instances of this present themselves to our notice; but I have nowhere seen it more manifest than in the jacobean lily (*amaryllis formosissima*), the pistillum of which, when sufficient heat is given the plant to make it flower in perfection, is bent downwards, and from its stigma issues a drop of limpid fluid, so large that one would think it in danger of falling to the ground. It is, however, gradually re-absorbed into the style about three or four o'clock, and becomes invisible till about ten the next morning, when it appears again; by noon it attains its largest dimensions; and in the afternoon, by a gentle and scarcely perceptible decrease, it returns to its source. If we shake the anther over the stigma, so that the pollen may fall on this limpid drop, we see the fluid soon after become turbid, and assume a yellow colour; and we perceive little rivulets, or opake streaks, running from the stigma towards the rudiments of the seed. Some time afterwards, when the drop has totally disappeared, the pollen may be observed adhering to the stigma, but of an irregular figure, having lost its original form. No one, therefore, can affront what Morland and others have asserted, that the pollen passes into the stigma, pervades the style, and enters the tender rudiments of the seed, as Leeuwenhoek supposed his worms to enter the ova. A most evident proof of the falsehood of this opinion may be obtained from any species of *mirabilis* (marvel of Peru), whose pollen is so very large, that it almost exceeds the style itself in thickness, and, falling on the stigma, adheres firmly to it; that organ sucking and exhausting the pollen, as a cuttle-fish devours everything that comes within its grasp. One evening in the month of August I removed all the stamina from three flowers of the *mirabilis longiflora*, at the same time destroying all the rest of the flowers which were expanded; I sprinkled these three flowers with the pollen of *mirabilis jalappa*; the seed-buds swelled, but did not ripen. Another evening I performed a similar experiment, only sprinkling the flowers with the pollen of the same species; all these flowers produced ripe seeds.
"Some writers have believed, that the stamina are parts of the fructification, which serve only to discharge an impure or excrementitious matter, and by no means formed for so important a work as generation. But it is very evident, that these authors have not sufficiently examined the subject; for as, in many vegetables, some flowers are furnished with stamina only, and others only with pistilla, it is altogether impossible, that stamina situated at so very great a distance from the fruit as on a different branch, or perhaps on a separate plant, should serve to convey any impurities from the embryo.
"No physiologist could demostrate, *à priori*, the necessity of the masculine fluid to the rendering the eggs of animals prolific; but experience has established it beyond a doubt. We therefore judge *à posteriori* principally of the same effect in plants." In the month of January 1760 the *antholyza cunonia* flowered in a pot in my parlour, but produced no fruit, the air of the room not being sufficiently agitated to waft the pollen to the stigma. One day, about noon, seeing the stigma very moist, I plucked off one of the anthers, by means of a fine pair of forceps, and gently rubbed it on one of the expanded stigmata. The spike of flowers remained eight or ten days longer; when I observed, in gathering the branch for my herbarium, that the fruit of that flower only on which the experiment had been made had swelled to the size of a bean. I then dissected this fruit, and discovered that one of the three cells contained seeds in considerable number, the other two being entirely withered.
In the month of April I sowed the seeds of hemp (*cannabis*) in two different pots. The young plants came up so plentifully, that each pot contained 30 or 40. I placed each by the light of a window, but in different and remote apartments. The hemp grew extremely well in both pots. In one of them I permitted the male and female plants to remain together, to flower and bear fruit, which ripened in July; and being macerated in water and committed to the earth, sprung up in twelve days. From the other, however, I removed all the male plants as soon as they were old enough for me to distinguish them from the females. The remaining females grew very well, and presented their long pistils in great abundance, the flowers continuing a very long time, as if in expectation of their mates; while the plants in the other pot had already ripened their fruit, their pistils having, quite in a different manner, faded as soon as the males had discharged all their pollen. It was certainly a beautiful and truly admirable spectacle, to see the unimpregnated females preserve their pistils so long green and flourishing, not permitting them to begin to fade till they had been for a considerable time exposed, in vain, to the access of the male pollen. Afterwards, when these virgin plants began to decay through age, I examined all their calyxes in the presence of several botanists, and found them large and flourishing, although every one of the seed-buds was brown, compressed, membranaceous, and dry, not exhibiting any appearance of cotyledons or pulp. Hence I am perfectly convinced, that the circumstance which authors have recorded, of the female hemp having produced seeds, although deprived of the male, could only have happened by means of pollen brought by the wind from some distant place. No experiment can be more easily performed than the above; none more satisfactory in demonstrating the generation of plants.
The *Glaia tenella* was in like manner kept growing in my window through the months of June and July. The male plant was in one pot, the female in another. The latter abounded with fruit, not one of its flowers proving abortive. I removed the two pots into different windows of the same apartment; still all the female flowers continued to become fruitful. At length I took away the male entirely, leaving the female alone, and cutting off all the flowers which it had already borne. Every day new ones appeared from the axilla of every leaf; each remained eight or ten days; after which their footstalks turning yellow, they fell barren to the ground. A botanical friend, who had amused himself with observing this phenomenon with me, persuaded me to bring from the stove in the garden a single male flower, which he placed over one of the female ones, then in perfection, tying a piece of red silk round its pistilum. The next day the male flower was taken away, and this single seed-bud remained and bore fruit. Afterwards I took another male flower out of the same stove, and with a pair of slender forceps pinched off one of its anthers, which I afterwards gently scratched with a feather, so that a very small portion of its pollen was discharged upon one of the three stigmata of a female flower, the two other stigmata being covered with paper. This fruit likewise attained its due size; and on being cut transversely, exhibited one cell filled with a large seed, and the other two empty. The rest of the flowers, being unimpregnated, faded and fell off. This experiment may be performed with as little trouble as the former.
The *Datisca cannabina* came up in my garden from seed ten years ago, and has every year been plentifully increased by means of its perennial root. Flowers in great number have been produced by it; but being all female, they proved abortive. Being desirous of procuring male plants, I obtained more seeds from Paris. Some more plants were raised; but these likewise, to my great mortification, all proved females, and bore flowers, but no fruit. In the year 1757, I received another parcel of seeds. From these I obtained a few male plants, which flowered in 1758. These were planted at a great distance from the females; and when their flowers were just ready to emit their pollen, holding a paper under them, I gently shook the spike or panicle with my fingers, till the paper was almost covered with the yellow powder. I carried this to the females, which were flowering in another part of the garden, and placed it over them. The cold nights of the year in which this experiment was made, destroyed these datticas, with many other plants, much earlier than usual. Nevertheless, when I examined the flowers of those plants which I had sprinkled with the fertilizing powder, I found the seeds of their due magnitude; while in the more remote datticas, which had not been impregnated with pollen, no traces of seeds were visible.
Several species of *Monordica*, cultivated with us, like other Indian vegetables, in clove stoves, have frequently born female flowers; which, although at first very vigorous, after a short time have constantly faded and turned yellow, without perfecting any seed, till I instructed the gardener, as soon as he observed a female flower, to gather a male one and place it above the female. By this contrivance we are so certain of obtaining fruit, that we dare pledge ourselves to make any female flowers fertile that shall be fixed on.
The *Jatropha urens* has flowered every year in my hot-house; but the female flowers coming before the males, in a week's time dropped their petals, and faded before the latter were opened; from which cause no fruit has been produced, but the germina themselves have fallen off. We have therefore never had any fruit of the jatropha till the year 1752, when the male flowers were in vigour on a tall tree at the same time that the females began to appear on a small jatropha which was growing in a garden-pot. I placed this pot under the other tree, by which means the female flowers... flowers bore seeds, which grew on being sown. I have frequently since amused myself with taking the male flowers from one plant, and scattering them over the female flowers of another, and have always found the seeds of the latter impregnated by it.
"Two years ago I placed a piece of paper under some of these male flowers, and afterwards folded up the pollen which had fallen upon it, preserving it so folded up, if I remember right, four or five weeks at the end of which time another branch of the same jatropha was in flower. Then took the pollen, which I had so long preserved in paper, and sowed it over three female flowers, the only ones at that time expanded. These three females proved fruitful, while all the rest which grew in the same bunch fell off abortive.
"The interior petals of the Ornithogalum, commonly, but improperly, called Canadense, cohere so closely together, that they only just admit the air to the germen, and will scarcely permit the pollen of another flower to pass: this plant produced every day new flowers and fruit, the fructification never failing in any instance; I therefore, with the utmost care, extracted the antheræ from one of the flowers with a hooked needle; and, as I hoped, this single flower proved barren. This experiment was repeated about a week after with the same success.
"I removed all the antheræ out of a flower of Chelidonium corniculatum (scarlet horned poppy), which was growing in a remote part of the garden, upon the first opening of its petals, and stripped off all the rest of the flowers; another day I treated another flower of the same plant in a similar manner, but sprinkled the pistillum of this with the pollen borrowed from another plant of the same species: the result was, that the first flower produced no fruit, but the second afforded very perfect seed. My design in this experiment was to prove, that the mere removal of the antheræ from a flower is not in itself sufficient to render the germen abortive.
"Having the Nicotiana fruticosa growing in a garden-pot, and producing plenty of flowers and seed, I extracted the antheræ from a newly-expanded flower before they had burst, at the same time cutting away all the other flowers; this germen produced no fruit, nor did it even swell.
"I removed an urn, in which the Asphodelas fistulosus was growing, to one corner of the garden, and from one of the flowers which had lately opened I extracted its antheræ; this caused the impregnation to fail. Another day I treated another flower in the same manner: but bringing a flower from a plant in a different part of the garden, with which I sprinkled the pistillum of the mutilated one, its germen became by that means fruitful.
"Jasmin chinensis, flowering in my stove, the windows of which were shut, all its flowers proved abortive. I therefore took some of its antheræ in a pair of pincers, and with them I sprinkled the stigmata of two flowers, and the next day one stigma only of a third flower; the seed-buds of these flowers remained, grew to a large size, and bore seed; the fruit of the third, however, contained ripe seed only in one of its cells.
"To relate more experiments would only be to fatigue the reader unnecessarily. All nature proclaims the truth I have endeavoured to inculcate, and every
Sect. VI. Of the Natural Method of Classification:
Besides all the abovementioned methods of classing and distributing plants into their different orders, genera, &c., which are deduced from the fructification, and are therefore called artificial, Linnæus and most other botanists are of opinion that there is a natural method, or nature's system, which we should diligently endeavour to find out. That this system, say they, is no chimera, as some imagine, will appear particularly from hence, That all plants, of what order soever, show an affinity to some others; and thus, as formerly observed, not only the virtues of a great number of species may be ascertained, but we may know with certainty how to find a proper succedaneum for plants which cannot easily be had.—Linnæus divides vegetables into the 58 natural methods following.
1. Palmae. These are perennial, and mostly of the shrub and tree kind. The stem is in height from 2 to 100 feet and upwards. The roots form a mass of fibres which are commonly simple and without any ramifications. The stem is generally simple, without branches, cylindrical, and composed of strong longitudinal fibres. The leaves, which are a composition of a leaf and a branch, by Linnæus called frondes, are of different forms; being sometimes shaped like an umbrella or fan; sometimes singly or doubly winged; the small or partial leaves, which are often three feet in length, being ranged alternately. The branches, or principal leaves, are six, eight, ten, or twelve feet long; the length varying according to the age and size of the plant. They are covered at first with a thick brown dust, like those of the ferns. The base of the leaves frequently embraces the greater part of the stem. The flowers are male and female upon the same or different roots; except in striatites, which bears hermaphrodite flowers only; and palmetto, in which the flowers are hermaphrodite and male upon distinct roots. The flowers are all disposed in a panicle or diffuse spike, except in the hydrocharis, striatites, and villiflora; in which they proceed singly from the wings or angles of the leaves. The common calyx, in this order, is that termed a spathe or sheath, and has either one or two valves. The spadix, or head of flowers protruded from the sheath, is generally branched. Each flower is generally furnished with a perianthium or proper flower-cup, consisting of three leaves or divisions that are small and permanent. The petals are three in number, of a substance like leather, and permanent like the leaves of the calyx. The flowers of zamiæ have no petals. The stamina are from 2 to 20 and upwards, cohering slightly at their base. The seed-buds are from one to three in number, placed in the middle of the flower, and supporting a like number of styles which are very short. The seed-vessel is generally a pulpy fruit of the berry or cherry kind, containing one cell filled with fibrous flesh, and covered with a skin which is of a substance like like leather. The seeds are in number from one to three in each pulpy fruit, of a hard bony substance, round or oval, and attached by their base to the bottom of the fruit.—These plants, particularly the seeds, are astringent, and of efficacy in dysenteries.
2. Piperitae. These plants are mostly herbaceous and perennial. The stalks of pothos creep along rocks and trees, into which they strike root at certain distances. The greatest height which any of them is known to attain is 15 feet; the greater part do not exceed three or four. The fleshy roots of many of these plants are extremely acrid when fresh. They lose this pungent quality, however, by being dried, and become of a soapy nature. The smell of many of them is extremely fetid, frequently resembling that of human excrements. The flowers, however, of an Ethiopian dracunculus or arum, and the cover in which they are involved, are said to emit a very fragrant odour. With regard to their virtues, these plants are commonly astringent.
3. Calamariae. In this class the base of the leaf, which embraces the stalk like a glove, has no longitudinal aperture, but is perfectly entire. The stalk is generally triangular, and without knots or joints. The roots of some are long and knotty; in others they are composed of fleshy fibres which pierce deep into the ground; and in others, of a bulb. The flowers are either hermaphrodite, or male and female upon the same root. The mode of inflorescence in this order is generally a spike; sometimes a capitulum or head. The calyx is either a gluma or an amentum. The corolla is wanting. The filaments of the stamens are three in number; short, slender like a hair, and sometimes brittle. The anthers are generally long, slender, and erect. The seed-bud is very small, blunt, and sometimes three-cornered. The style is thread-shaped, and of the length of the fleshy calyx. The stigmata are generally three in number; slender, hairy, and sometimes permanent. The virtues, uses, and sensible qualities, of this order of plants are the same with those of the following.
4. Graminae. Most of these plants are annual or perennial herbs; some of them creep upon the ground, others are erect. The roots, in the greatest number, are creeping, and emit fibres from each knot or joint; in others they are simply branching and fibrous. The stems and branches are round. The leaves are simple, alternate, entire, very long, and commonly narrow. They form below a sort of heath, which embraces or surrounds the stem, and is generally cleft or divided on one side through its whole length. The flowers are either hermaphrodite, male and female on the same root, or hermaphrodite and male on the same root. They proceed either singly from the sheath of the leaves, or are formed into a panicle or loose spike. The calyx and corolla in this order are not sufficiently ascertained; in some a single scale or hulk, in others two, supply the place of both covers; some grasses have four fleshy scales, two of which serve for the calyx, and the other two for the corolla; some have five; others six, four of which constitute the calyx, and the other two are termed improperly enough the fleshy petals. The corolla is sometimes composed of one petal with two divisions; and in general the hulks of the calyx are always placed opposite to those of the corolla. The stamens are generally three in number, and placed irregularly with regard to the situation of the calyx and corolla. The antherae are long, furnished with two cells, and slightly attached to the filaments. The seed-bud is placed upon the same receptacle as the calyx, corolla, and stamens. The style is generally double, and crowned with a hairy stigma or summit. The seed-vessel is wanting. The seeds are fleshy, oval, and attached below to the bottom of the flower.—The roots of the grasses are opening; such as have an aromatic smell are stomachic; their seeds are mealy, mucilaginous, and nourishing. All the parts of these plants are wholesome.
5. Tripetalae (from tres, three; and petalum, a petal). These plants have no very striking characters, and are nearly allied to the grasses. All the genera of this order have not the circumstance expressed in the title.
6. Enfateae. This order, which is very nearly allied to the grasses and liliaceous plants, furnishes a very beautiful collection of perennial herbs, which are of different heights, from one inch to 15 feet. The roots are tuberous or fleshy, and garnished with fibres; the stalks are simple, and commonly flat or compressed on the sides. The leaves are simple, alternate, entire, sword shaped, and, like the liliaceous plants, form at their origin a sheath or glove, which in the greatest number is cleft or divided through the whole length, except at the base, where it is entire, and embraces the stalk like a ring. The flowers are hermaphrodite, and generally proceed from the summit of the stalks either singly, in an umbel, a spike, or in a panicle. In pentaderia they proceed from the wings or angles of the leaves either singly or in an umbel. Most of these plants want the perianthium or flower-cup; the flowers burst from a common cover or sheath, termed by Linnaeus spathe, which in this order is frequently permanent. The petals are in number from one to five. The stamens are generally three. The seed-bud is placed sometimes above the flower, sometimes below it. The style is generally single, and crowned with a triple stigma. The seed-vessel is a dry capsule, generally of an oblong shape, and opens at three valves, discovering the same number of cells, each including a quantity of roundish seeds.—These plants resemble the liliaceous in their powers and sensible qualities; very few of them, however, are used in medicine.
7. Orchideae. The roots of many of these plants are composed of one or more fleshy tubercles or knobs, attached to the lower part of the stem, and sending forth fibres from the top. Those of orchis bear an obvious resemblance to the scrotum in animals: from which circumstance the genus has derived its name. The leaves are of moderate size, inscribed with a number of longitudinal nerves or ribs, and without any footstalk. At their origin they form round the stalk a kind of sheath, which is long, entire, cylindrical, but not furnished, like the grasses and some other plants, with a crown at top. The flowers are hermaphrodite, and placed at the summit of the stalk either in a spike or in a panicle. The calyx is that sort termed by Linnaeus a spathe or sheath, that bursting open protrudes a head or cluster of flowers, termed the spadix, which have no perianthium or flower-cup. The petals are five in number, and very irregular. The nectarium in this order is remarkably conspicuous; yet so different in the different genera, that Linnaeus has employed it for his principal character or mark of di- distinction, instead of the root, which had chiefly engaged the attention of former botanists. It has the appearance of a fifth petal. The filaments are always two in number, and placed upon the pistillum or female organ. The antherae are erect, and generally covered by the upper lip of the nectarium. The feed-bud is either oblong or pillar-shaped, twisted like a screw, and universally placed below the receptacle of the flower. The style is fingle, very short, and forms one fulbance with the inner margin of the nectarium. The feed-vessel is generally a capsule with one cavity or cell, and three valves or openings, which are keel-shaped, and open on the angular sides, being jointed both at the bottom and top. The feeds are numerous; very small, like saw-dust; and attached, without footstalks, to a slender receptacle or rib, which extends itself lengthwise in the middle of each inclosure or valve. The plants of this order are reckoned strong aphrodites.
8. Scitaminæ. This class consists of beautiful exotic plants, all natives of very warm countries. Some of them furnish exquisite fruits; but though the plants rise very high, they are perennial only by their roots. Those which have only one filament, have in all their parts an aromatic odour, and an acrid or poignant taste; qualities, however, possessed in a much greater degree by the roots, which are hot and resinous.
9. Spathaceæ, so called because their flowers are protruded from a spatha or sheath. They are nearly allied in habit and structure to the liliaceous plants, from which they are chiefly distinguished by the spatha out of which their flowers are protruded.
10. Coronariæ. These plants are herbaceous, perennial, and from one inch to fifteen feet high. The roots are either bulbous, fibrous, or composed of small fleshy knots, which are jointed at top. The bulbs either consist of scales laid over each other like tiles, or are solid. The item of the liliaceous bulbous plants is properly wanting; what supplies its place being nothing else than the base of the leaves, which, wrapping or enfolding each other, form at bottom a roundish fleshy bulb hitherto distinguished, though perhaps improperly, by the name of root. In the others the item is simple, that is, has few branches, and is either furnished with leaves, or rises naked. The branches are alternate and cylindrical. The leaves are simple, alternate, and entire. Those next the root, termed radical leaves, generally form at their origin a sheath, which in a great number is entire; that is, goes all round; whilst in others, it is cleft or divided longitudinally on one side. The flowers are universally hermaphrodite, except in white hellebore, which has both male and hermaphrodite flowers mixed together on the same root. The flowers are sometimes fingle, and terminate the item; sometimes they form an umbel, sometimes a spike, and sometimes a panicle. The calyx or flower-cup, in this order, according to Linnæus, is generally wanting. In strict propriety, however, the fingle cover that is present in most of these plants, though beautifully coloured, ought to be denominated a calyx; as its divisions, generally six in number, are placed opposite to the stamens. The petals, or, to speak more properly, the coloured leaves of the flower, are in number from one to six. Plants which have a single petal, have the limb or upper part split into five divisions or segments. The petals in some species are rolled or turned back. The nectarium is various; in the lily it is a longitudinal line which runs through each petal, and reaches from the base to the middle. In crown imperial, it is a small hollow or pore, formed at the base of each petal; in asphodel it consists of five very small valves, which, approaching, form a globe, and are inserted into the base of the petal; in hyacinth, it is composed of three melliferous pores, situated on the top of the feed-bud. In pineapple, it is a small scale lying within the substance of each petal above the base; and in albuca, or bastard star of Bethlehem, it consists of two sharp-pointed bodies proceeding from the furrows of the feed-bud, and covered by the broader base of the three fertile filaments. In some species of lily the nectarium is hairy; in others it is naked. The stamens are six in number; erect, and inserted into the common receptacle, if the flower consists of many petals; into the tube, or divisions of the corolla, if it consists of one. The antherae are long, commonly divided below, and slightly attached by their sides to the filaments on which they turn like a vane or the needle of a compass. The feed-bud is fingle, and placed either within the flower-cup or below it. The style is fingle, thread-shaped, and generally of the length of the petals. The stigma is generally fingle, of a conic form, and flagggy or hairy at the extremity. The feed-vessel is generally a capsule, divided externally into three valves, internally into three cells.—With respect to the powers of the plants of this order, it may be affirmed in general, that such as have little taste or smell, as the roots of tulip, and star of Bethlehem, are perfectly innocent; whilst those which have a heavy nauseous smell, as squill, hyacinth, crown imperial, and spider-wort, are at least suspicious, and frequently prove noxious.
11. Sarmentoideæ, (from sarmentum, a long shoot, like that of a vine.) This order consists of plants which have climbing stems and branches, that, like the vine, attach themselves to the bodies in their neighbourhood for the purpose of support. These plants are far from being a true natural assemblage; in fact they scarce agree in a single circumstance, except that expressed in the title, which is far from being peculiar to this order.
12. Holacraceæ. This order consists of plants which are used for the table, and enter into the economy of domestic affairs: it contains trees, shrubs, perennial, and annual herbs. Some of the woody vegetables retain their green leaves during the winter. The roots are very long, and frequently spindle-shaped; from the knots on the stems and branches of such plants as creep on the ground, or float on the water, proceed fibrous and branching roots. The stems and young branches are cylindric; and in the greatest part of the aquatic plants of this order, the stalks are hollow within. The buds are of a conic form, and naked; that is, not accompanied with scales. The leaves are generally simple, entire, alternate, and attached to the branches by a cylindric foot-stalk, which is sometimes very long, but commonly very short. Some plants of this kind have two stipulae or scales which are attached to the branches near the origin of the foot-stalk of each leaf. In many others, instead of stipulae, each leaf bears on its foot-stalk a membranaceous sheath, which is cylindric, frequently fringed on the margin, and pierced or penetrated. trated by the stem. The flowers are either hermaphrodite; male and female upon the same root; male and female upon different roots; hermaphrodite and male on the same root; hermaphrodite and female on the same root; or hermaphrodite and male on different roots.
13. Succulentæ. This order consists of flat, fleshy, and juicy plants, most of them evergreens. They are affringent, refreshing, and very wholesome.
14. Gruminales (from grus a crane). These consist of geranium, vulgarly called crane-bill, and a few other genera which Linnaeus considers as allied to it in their habit and external structure. This order furnishes both herbaceous and woody plants. The roots are sometimes fibrous, sometimes tuberous. In some species of wood-forest they are jointed. The stems are cylindric; the young branches, in some, nearly square. The buds are of a conic form, and covered with scales. The leaves are either simple or compound. The flowers are hermaphrodite; they proceed from the wings of the leaves either singly or in clusters. The calyx or flower-cup consists of five distinct leaves, or of one leaf divided almost to the bottom into five parts. It generally accompanies the feed-bud to its maturity. The petals are five in number, spreading, and frequently funnel-shaped. The stamens are generally ten in number, awl-shaped, erect, and of the length of the petals. The stamens are generally oblong; and frequently attached to the filaments by the middle, so as to lie, and sometimes to veer about, upon them. The feed-bud is either oblong or five-cornered. The number of styles is either one or five. In tribularia, the style is wanting. The feed-vessel is generally a five-cornered capsule, with one, three, five, or ten cells. The seeds are generally equal in number to the internal divisions or the cells of the feed-vessel; one seed being placed in each cell.
15. Inundate. The plants of this order are aquatic, of low stature, herbaceous, and mostly perennial. The roots are fibrous. The stem is generally wanting. In its place are an assemblage of leaves, which wrapping or enfolding each other mutually form a sheath; and from the middle of this sheath is produced the foot-stalk of the flower. The leaves are sometimes alternate, sometimes placed in whorls round the stem. In a great many genera the foot-stalk is extended at its origin into a membranaceous substance, which forms a sheath that is cleft through the whole length, on the side opposite to the leaf. The flowers are hermaphrodite, or male and female on the same root. The flower-cup is either wanting, or consists of three, four, or five divisions or leaves, which accompany the feed-bud to its maturity. The petals are generally wanting. The stamens are in number from one to fifteen upwards. The filaments in some genera are so short, that they seem wanting. The anthers are short, and generally marked with four longitudinal furrows. The feed-buds are in number from one to four; the style is frequently wanting. The feed-vessel is universally wanting, except in Elatine, which has a dry capsule, with four external openings, and the same number of cells. The seeds are generally four in number.
16. Calycifloræ, (from calyx the flower-cup, and flores the flower), consisting of such plants as have the stamens (the flower) inserted into the calyx. All the plants of this order are of the shrub and tree kind. Some of them rise to the height of 12 or 14 feet; others not above two or three. The roots are branching, fibrous, and woody. The stems are cylindric. The branches, when young, are cornered; the buds of a conic form, and without scales. The leaves are simple, alternate, and attached to the branches by a very short foot-stalk. The flowers are either male or female upon distinct roots, or hermaphrodite and male on the same root. The calyx is a perianthium composed of one leaf divided into two, three, or four segments. It is commonly placed upon the germen or feed-bud, which accompanies it to maturity. The corolla is universally wanting, except in trophi, the male plants of which, according to Linnaeus, have four obtuse and spreading petals. The stamens are generally four in number, slender like a hair, short, placed at a considerable distance from the style, and inserted into the tube of the calyx. The pistillum is composed of a roundish germen, crowned with the calyx; a single thread-shaped style; and a cylindric stigma. The feed-vessel is either an obtuse oval fruit of the cherry kind, or a globular berry with one cell, containing a roundish seed. The plants of this order are affringent.
17. Calycanthemæ, (from calyx the flower-cup, and aves the flower); consisting of plants, which, among other characters, have the corolla and stamens inserted in the calyx. This order furnishes trees, shrubs, and annual, biennial, and perennial herbs. The herbaceous annuals are by much the most numerous. The roots are branching and fibrous; the stems and branches cylindric, square, or four-cornered while young. The buds are of a conic form, and without scales. The leaves are generally either alternate, simple, and attached to the branches by a short foot-stalk, or opposite at the bottom of the stem; and in some, alternate towards the top. They are universally sessile; that is, attached to the branches, without any foot-stalk. The calyx is universally a perianthium, and generally monophyllous, or composed of one leaf. The corolla consists of four, five, and six petals, which are attached to the tube of the calyx, and are sometimes placed alternate, sometimes opposite, to the divisions of the limb. The stamens, which are in number from four to twenty upwards, are attached to the tube of the calyx either on its margin or lower down. When the number of stamens is double the divisions of the calyx, the stamens which stand opposite these divisions are a little longer than the rest. The anthers are generally of a hemispherical figure; frequently cleft or slit below; and by that aperture attached slightly to the filaments, on which they often veer about like a vane or needle. They are surrounded longitudinally, and open on the sides into two loculi or cells. The pollen, or male dust, consists of a number of minute particles, of an oval figure, yellow and transparent. The germen or feed-bud, is placed either above or under the receptacle of the flower. The style is single, thread-shaped, and of the length of the stamens. The stigma is generally single and undivided. The feed-vessel is a capsule, which is generally divided internally into four loculi or cells. The seeds are numerous, minute, and frequently three-cornered. The plants of this order are reckoned affringent.
18. Bicornæ, (from bis twice, and cornu a horn), plants whose anthers have the appearance of two horns. This appearance, however, is not very conspicuous, unless in a few genera. The plants of this order are all of the shrub and tree kind. The roots are branching and fibrous. The stems and branches are cylindric. The buds conic, sometimes covered with scales, and sometimes naked. The leaves are generally alternate. In most plants of this order they are either sessile, or supported by a very short foot-stalk, which is semi-cylindric, and flat above. The flowers are universally hermaphrodite, except in one genus, the Indian date-plumb, where hermaphrodite and male flowers are produced in the same species upon distinct roots. They proceed either solitary, or in a corymbus from the angles formed by the leaves and branches; or hang down in spikes and clusters at the end of the branches; each flower having a small scale or floral leaf placed under it. In most plants of this order the calyx is placed around or below the germen. The calyx is universally a perianthium, and generally monophyllous or of one piece, deeply divided into four or five segments, which are permanent, that is, accompany the germen to its maturity. The segments are often acute, and sometimes coloured. The corolla is generally monopetalous, and bell or funnel shaped; the figure, however, is not very constant, even in plants of the same genus. The limb, or upper part of the petal, is generally divided into four or five segments, which are sometimes rolled back, sometimes bent inwards. The limb too is sometimes slightly cut, sometimes divided almost to the bottom. The tube, or lower part of the petal, is cylindric, and generally of the same length with the calyx. The number of stamens is from 4 to 20. These are generally erect, and attached to the lower part of the tube of the corolla. The anthers are bifid or forked below, and, being slightly attached to the filaments, are frequently inverted in such a manner as to exhibit the appearance of two horns at top. The germen or seed-bud, is generally roundish, and seated above the receptacle. The style is single, thread-shaped, of the same length with the corolla, and in a few genera permanent. The seed-vessel is either a capsule with five cells, a roundish berry, or an oblong four-cornered nut with two cells. — The plants of this order are astringent.
19. Hesperideae, (from the Hesperides, whose orchards are said to have produced golden apples). The plants of this order are of the shrub and tree kind, and mostly evergreen. The bark of the stalks is slender, and comes off in thin plates. The leaves are generally opposite, and covered with small transparent points. In some, the leaves are placed opposite at the bottom of the stalks, and alternate above. The buds are of a conic form, the flowers generally hermaphrodite; they proceed from the wings of the leaves either singly, or in clusters like ivy-berries. The calyx is placed above the seed-bud, and accompanies it to its maturity. The petals are three, four, or five in number, and stand upon the brims of the tube of the calyx. The seed-bud is large, oblong, and placed below the receptacle of the flower. The style is single, awl-shaped, of the length of the stamens, and terminated with a single stigma. The seed-vessel in some genera is a berry furnished with one or three cells; a capsule with four cells, or of the nature of a cherry, containing a stone. The seeds are generally numerous, small and oblong. The leaves and fruits are astringent, the berries esculent.
20. Rotaceae, (from rota, a wheel), consisting of plants with one wheel-shaped petal without a tube. These resemble in quality those of the order of preciae, to which they are in all respects very nearly allied; but very few of them can be said in strict propriety to possess the character specified in the title.
21. Preciae, (from precius early). These consist of primrose, an early flowering plant, and some others which agree with it in habit and structure, though not always in the character or circumstance expressed in the title. These plants, which possess no striking uniform characters, are, in general, innocent in their quality; yet the root of sow-bread is dangerous, if taken internally.
22. Caryophyllaceae. All the plants of this order are herbaceous, and mostly annual. Some of the creeping kinds do not rise above an inch, and the tallest exceed not seven or eight feet. The roots are branching, fibrous, and of a moderate length. The stems are cylindrical. The branches proceed from the wings or angles of the leaves, and are generally opposite, and as it were jointed at each knot. In some species of ceraulium the branches are square. The leaves are generally placed opposite in pairs, so as to resemble a cross; and are slightly united at the bottom by their foot-stalks, which form a sort of glove round the stem. The hairs are simple, like silk. The flowers are hermaphrodite; but some have male and female flowers upon distinct roots. They either stand single on their foot stalks, and proceed from the wings or angles of the leaves and branches, or are disposed in a spike, corymbus, umbel, or panicle. The calyx is permanent, and composed either of one piece with five indentments, or of four or five distinct leaves. The corolla generally consists of five petals, which have claws of the length of the calyx; and a spreading limb, sometimes entire, but oftener cleft or divided in two. The stamens are in number from 3 to 15, and of a moderate length. When their number is double the divisions of the calyx, they are attached alternately to the claws of the petals, those so attached being shorter than the rest; the remaining stamens are inserted into the common receptacle, and stand opposite to the segments of the calyx. In some genera of this order the number of stamens is found to vary, even in the different flowers of the same plant. The anthers are short, hemispherical, marked with four longitudinal furrows, frequently divided or cleft below, most commonly erect; sometimes, however, incumbent, that is, fastened to the filaments by the sides. The pointial is composed of a single seed-bud, which is generally roundish, sometimes cornered. The styles are thread-shaped, of the length of the stamens, and crowned with a simple stigma, which is sleek or smooth externally, and slightly hollowed or vaulted within. The seed-vessel is a dry capsule, of an oval form of the length of the calyx, and consists of one or three cells. The plants of this order are innocent in their quality; they abound in a watery sort of phlegm, and have bitter feed. With respect to their virtues, they are reckoned astringent, attenuating, and detergent.
23. Tribilate, (from tres, three, and hilum an external mark on the seed); consisting of plants with three seeds, which are marked distinctly with an external cicatrix or scar, where they were fastened within to the fruit. 24. Corydaliae, (from κράνος a helmet); consisting of plants which have irregular flowers, somewhat resembling a helmet or hood. These plants are mostly herbaceous and perennial. The roots are tuberous or knobby. The stems are generally branching. The leaves are alternate, sometimes simple, but most commonly winged. The foot-stalk of the leaves is stout or narrow, except in Ephemerum, where it is large, and has a membranous edge or border. The flowers are universally hermaphrodite. They proceed either singly from the wings or angles of the leaves, or are collected in clusters at the end of the branches. The calyx consists of two, four, five, or six leaves, which are frequently coloured, and commonly fall off immediately before, or very soon after, the expansion of the petals. The corolla is generally irregular; of one, or many pieces; gaping; and furnished with a nectarium, which is very different in the different genera. The stamens are in number from two to six, and of a proportionate length, except in honey-flower, which has two shorter than the rest. The filaments are distinct, except in two genera, fumitory and monnieri, which have two sets of strings or filaments united in a cylinder. The anthers are universally distinct, except in impatiens, where they are formed into a cylinder divided at the base. The seed-bud is generally roundish, but sometimes angular or cornered. The style is commonly single, extremely short, slender, or thread-shaped, and crowned with a simple stigma. The seed-vessel is either a hollow blown-up berry, a capsule of one cell, a length, or a roundish pod. The seeds are generally numerous and round.
25. Putaminæ, (from fulamen a shell); consisting of a few genera of plants allied in habit, whose fleshy seed-vessel or fruit is frequently covered with a hard woody shell. Most of these plants are acid and penetrating; and yield, by burning, a great quantity of fixed alkali. With respect to their virtues, they are powerful aperients. The Indians pretend that the fruit of a species of caper-bush, which they call baducca, extinguishes the flames of love.
26. Multiflorae, (from multus many, and fligua a pod); consisting of plants which have more seed-vessels than one. From the etymology of the term, one would naturally imagine that the seed-vessels in question were of that kind called by Linnaeus fligua, or pod; but the fact is, that not a single plant of this order bears pods; the greater part having many dry capsules, and the remainder being furnished properly with no seed-vessel, but bearing numerous distinct seeds. Plants of this order are mostly perennial herbs; the stems of some are erect; others creep upon the ground, and produce roots near the origin of each leaf; lastly, others climb, and attach themselves to the bodies in their neighbourhood, either by the foot-stalk of the leaves, or by tendrils and clasps which terminate the foot-stalk. The greatest height of those which rise erect, seldom exceeds eight feet. Those which climb rarely exceed 15 or 20 feet. The roots are generally fleshy. In some they are hand-shaped; in others finger-shaped, or cylindric. In some species of heliobore and ranunculus they are divided into spherical knobs. Lastly, in some plants of this order, the roots are fibrous. The stems and young branches are cylindric. The leaves, which are of different forms, being sometimes simple and entire, sometimes hand-shaped or winged, are generally alternate. The foot-stalk, which is sometimes cylindric, sometimes angular, is membranous, and very large at its origin, surrounding a great part of the stem from which it proceeds. The flowers are hermaphrodite. They proceed either singly from the wings of the leaves or termination of the branches, or terminate the branches in a spike, panicle, or head. The calyx in some is wanting; in others it is generally composed of five pieces, which fall off with the petals. The petals are in number from 4 to 15; generally equal, and sometimes disposed in two or three series; five is the prevailing number. The stamens are in number from 5 to 300, distinct, and attached generally in several rows or series to the receptacle. The seed-buds are generally numerous; the style is frequently wanting. In some the seed-vessel is wanting; in others it is composed of several dry capsules, each containing a single cell. The seeds are numerous, and frequently angular. Most of these plants are acrid, and many of them poisonous. In general, plants that have a great number of stamens are noxious in their quality. When burnt, these plants furnish a fixed alkali; by distillation there is drawn from them a kind of nitrous and aluminoous substance. With respect to their virtues, they are caustic and purgative.
27. Rhaedæ, consisting of poppy, and a few genera which resemble it in habit and structure. These plants, upon being cut, emit plentifully a juice, which is white in poppy, and yellow in the others. With respect to their virtues, they seem to operate principally upon the nerves. Their juice is soporific and narcotic, their seeds less so, their roots aperient. Applied externally, they are slightly corrosive.
28. Lurideæ, consisting of plants whose pale and ominous appearance seems to indicate something baleful and noxious in their natural quality. Most of these plants are herbaceous and perennial. Many of them are of the maligned tribe of flowers; others resemble these in their general appearance, but differ from them essentially in the quality of their stamens. The roots are generally branched, sometimes tuberous. The stems and branches are cylindric. The leaves are generally simple, and placed alternate. The flowers are hermaphrodite. They proceed either singly or in clusters from the angle formed by the leaves and branches. In some species of lycium, they terminate the branches. The calyx is generally of one piece deeply divided into five parts. The corolla consists of one petal, which is either bell, funnel, or wheel shaped. The stamens are four or five in number; and those either of equal lengths, as in the greater, or unequal. The seed-bud is placed above the receptacle of the flower. The style is single; and is terminated by a summit which is hemispherical, and frequently channelled or furrowed. The seed-vessel, in such as have equal stamens, is a berry; in the rest, it is generally a capsule. The seeds are numerous, and frequently kidney-shaped.—These plants in general are poisonous. They have an insipid taste, and a nauseous disagreeable smell.
29. Campanaceæ, (from campana a bell); plants with bell-shaped flowers. The plants of this order are herbaceous and perennial. The roots are either spindle-shaped, shaped, or branching and fibrous. The stems are round. The branches are generally alternate. The leaves are simple, alternate, and commonly attached to the branches by a semi-cylindric foot-stalk, which is furrowed above. The indentments are terminated by a small white tubercle or knob, which renders them conspicuous. The flowers are hermaphrodite; and proceed either foliary from the wings of the leaves, or are collected into a spike and head at the end of the flower-stalk. The calyx is universally a perianthium situated upon or round the germen, and generally composed of one leaf deeply divided into five segments. The corolla is monopetalous, and of the bell, funnel, or wheel shape. The tube, in flowers of the bell and wheel shape, is very short; in those of the funnel-shape, very long. In Greek valerian, the tube is shut with five valves, which are placed on its apex or top. The limb or upper part of the corolla is deeply divided into five segments, which spread, and are alternate with the divisions of the calyx. The corolla is generally permanent. The stamens are five in number, attached to the base of the tube of the corolla, alternate with its divisions, and opposite to those of the calyx. The filaments are distinct; very large at their origin; and frequently approach so as to form a sort of vault, which covers the summit of the germen. They are slender and awl-shaped above. The anthers are very long; oval; marked with four longitudinal furrows, either distinct, or united in a cylinder. The pollen is composed of very small, spherical, white, shining, and transparent particles. The germen is roundish, and situated either wholly or in part under the flower. The style is generally single, and of the length of the stamens or corolla. The stigma is commonly single, but deeply divided. The seed-vessel is a roundish capsule, generally divided into three cells, and furnished externally with the same number of valves. The seeds are small, numerous, attached to a receptacle in the centre of the fruit, generally rounded, and sometimes cornered.—This order furnishes many excellent medicines. The plants abound with a white milky juice, which, upon the stalk being cut, flows out in great quantities.
30. Contortae, (from con together, and torqueo to twist); consisting of plants which have a single petal that is twisted or bent towards one side. This order furnishes trees, shrubs, and sat succulent plants, some of which retain their leaves during the winter. The herbaceous vegetables in this order are generally perennial. The roots are sometimes branching, but commonly fleshy, succulent, and garnished with fibres or strings like those of turnip. The stems are round and in some genera pulpy and succulent. The branches are sometimes placed alternate, and sometimes opposite. The buds are of a conic form, and naked or without scales. The leaves are sometimes alternate, sometimes placed opposite in pairs, and not seldom surround the stem in whorls. They are attached to the branches by a cylindrical foot-stalk, which is short, and frequently united to the foot-stalk of the opposite leaf. The defensive and offensive weapons in this order are a downy fort of pubescence, and simple, or forked prickles, which, in some genera, issue from the wings of the leaves. The flowers are hermaphrodite; and stand either singly upon their footstalks, or are collected into umbels and clusters. These bunches or collections of flowers sometimes terminate the branches, sometimes proceed from the angles of the branches, and sometimes stand at the side of the wings without issuing from them. The flower-cup is composed of one leaf divided almost to the base in five unequal segments, which embrace each other, and are permanent, or accompany the seed-bud to its maturity. The corolla consists of one petal, which in the different genera is bell, salver, funnel, or wheel shaped. The limb, or upper spreading part of the petal, is generally divided into five equal parts, which are slightly bent or twisted to the left, and embrace or unfold each other like the petals of the mallow tribe. The tube is generally long and cylindrical; sometimes club-shaped, and often wanting. In several flowers of this order the petal is accompanied with that species of superfluity termed a neclarium. In the different genera, however, it assumes very different appearances. The lamina are five in number, short, equal, attached at the same height to the tube of the petal, alternate with its divisions, and opposite to those of the calyx. The anthers are generally erect, and frequently approach so as to form a compact body in the middle of the flower. The seed-bud is either single or double. In some the style is wanting. The stigma is frequently double. The seed-vessel in some genera is a pulpy fruit, of the berry and cherry kind; but most frequently that species termed by Linnaeus coecapulorum, and folliculos, which has one valve or external inclofure, opens lengthways on one side, and has not the seeds fastened to it. Two of these dry fruits, with a single cell, compose the seed-vessel of most plants of this order. The seeds are generally numerous, and in several genera crowned with a long pappus or downy wing like that of the compound flowers, by means of which they easily disperse and sow themselves.—The plants of this order being cut, emit a juice which is generally milky, and sometimes of a greenish white. From the circumstance of their abounding in this milky juice, the greater part are deemed poisonous; repeated observations having established this aphorism, That milky plants, except those of the plain compound flowers, are generally of a baneful destructive nature, and ought at least to be administered with caution. With respect to their sensible qualities, they are bitter; particularly the seed roots, and bark, in which resides their principal virtue.
31. Vepreculae, (from vepre a briar or bramble), consisting of plants resembling the daphne, dirca, guidia, &c. but which, however, do not constitute a true natural assemblage.
32. Papilionaceae, plants that have papilionaceous flowers, i.e. somewhat resembling a butterfly in shape; of which number are all the leguminous plants. The plants of this order are of very different duration; some of them being herbaceous, and those either annual or perennial; others woody vegetables of the shrub and tree kind, a few of which rise to the height of 70 feet and upwards. The herbaceous plants of this order generally climb; for, being weak and as it were helpless of themselves, they are provided by nature with tendrils, and even sharp-pointed hooks, at their extremities, to fasten upon the neighbouring trees or rocks; or the stalks are endowed with a faculty of twisting themselves, for the purpose of support, around the bodies in their neighbourhood. The pea, vetch, and kid- ney bean, afford familiar examples of this appearance. The shrubs and trees of this order are mostly armed with strong spines. The roots are very long, and furnished with fibres; but some genera have fleshy knobs or tubercles placed at proper intervals along the fibres. The stems are cylindric, as likewise the young branches, which are placed alternately: those which climb, twist themselves from right to left, in a direction opposite to the apparent motion of the sun. The bark of the large trees is extremely thick and wrinkled, so as to resemble a net with long meshes; the wood is very hard in the middle, and commonly coloured or veined. The buds are hemispherical, without scales, and proceed from the branches horizontally a little above the angle which they form with the leaves. The leaves are alternate, and of different forms, being either simple, finger-shaped, or winged. This last form is very common; the lobes or leaflets leaves are entire, and sometimes placed in pairs, but most commonly the winged leaf is terminated by an odd lobe. The winged or pinnated leaves of this order have a daily or periodical motion, depending upon the progress of the sun in his diurnal course. The common footstalk of the winged and compound leaves is marked on the upper surface with a cavity or furrow which runs through its whole length. The flowers are hermaphrodite; and proceed either from the wings of the leaves, or from the extremity of the branches. The calyx is a perianthium of one leaf, bell-shaped, bunching out at the bottom, and cut on its brim or margin into five irregular divisions or teeth; the lowermost of which, being the odd one, is longer than the rest: the other four stand in pairs, of which the uppermost is shortest, and stands farthest afar. The bottom of the calyx is moistened with a sweet liquor like honey, so may be deemed the nectarium of these plants. The petals are four or five in number, very irregular, and from their figure and position bear an obvious resemblance to a butterfly expanding its wings for flight. These petals have been characterized by distinct names: the upper one, which is commonly the largest, is termed the standard, (vexillum); the two side petals, the wings, (ale); and the lowermost, which is generally united at top, and divided at bottom, the keel, (carina). The stamens are generally ten: they are either totally distinct, or united by the filaments into one or two bundles involving the seed-bud. In the latter case, where there are two sets of united filaments, one of the sets is composed of 9 stamens, which are united into a crooked cylinder, that is cleft on one side thro' its whole length: along this cleft lies the tenth filament or flamen, which constitutes the second set, and is often so closely attached to the second bundle, that it cannot be separated without some difficulty. The anthers are small, round, marked with four longitudinal furrows, and slightly attached to the filaments. In lupine, the anthera are alternately round and oblong. The seed-bud is single, placed upon the receptacle of the flower, oblong, cylindrical, slightly compressed, of the length of the cylinder of the united stamens by which it is involved, and sometimes elevated by a slender footstalk which issues from the centre of the calyx. The style is single, slender, and generally crooked or bent. The stigma is commonly covered with a beautiful down, and placed immediately under the anthera. The seed-vessel is that fort of pod termed a legumen, which is of an oblong figure, more or less compressed, with two valves, and one, two, or more cavities. These cavities are often separated, when ripe, by a sort of joints. The seeds are generally few in number, round, smooth, and fleshy. Jointed pods have generally a single seed in each articulation. The seeds are all fastened along one future, and not alternately to both, as in the other species of pod termed filique.—The plants of this family are, in general, mucilaginous. From the inner bark of most of them flows, either naturally or by incision, a clammy liquor, which dries and hardens like gum; the juice of others is sweet like sugar; some taste bitter, and are purgative, emetic, or even mortal. A species of eastern astragalus, with goats-rue leaves, is said to be remarkably caustic, and to burn the tongue excessively when chewed. In general, however, these plants are soft and clammy. With respect to their virtues, the plants of this order are highly emollient; some of them are vulnerary and astringent; and the root of anonis, or reft-harrow, is diuretic.
33. Lomentaceae, (from lomentum, a colour used by painters). Many of these plants furnish beautiful tinctures, and some of them are much used in dyeing. They very much resemble the last order, differing only in the following particulars. 1. In all plants of this order, except milk-wort, the stamina are distinct. The flower is not shaped like a butterfly, but is less irregular, and frequently consists but of one petal. The leaves are sometimes simple, but most commonly winged. The seeds are commonly marked with a circular furrow on both sides. Like those of the leguminous tribe, the plants of this order are generally mucilaginous. From the inner bark of the greater number exudes, either naturally or by incision, a mucilaginous liquor, which sometimes dries upon the plant, and becomes a gummy substance.
34. Cucurbitaceae, (from cucurbita a gourd); consisting of plants which resemble the gourd in external figure, habit, virtues, and sensible qualities.—The plants of this order, which generally climb, and have long diffused branches, are mostly herbaceous and perennial. The roots in the perennial plants of this order are shaped like those of the turnip; in the annuals they are branching and fibrous. The stems are cylindric and succulent. The young branches have generally five corners. In some species of passion-flower they are square. The leaves are alternate, angular, and sometimes hand-shaped. They are attached to the branches by a foot-stalk, which is pretty long and cylindrical, without any furrow. From the wing or angle of each of the upper leaves proceeds a tendril, which is either simple or branching, and twists itself spirally round the different bodies in its neighbourhood, for the purpose of supporting and training of the branches. The lower leaves have no tendril. The flowers are either hermaphrodite or male and female. In this last, the male flowers are generally separated from the female upon the same root; and that either in the same wing or angle of the leaves, or in different angles. The flower-cup, in the female flowers, is placed upon the seed-bud; and generally consists of one bell-shaped leaf, that is deeply divided into five unequal segments, and, unlike the other plants which have the calyx seated upon the fruit, falls off with the petals and the other parts of the flower. The corolla consists of one petal, with with five equal divisions, which adhere to the tube of the calyx, as if glued to it. A species of passion-flower, termed by Linnaeus *passiflora tuberosa*, wants the petals. The stamens are in number from one to five, short, and generally inserted into the calyx. The filaments are distinct; the anthers of many genera are united in a cylinder. In the passion-flower they are slightly attached to the filaments, on which they turn like a vane or the needle of a compass. The feed-bud is single, and placed below the receptacle of the flower. The style is generally fleshy, cylindrical, of the length of the calyx, and crowned with a triple stigma. The feed-vessel is generally pulpy, of the apple or berry kind, and consists of one, two, or three cells. The seeds are numerous, generally flat or compressed, and sometimes covered with that kind of proper coat called by Linnaeus *arillus*.—The fruit of these plants is generally purgative and refreshing; that of some of them prove a very violent emetic when used too freely.
35. *Senticoleae*, (from *sentis* a briar or bramble); consisting of the rose, bramble, and other plants which resemble them in form and external structure. These plants are so nearly allied in form, habit, and structure, to those of the natural order *Pomaceae*, that they ought never to have been separated from it. The leaves have a pungent taste; the fruits are acid and cooling. With respect to their virtues, the leaves are vulnerary and astringent, the roots are diuretic. The acid fruits, as strawberry and raspberry, are used with success in putrid and bilious fevers, as likewise in contagious and epidemic dysenteries, which prevail in summer and autumn, and are occasioned by a sudden transition from a hot to a cold air, or by the acid humour which flows into the intestines.
36. *Pomaceae*, (from *pomum* an apple); consisting of those which have a pulpy succulent fruit, of the apple, berry, or cherry kind. The plants of this order, which furnish many of our most esteemed fruits, are mostly of the shrub and tree kind. The roots are branched, fibrous, and in the greater part very long. The stems and branches are cylindric. These last are placed alternate; and, when young, are, in some genera, angular. The bark is thick and wrinkled. The buds are of a conic form, placed in the angles of the leaves, and covered with scales which lie over each other like tiles. The leaves, which differ in form, being in some genera simple, in others winged, are, in the greater number, placed alternate. The footstalk of the leaves is furrowed above, and frequently accompanied by a number of knobs like glands. Most of these plants are furnished with two stipules at the origin of the young footstalks of the leaves. These, in some genera, are pretty large; in others, they are so small as scarcely to be perceived; and in cocoa-plumb, in particular, they by their minuteness resemble hairs. The flowers are universally hermaphrodite, except in *spiraea aruncus*, in which male and female flowers are produced on distinct plants. In the greater number of genera they are produced in clusters or heads at the end of the branches. The calyx is of one piece, with five segments or divisions, which are permanent, and placed above the feed-bud in some; in the rest, they either fall off with the flower, or wither upon the stalk. The petals are five in number, and are inserted into the tube of the calyx. The stamens are generally 20 and upwards, and attached like the petals to the margin of the tube of the calyx. The antheræ are short, and slightly attached to the filaments. The feed-bud is single; and in those genera which have the calyx permanent, it is placed below the receptacle of the flower. The feed-vessel is a pulpy fruit of the apple, berry, or cherry kind. Those of the apple kind are divided internally into a number of cavities or cells. The seeds are numerous.—The pulpy fruits of this order are acid, succulent, and of great efficacy in putrid and bilious fevers.
37. *Columniferae*, (from *columna* a pillar, and *fero* to bear); consisting of plants whose stamens and pistils have the appearance of a column or pillar in the centre of the flower. This order furnishes a choice collection of herbs both annual and perennial, shrubs, and trees. These are very different in size and height, from the creeping mallows, and low shrubby tea-tree, to the fleathy limes, and the more lofty silk cotton trees, which by some modern writers are affirmed to be so large as not to be fathomed by 16 men, and so tall that an arrow cannot reach their top. The shrubs and trees of this order are deciduous, pretty thick, of a beautiful appearance, with an erect stem, which is formed by its branches and foliage into a round head. The roots are extremely long, branch but little, and either run perpendicularly downwards, or extend themselves horizontally below the surface. The stems are cylindric. The young branches, though commonly of the same figure, are sometimes angular. The bark is thick and pliant. The wood, in general, very soft and light. The buds are of a conic form, naked, or without scales; situated either at the extremity of the branches, or in the angle formed by the branch and leaf. The leaves are alternate, simple, divided into several lobes, and frequently hand or finger shaped. The ribs or nerves on the back of the leaf, in some genera of this order, are provided near their origin with a number of hollow furrows or glands, which, being filled with a clammy honey-like liquor, have been considered as so many vessels of secretion. The footstalk of the leaves is cylindric, swollen at its origin, and appears jointed at its junction with the branch. The flowers are universally hermaphrodite, except in *higgleria*, and a species of Virginian marshmallow, called by Linnaeus *napaea dioica*; the former of which bears male and female, the latter male and hermaphrodite, flowers on different roots. In many plants of this order, the flowers generally open about nine in the morning, and remain expanded till one in the afternoon. The flowers either terminate the branches, proceed from the angles of the leaves, or are disposed either singly or in a corymbus along the branches or stem. In most of these genera the calyx is single, but in others frequently double. In these last the inner calyx is always of one piece, generally divided into five segments; the outer consists either of one leaf, of three distinct leaves, or of many. The calyx, when single, is sometimes composed of one leaf which is permanent, or of several distinct leaves which are generally coloured, and fall off with the petals. In plants that have a double calyx, both flower-cups are generally permanent. The petals in this order are from four to nine; five is the prevailing number. The stamens, which are in number from 5 to 20 and upwards, are generally inserted into the common receptacle of the calyx, or into the pistillum or feed-bud. The filaments are either di- Botany.
Sect. VI.
Sinet, or united in a cylinder, which, proceeding from the receptacle of the calyx, surrounds the seed-bud, and attaches itself to the base of the petals, with which it slightly unites. The antherae are frequently roundish, and placed erect on the filament; most commonly, however, they are oblong or kidney-shaped, and slightly attached by the middle, or sides, to the filaments, on which they turn like a vane or needle. This leaf is particularly the characteristic of all the mallow tribe. The seed-bud is generally roundish or conic; and sometimes, as in the tea-tree, angular. The seed-vessel is generally a capsule; sometimes a pulpy fruit of the berry or cherry kind. In some, it is a woody or membranous capsule, divided into as many cells internally as there were partitions in the seed-bud. The seeds are generally solitary, sometimes angular, and sometimes kidney-shaped.—These plants are mucilaginous and lubricating.
38. Tricocceae (from τρις, three, and κόκκος, a grain); consisting of plants with a single three-cornered capsule, having three cells or internal divisions, each containing a single seed. The single seed-vessel of these plants is of a singular form, and resembles three capsules, which adhere to one common footstalk as a centre, but are divided externally into three pretty deep partitions. This family is not completely natural. It must be observed, however, that the character expressed in the title is a striking one; and that though the plants which possess it are not connected by such numerous relations as to form a true natural assemblage, yet they are by that circumstance distinguished from all other plants with as great, nay greater facility, than by any artificial character yet known. But all the genera of this order have not the striking character just mentioned.
39. Siliqueae, (from siliquea a pod); consisting of plants which have a pod for their seed-vessel. This order chiefly furnishes biennial and perennial herbs of an irregular figure. The roots are long, branched, crooked, and fibrous. In some they are succulent and fleshy, in others jointed. The stems and young branches are cylindric. The leaves, which differ in point of form, being sometimes simple, sometimes winged, are generally placed alternate. The flowers are hermaphrodite, and in the greater number disposed in a spike at the extremity of the branches. The flower-cup is composed of four leaves, which are oblong, hollow, blunt, bunched at the base, and fall with the flower. These leaves are sometimes erect, and sometimes spread horizontally. The petals, which are four in number, spread at top, and are disposed like a cross: the claws or lower part of the petals are erect, flat, awl-shaped, and somewhat longer than the calyx. The upper part widens outwards. The stamens are five in number; two of which are of the length of the calyx, and the remaining four somewhat longer, but shorter than the petals. The antherae are of an oblong figure, pointed, thicker at the base, and erect. Betwixt the stamens, in plants of this order, are generally lodged one, two, or four, round greenish knots, which in some genera are so small as to elude the sight. These glands, called by Linnæus glandulae neclariferae, and used very improperly by that author as an essential character in discriminating the genera, seem to be prominences of the receptacle of the flower, occasioned by the stamens being deeply lodged in its substance. The seed-bud is single, and stands upon the receptacle of the flower. The style, which is either cylindric or flat like a scale, is of the length of the four longer stamens in some genera; in others it is very short, or even wanting. It accompanies the seed-bud to its maturity. The stigma is blunt, and sometimes deeply divided into two parts. The seed-vessel is either a long pod, or a short and round one. Either fort has two valves or external openings, and in a great many genera the same number of internal cavities or cells, the partition of which projects at the top beyond the valves. The seeds are roundish, small, and attached alternately by a slender thread to both futures or joinings of the valves. These plants have a watery, sharp, laxial taste; and are charged with a fixed alkaline salt, which is drawn from them by burning, and being distilled without any addition produces a volatile alkali. Most of them have a flanking smell. With respect to their virtues, they are diuretic, attenuating, detergent, and antiseptic. These qualities, however, are most eminently possessed by the live plants; when dried, they either entirely disappear, or are greatly diminished. Applied externally, these plants are useful in diseases of the skin, as the itch, leprosy, &c.
40. Perianthae, (from periona, a masque); consisting of a number of plants whose flowers are furnished with an irregular, gaping, or grinning petal, in figure somewhat resembling the snout of an animal. This order furnishes both herbaceous and woody vegetables of the shrub and tree kind. The roots are generally fibrous and branched. The stems and branches are cylindric when young, except in some species of figwort, in which they are square. The leaves are simple, generally placed opposite in pairs at the bottom of the branches, but in many genera stand alternate towards the top. The flowers are universally hermaphrodite; they proceed either singly or in clusters from the wings of the leaves, or terminate the branches in a spike, panicle, or head. The calyx is of one leaf, which is cut into two, three, four, or five segments, or divisions, that are permanent. The corolla is composed of one irregular petal, with two lips, resembling, as was already observed, the head or snout of an animal. In some plants the stamens are two or four in number, and of an equal length; in others they are universally four in number, two of which are long and two short. The seed-bud is single, and placed above the receptacle of the flower. The style is single; thread-shaped; bent in the direction of the stamens; and crowned with a stigma, which is generally blunt, and sometimes divided into two. The seed-vessel is a capsule, generally divided internally into two cavities or cells, and externally into the same number of valves or inclosures. The seeds are numerous, and affixed to a receptacle in the middle of the capsule.—These plants possess nearly the same qualities with the lip-flowers, though in a less degree. With respect to their virtues, many of them are aperient, anodyne, purgative, and even emetic. The internal use of many of them is extremely pernicious; applied externally, they are anodyne, and powerful resolvents.
41. Alperfoliae, rough-leaved plants. The greatest part of these are herbaceous and perennial. The roots are branching and fibrous; the stems and branches rounded; rounded; the buds of a conic form, naked or without scales. The leaves are simple, alternate, commonly very rough to the touch, and in most of the herbaceous plants fleshy or attached to the stem and branches without any foot-stalk. In the few trees, however, of this order, the leaves have a foot-stalk, the lower part of which, after the fall of the leaves, remains like a spine or thorn. The hairs are simple, and generally very rough to the touch. The flowers are in some genera solitary; but commonly collected into a spike or corymbus. They do not proceed from the angle formed by the stem or branch with the leaf, as in many plants; but from the side of the leaf, or from that part of the stem which is opposite to the leaf. They are almost universally hermaphrodite: in a few species of *cordia*, male and female flowers are produced upon different roots. The calyx is composed of one leaf, which is divided from three to ten equal or unequal parts. Those with four naked seeds have the calyx deeply divided into five parts which are permanent. The corolla is monopetalous, or composed of one petal, which in different plants is bell, funnel, salver, and wheel shaped. The divisions of the limb or upper part of the petal are generally five, alternate with those of the calyx; equal and regular, except in *echium*. The stamens are five in number, alternate with the divisions of the corolla. They are equal, attached to the tube of the corolla a little above its origin, and of the same height. The antherae are in some genera connivent; that is, approach and form a compact body above the filaments. The pistillum is generally composed of a slender style of the same length with the stamens, and crowned with a simple stigma. It proceeds from a germen or seed-bud, which in some plants is undivided, but generally split into four. The seeds are generally four in number, and lodged in the bottom of the calyx.—Most of the rough-leaved plants are used in medicine: the flowers are esteemed cordial, the leaves and roots vulnerary and astringent; and the hard bony seeds are reckoned powerful promoters of urine. Externally, these plants are used for burnings and poisonous bites; they extirpate warts, and relieve disorders of the loins.
42. *Verticillata*, consisting of herbaceous vegetables, having four naked seeds, and the flowers placed in whorls round the stalk. The roots are branched and fibrous. The stems are round when old, but square when young; as are likewise the young branches, which stand opposite. The leaves are opposite, and in the greater number covered with transparent points. Those which are placed next the flower generally differ from the stem-leaves. In the greater number of plants of this kind, the leaves are supported upon a long cylindrical foot-stalk that is furrowed above. The flowers are universally hermaphrodite, except in a species of thyme mentioned by Mr Adanson, which appears to have male or barren flowers on one root, and female or fertile flowers on the other. They are disposed round the stem in whorls or small heads with short foot-stalks. The calyx is of one piece, that is generally cut into five unequal divisions, whose disposition sometimes represents two lips; the uppermost of which has commonly a less number of divisions: it accompanies the seeds, which it nourishes in its bosom, to their maturity. The petal is of the gaping or lip kind, and in the different genera is more or less irregular or unequal, either in its tube, or in the divisions of the lips; the number of which varies from two to five. These divisions frequently form two lips; of which the uppermost, termed the crest or helmet, is sometimes entire, sometimes more or less deeply cut into two; the lowermost, termed the beard, generally into three. The stamens are two or four in number. In the greater part there are four stamens of unequal length, two of them being long and two short. These four unequal stamens are frequently dissimilar, and approach by pairs: they are inclined towards the back of the petal, and parallel; the two innermost being shortest, and attached somewhat lower than the two others to the tube of the flower. The seed-bud, which consists of four distinct ovaries, is placed upon the seat of the flower, and elevates from their centre a common style, which is slender, bent in the same manner as the filaments, which it somewhat exceeds in length, and terminated by a double stigma or summit, the divisions of which are unequal, and turned backwards. The seed-vessel in this order is wanting. The seeds are four in number, and lodged in the bottom of the calyx as in a matrix or seed-vessel. Each seed has two covers; the one external, of a cartilaginous or leathery substance; the other internal, membranaceous, of a very fine texture, and placed immediately above the radicle or embryo plant.—The plants of this order are fragrant, warm, penetrating, and accounted cordial and cephalic. Their chief virtue resides in the leaves.
43. *Dumosae*, (from *dunus* a bush); consisting of a number of shrubby plants, which are thick set with irregular branches, and bushy. The plants of this order are all of the shrub and tree kind, thick and bushy, rising from 6 to 25, 30, and even 40 feet high. Many of them too, as bastard alaternus, holly, iron-wood, New-Jersey-tea, star-apple, viburnum, winter-berry, and some others, retain their beautiful leaves during the whole year. The roots are branched and fibrous. The stems are cylindric; the young branches sometimes angular. The buds are naked, that is, without scales, in the evergreen shrubs of this order; covered with scales in most of the others. The leaves, which in some genera are simple, in others compound, are placed alternate in some, and opposite in others. The flowers are mostly hermaphrodite. They proceed from the wings of the leaves either singly or in clutters; or they terminate the stem in that sort of flowering head called a corymbus. The calyx is generally very small, placed below or around the seed-bud; and consists of one leaf, with four, five, or six divisions, which are permanent. The thamnus has no calyx. The petals are in number from one to five. The stamens are either four, five, six, or ten. The seed-bud is generally roundish, and placed within the flower. The style is commonly single, and sometimes wanting. The stigma is either single or triple. The seed-vessel is generally a berry, sometimes a dry capsule; the seeds are generally single and egg-shaped. The berries, bark, and flowers of many of these plants are purgative, and act particularly on the lymph and bile.
44. *Separiæ*, (from *seper* a hedge); consisting of a beautiful collection of woody plants, some of which, from their size, elegance, and other circumstances, are very proper furniture for hedges. This order furnishes woody plants both of the shrub and tree kind, most of which do not drop their leaves till nearly the time when the new leaves begin to appear.
45. Umbellatae, (from umbella an umbel); consisting of plants whose flowers grow in umbels, with five petals that are often unequal, and two naked seeds that are joined at top and separated below. These plants are herbaceous, and chiefly perennial. The roots are either tuberous or spindle-shaped, and sometimes forked. The stems are cylindric, full of pitch, and frequently hollow. The branches are alternate. The leaves, which like the branches are put on alternately, are very different in point of form; being simple and entire in some; target-shaped, in a species of navel-wort; finger or hand shaped, in some others; and winged or pinnated with numerous minute divisions, as in the greater number. They are supported by a foot-stalk, which is very broad and membranous at its origin, and commonly embraces the whole contour of the stem and branches. The flowers are in general hermaphrodite. There are, however, some that have male or barren flowers in the same umbel. This is particularly the case with those umbelliferous plants which have the petals in the flowers of the circumference large and unequal. In these plants the flowers in the circumference only prove fertile; those in the centre, or disk, proving abortive. Oenanthe and imperatoria, on the contrary, have the flowers in the circumference abortive. In ginseng, hermaphrodite and male flowers are produced upon distinct plants. The flowers are disposed in an umbel, which is either simple or compound. The common calyx in this order is that termed very improperly by Linnæus involucrum, or the flower-cover; which in the greater number consists of one or more leaves placed under the partial or universal umbel, or both, for the purpose of support. The presence or absence of one or both of these covers affords excellent marks in discriminating the genera of this very similar order of plants. The proper calyx of each flower, in the aggregate, consists of five minute indentments placed upon the seed-bud, which it envelops, and accompanies to its maturity. The petals are five in number, and disposed upon the sides of the flower-cup in form of a rose. In the florets of the centre, the petals are generally pretty equal and small; in those of the circumference, they are frequently unequal and larger; in the greater number, they are heart-shaped, and cut almost to the middle in two. The stamens are five in number, placed opposite to the divisions of the flower-cup, and alternate with the petals. The seed-bud is universally placed under the seat of the flower, and supports two styles which are turned backwards, and crowned with simple summits which do not differ in appearance from the styles. The seed-vessel in this order is wanting. The seeds are two in number, which, when ripe, separate below, but remain closely attached at top. The plants of this order, which grow in dry places, are odoriferous, stomachic, and warming. Their virtue resides chiefly in the seeds and leaves. Those which grow in marshy places are generally poisonous; but, notwithstanding the extremely warm and even caudic quality of most of these plants, many of them are employed in the kitchen, and in the economy of domestic affairs.
46. Hederaeae, (from hedera ivy); consisting of ivy and a few other genera that seem nearly allied to it. This order furnishes both herbaceous and shrubby plants; most of which, particularly ivy and vine, have creeping branches, which attach themselves by roots or tendrils to the bodies in their neighbourhood. The roots are long, with few branches. The stems and young branches are cylindric. In some species of vine they are square. The leaves are alternate; sometimes simple, sometimes winged, in which the surface of the leaves is covered with points. The foot-stalk of the leaves is cylindrical, and without any furrow. The buds are of a conic form, and without any scales. The flowers are either hermaphrodite, male and female upon different roots, or hermaphrodite and male upon different roots. In some, they terminate the branches in an umbel; in others, they proceed in clusters from the side opposite to the leaves; and in some, they are produced along the branches. The calyx consists of one leaf divided into five parts, which are small and generally permanent. The petals in this order are generally five. The stamens are in number five; awl-shaped, erect, and generally of the length of the petals. Cissus has only four stamens, which are inserted into the nectarium, a sort of border surrounding the seed-bud. The anthers are roundish, and sometimes, as in ivy, attached to the filaments by the fides. The seed-bud is sometimes round, sometimes shaped like a top or pear, and ends in one, two, or five awl-shaped styles, which are crowned with a simple stigma. The flowers of the vine have no style. The seed-vessel is of the berry kind, with one, two, or five styles. The seeds are from one to five in number; placed either in distinct cells, or dispersed through the pulp without any partition.
47. Stellatae, (from stella a star); consisting of plants with two naked seeds, and leaves disposed round the stem in form of a radiant star. This order contains herbs, shrubs, and trees. The herbs, which are most numerous, are chiefly annual, and creep along the surface of the ground. The shrubs and trees are mostly evergreens, which rise erect, and are of an agreeable conic form.—These plants are opening; some of their seeds, particularly those of coffee, are bitter and cordial; some of them are used in dyeing, and others in medicine.
48. Aggregate, (from aggregate, to assemble or collect); comprehending those plants which have aggregate flowers, consisting of a number of florets or small flowers, each of which have a proper and common calyx.
49. Compositae, consisting of plants with compound flowers. In this order Linnæus has constructed his first or primary divisions from the different sexes of the florets, which he terms polygamy; the subaltern divisions are constructed from the figure of the petals, the disposition of the flowers, the pappus or crown of the seed, the common receptacle, and other circumstances which characterize the subaltern divisions in other authors.
50. Amentaceae, (from amentum a catkin), plants bearing catkins; as salix, populus, platanus, &c.
51. Coniferae, (from conus a cone, and fero to bear); consisting of plants, whose female flowers, placed at a distance from the male, either on the same or distinct roots, are formed into a cone. In this character, the only only one expressed in the title, the plants in question seem to be nearly allied to the family of mosses: from which, however, they are easily distinguished by their habit, as well as by the structure of the small flowers, in which the stamens are united below into a cylinder, and distinet at top. The plants of this order are mostly of the shrub and tree kind, and retain their leaves all the year. The form of these plants is generally conic, and extremely beautiful, from the disposition of the branches, which cover the stems even to the roots, extending themselves horizontally and circularly like so many rays. The height of some genera of this order does not exceed half a foot, that of others approaches to a hundred. The roots are short, branching, not very fibrous, and extend horizontally. The stems and branches are cylindric. The bark is thin, and split into slender scales. The wood, except that of the yew-tree, possesses little hardness. The buds are of a conic form, and naked, or without scales. The leaves are entire, small, and thick, frequently triangular, and generally pointed. Juniper has a prickly and thorny leaf. With respect to situation, they admit of great variety, being either alternate, opposite, placed in whorls round the stem, or collected into small bundles which proceed from a single point. They are placed on the branches without any sensible footstalk. The flowers in this order are universally male and female. In some genera, the male flowers are collected into a spike or cone at the end of the branches; in others, they proceed singly from the wings of the leaves, or termination of the branches. The female flowers are generally collected into a cone; but in yew-tree and shrubby horsetail they are single, and terminate the branches. The calyx of the male flowers is a catkin; of the female, a cone. The petals of this order are wanting; except in the female flowers of juniper, which have three sharp, rigid, and permanent petals. The stamens are in number from 3 to 20 and upwards; united by their filaments into a cylinder or pillar, which rises out of the centre of the calyx. The anthers are erect, distinct, of a roundish form, and divided into internal partitions or cells, which, in the different genera, are in number from two to ten. The seed-buds are generally numerous, and placed betwixt the scales of the cone, which serve for a calyx. From each seed-bud arises a very short cylindrical style, crowned with a simple stigma, of a conic form. These plants have probably no seed-vessel or fruit; the seeds being naked, and involved only by the scales of the calyx. In some genera, these scales are of a bony nature, and almost united; in others, they are of a substance like leather; in juniper, they are united, and become fleshy and succulent like a berry. The seeds in this order, being nourished, as in a seed-vessel, by the scales of the cone, or common calyx, differ in nothing from the germina or seed-buds.—Most of the cone-bearing plants are resinous, or gummy; and the gums proceeding from them have a bitter taste, but generally a very agreeable smell.
52. Coadunate, (from coadunare, to join or gather together); so termed from the general appearance of the seed-vessels, which are numerous, and being slightly attached below, form all together a single fruit in the shape of a sphere or cone; the parts of which, however, are easily separated from one another. This order, which consists of exotic plants, furnishes a beautiful and choice collection of shrubs and trees, both evergreen and deciduous. The trees are often 60 feet high, and garnished from the bottom to the top with spreading branches and leaves of a bright green colour, which assume a very agreeable conic form. The roots are branching and fibrous. The stems are cylindric, and the wood very hard. The buds are conic, flat, and generally without scales. The leaves are universally simple and alternate. The footstalk is cylindric, without furrows, frequently swollen at its origin, and appears jointed at its insertion into the branch. The flowers are hermaphrodite, and are generally produced either along or at the end of the branches. The calyx generally consists of three oblong plain leaves, like petals, which fall off with the flower. The petals are in number from 6 to 18, oblong, concave, and frequently disposed in two or three series or rows, the outermost of which are largest. The stamens are numerous, short, and inserted into the common receptacle in some, and into the seed-bud in others. The filaments are very short and slender, some genera having scarce any at all. The antherae are numerous, slender, and placed round the seed-bud. The pistillum generally consists of a number of seed-buds disposed in the form of a cone, and seated upon a receptacle which rises like a small pillar above the receptacle of the calyx. From each seed-bud generally arises a cylindric style, which is very short. The stigma is commonly blunt. The seed-vessel is commonly a berry; but in magnolia it is an oval cone, consisting of a number of roundish capsules laid over each other like tiles. The fruits or seed-vessels, whether of the berry, capsule, or cherry kind, are equal in number to the seed-buds, and generally slightly attached below. The seeds are numerous, hard, roundish, and sometimes cornered. The plants of this order have a strong, agreeable, and aromatic smell; the fruits and seeds have a pungent taste like pepper; the bark and wood are bitter.
53. Scabride, (from scaber rough, rugged, or brittle); consisting of plants with rough leaves. There seems to be some impropriety in characterizing these plants by a name expressive of the roughness of their leaves, as that circumstance had previously furnished the classic character of the Alperifolie. The degree of roughness, however, is much greater in the plants which make the subject of the present article.—The plants of this order are in general of an astringent nature; their taste is bitter and acrid.
54. Miscellanea, miscellaneous plants. This order consists of such genera as are not connected together by very numerous relations. They are, datifea, pete-rium, refeda, tanguiflora, lemma, pittia, coriaria, empetrum, achyranthes, amaranthus, celotia, gomphrena, erythea, phytolacca, nymphæa, farraecenia, cedrela, swietenia, corrigiola, limeum, telephium.
55. Filices, ferns; consisting of plants which bear their flower and fruit on the back of the leaf or stalk. These plants, in figure, approach the more perfect vegetables; being furnished, like them, with roots and leaves. The roots creep, and extend themselves horizontally under the earth, throwing out a number of very slender fibres on all sides. The stem is not to be distinguished from the common footstalk, or rather middle rib of the leaves: so that in strict propriety the greater number of ferns may be said to be acaules; that is, to want the stem altogether. In some of them, however, the middle rib, or a stalk proceeding from the root, overtops the leaves, and forms a stem upon which the flowers are supported. The leaves proceed either singly, or in greater numbers from the extremities of the branches of the main root. They are winged or hand-shaped in all the genera except in adders-tongue, pepper-grafts, and some species of spleen-wort. The flowers, whatever be their nature, are, in the greater number of genera, fastened, and as it were glued, to the back of the leaves; in others, they are supported upon a stem which rises above the leaves; but in some, are supported on a flower-stalk, as already mentioned.
The stamens are placed apart from the seed-bud in a genus termed by Mr Adanson palma filix; in the other ferns, where we have been able to discover the stamens, they are found within the same covers with the seed-bud. Most of the ferns have a heavy disagreeable smell; as to their virtues, they are opening and attenuating.
56. Musci, mosses. These plants resemble the pines, firs, and other evergreens of that class, in the form and disposition of their leaves, and manner of growth of the female flowers, which are generally formed into a cone. They frequently creep, and extend themselves like a carpet upon the ground, trees, and stones, being generally collected into bunches and tufts: the smallest are only one third of an inch in height, and the largest do not exceed five or six. Few of the mosses are annual; small as they are, the greater number are perennial and evergreens. Their growth is remarkably slow, as may be judged by the time that the antherae take to ripen. This, reckoning from the first appearance of the antherae to the dispersion of its powder or male dust, is generally four or six months. Although preserved dry for several years, these plants have the singular property of resuming their original verdure, upon being moistened. It would be worth while to determine whether they do not also resume their vegetative quality. The roots of plants of this order are fibrous, slender, branched, and short. The stems are cylindric and weak, as are also the branches; they creep upon the ground, and strike root on every side. The leaves are very small and undivided. They differ with respect to situation; being either alternate, opposite, or placed by fours round the stalk. They have no perceptible footstalk nor middle rib, and are seated immediately upon the stem. The flowers are universally male and female: in some, the male flowers are produced upon the same plants with the female, and stand before them; in others, they are produced sometimes on the same, and sometimes on distinct plants. The male flowers consist entirely of antherae, and their covering; proceed either singly, or in clusters, from the extremity of the branches, or angles of the leaves; and are either seated immediately upon the branches, or supported by a long footstalk. The female flowers, which generally resemble capsules or cones, are all placed immediately upon the stem or branches, without any footstalk; and proceed singly either from the wings of the leaves, or summit of the branches; when produced upon the same plant with the male, they are always placed under them. The female cones of the mosses greatly resemble those of the pines, and evergreen trees of that class; the scales which form them are true leaves, each containing in its wing or angle a single seed. When the seeds are ripe, the cones probably open for their diffusion. When shut, they resemble buds, and have sometimes been ignorantly mistaken for such. The calyx, in this order, if it can be called such, is that appearance resembling a veil or monk's cowl, which in the male flowers covers or is suspended over the tops of the stamens like an extinguisher, and is termed by Linnaeus calyptra. The petals are universally wanting. The mosses in general are almost tasteless, have few juices, and being once dried do not readily imbibe moisture from the air. Those which grow in water, being thrown into the fire, grow red, and are reduced to ashes without receiving or communicating any flame; on which account some superstitious people, the Siberians in particular, place water moss in their chimneys as a preservative against fire. Most of the mosses are purgative; some violently so, and even emetic. They are all of wonderful efficacy in preserving dry such bodies as are susceptible of moisture; and in retaining, for a long time, the humidity of young plants without exposing them to putrefaction. For this reason, such plants as are to be sent to any considerable distance, are generally wrapped up in them.
57. Algæ, flags; consisting of plants whose root, leaf, and stem, are all one. Under this description are comprehended all the sea-weeds, and some other aquatic plants.
58. Fungi, mushrooms. These plants are rarely branched, sometimes creeping, but most commonly erect. Such as are furnished with branches have them of a light spongy substance like cork. Mushrooms differ from the fuci, in that those which, like the fuci, have their seeds contained in capsules, are not branched, as that numerous class of sea-weeds are. The greatest part of mushrooms have no root; some, instead of roots, have a number of fibres, which, by their inoculations, frequently form a net with unequal meshes, some of which produce plants similar to their parent vegetable. The stamens in these plants are still undetermined. The seeds are spread over the surface of the plant, or placed in open holes or cavities, resembling the open capsules of some of the fuci. In mushrooms which are branched, the seeds are frequently visible by the naked eye, and always to be distinctly observed by the assistance of a good microscope. These plants are very astringent, and some of them are used for stopping violent hemorrhages. As a vegetable food, they are at best suspicious: some of them are rank poison.
Dubii ordinis. Under this name Linnaeus classes all the other genera which cannot be reduced to any of the abovementioned orders, and which are near 120 in number. Alphabetical Index of Botanical Terms.
N. B. The abbreviation n° refers to the Arrangement p. 440; and fig. refers to the explanation of the plates, p. 439.
A Acerosa, fig. 141 Acerous, n° 219 Acinaciform, n° 91, fig. 92 Acotyledones, n° 413 Aculeated, n° 168 Aculei, n° 253 Aculeus simplex, fig. 158 triplex, fig. 159 Acuminate, n° 185 Acuminatum, fig. 78 Acute, n° 184 Acute-crenatum, fig. 71 Acutum, n° 77 Adnate, n° 222 Adverse, n° 398 Aggregate, n° 372 Alex, n° 324 Alated, n° 215 Alternate, fig. 140 Alternate, n° 128 Alveolated, n° 145 Amentum, n° 308, fig. 6 Amplexicaul, n° 226, fig. Anceps, n° 83 Ancipitous, n° 90 Anthera, n° 331, fig. 19, b. Anthera integra, fig. 18, g. Antherae dehiscentes, fig. 18 Apillyous, n° 397 Apple, n° 354 Apprefl, n° 59 Arborescent, n° 399 Arillus, n° 369 Arista, n° 306, figs. 3, a. Arma, n° 18 Arrow-shaped, n° 100 Articulated, n° 229, 384, 404 Articulatum, fig. 136 Ascending, n° 45 Attenuated, n° 75 Avenis, n° 152 Awn, n° 306 Axillary, n° 119
B Bacca, n° 355, fig. 27 Barba, n° 243 Bearded, n° 165 Berry, n° 355, fig. 27 Bicapitular, n° 342 Biennial, n° 22 Bifid, n° 26 Biferious, n° 131 Bigeminous, n° 233 Bijugous, n° 232 Bilocular, n° 343
Binatum, fig. 99 Bipinnatum, n° 235, fig. 114 Bipartite, n° 38 Biternated, n° 234, fig. 113 Brachiatus, n° 396 Bractea, n° 16, fig. 156 Branches, n° 3 Bud, n° 20 Bulb, n° 19, 401 Bulbiferous, n° 400 Bulbous, n° 188—191 Bulbus squamosus, fig. 161. Solidus, 162. Tunici- catus, 163.
C Caducous, n° 24 Calcareous, n° 405 Calculus, n° 405 Calytra, n° 310, fig. 5, c. Calyculate, n° 298 Calyx. See Cup. Campanulated, n° 94 Canaliculatum, n° 110, fig. 96 Capillary, n° 363 Capitulum, n° 265, fig. 5, a. Capsule, n° 338, fig. 25, b. fig. 28, 30. Carina, n° 324 Carnous, n° 31 Cartilaginum, fig. 70 Cartilaginous, n° 32 Catkin, n° 308 Cauda, n° 365 Cauline, n° 117 Caulinum, fig. 125 Caulis repens, fig. 148. Volubilis, fig. 151. Di- chotomus, fig. 152. Brachiatus fig. 153. Ceceous, n° 261 Chaff, n° 203 Chaffy, n° 170 Chives, n° 9 Ciliatum, n° 177, fig. 86. Circinal, n° 381 Circumscissus, n° 406 Cirrhous, n° 232, 407 Cirrus, n° 15, fig. 154 Clavated, n° 77 Coadunate, n° 224 Coarctate, n° 60 Coated, n° 403 Cod, n° 350 Coloured, n° 142 Columella, n° 408, fig. 29, c. Coma, n° 257
Common, n° 258, 297, 370 Composite, n° 371 Compound, n° 228, 270, 279, 287, 324, 371 Compressed, n° 87 Concave, n° 111 Conduplicated, n° 374 Cone, n° 357 Conform, n° 134 Conical, n° 80 Connate, n° 223, fig. 134 Contrarium dispeminen- tum, n° 349 Convex, n° 112 Convoluted, n° 375 Corollum, n° 359 Cordate, n° 97 Cordatum, fig. 46 Cordato-sagittatum, n° 50 Corolla, n° 8 Corolla monopetala, fig. 11 Corona, n° 360 Corymbus, n° 273, fig. 32 Cotyledon, n° 412 Cowl-shaped, n° 113 Crenated, n° 175 Crenatum, fig. 74 Crescent-shaped, n° 99 Crifsped, n° 115 Crifspum, fig. 75 Crossed, n° 322 Crown, n° 360 Cruciate, n° 372 Cucullated, n° 113 Culm, n° 198 Culmus squamosus, fig. 147 Culmus articulatus, fig. 150 Cuneiforme emarginatum, fig. 81. Cuneiform, n° 67 Cup, n° 7 Curled, n° 115 Cupidated, n° 186 Cyma, n° 282 Cymbiform, n° 324
D Deciduous, n° 25 Decompound, n° 232 Declining, n° 46 Decurrent, fig. 131 Decurviare, n° 232 Decussated, n° 129 Deltoid, n° 108 Deltoide, fig. 94 Dentato-sinuatum, fig. 62 Dentated, n° 178 Dentatum, fig. 66
Dependent, n° 56 Depressed, n° 88 Dichotomous, n° 41 Dicotyledones, n° 415 Diffuse, n° 61 Digitated, n° 230 Digitatum, fig. 102 Didymous, n° 345 Discus, n° 424 Diffemimentum, n° 341, fig. 29, b.b. Diffemorous, &c. n° 418 Distant, n° 135 Difficil, n° 57 Divaricated, n° 55 Diverging, n° 54 Dolabriform, n° 92 Dolabriforme, fig. 93 Down, n° 361 Duplicato-crenatum, fig. 69 ——— pinnatum, fig. 114. ——— serratum, fig. 68 ——— ternatum, fig. 113 Drupa, n° 353, fig. 26, a.
E Echinatus, n° 421 Elliptical, n° 66 Ellipticum, fig. 40 Emarginated, n° 181 Emarginatum acutè, fig. 80 Enervis, n° 150 Endos, n° 385 Eniform, n° 90 Entire, n° 174, 208 Equitant, n° 378 Erect, n° 43 Erectum, fig. 119 Erosum, fig. 57 Evergreen, n° 27 Extrafoliaceous, n° 122
F Fascicular, n° 193 Fasciculata, fig. 143 Fasciculated, n° 133 Fasciculus, n° 267 Fastigiated, n° 392 Faux, n° 321 Feathery, n° 364 Fibrous, n° 187 Filamenta, fig. 12 d.d., &c. fig. 18 e.e. Filament, n° 330, fig. 19 a. Filiform, n° 74 Fissum, fig. 52 Fissured, n° 35 Fitulous, n° 34 Flag, n° 324 Fleshy, n° 31 Flexuose, There is also a great consumption of it throughout the Levant.
**BOTELESS**, (Sax.), signifies a recompence, satisfaction, or amends; hence comes *magnbote*, compensation or amends for a man slain, &c. In king Ina's laws is declared what rate was ordained for expiation of this offence, according to the quality of the person slain. From hence likewise we have our common phrase, *to-bote*, i.e. *compensationis gratia*. There are *hougo-bote*, *plough-bote*, &c. privileges to tenants in cutting of wood, &c.