among chemists, signifies any substance containing oil, which has been exposed to the fire in close vessels, so that all its volatile principles are expelled, and that it can sustain a red heat without further decomposition. Coal is commonly solid, black, very dry, and considerably hard. The specific character of perfect coal is its capacity of burning with access of air, while it becomes red-hot and sparkles, sometimes with a fuscous flame which gives little light, with no smoke or foot capable of blackening white bodies.

Coal is capable of communicating its inflammable principle, either to the vitriolic acid with which it forms sulphur; or to the nitrous acid contained in nitre, which it inflames; or to metallic earths, which it reduces into metals. But the phlogiston cannot pass from coal to form these new combinations without the assistance of red-heat. Coal seems to be an unalterable compound in every instance but those mentioned, of burning in the open air, and of communicating its phlogiston to other bodies; for it may be exposed in close vessels to the most violent and long continued fire without suffering the least decomposition. No disposition to fuse, nor any diminution of weight, can be perceived. It is a substance exceedingly fixed, and perhaps the most refractory in nature. It resists the action of the most powerful menstrua, liver of sulphur alone excepted. Coal is evidently a result of the decomposition of the compound bodies from which it is obtained. It consists of the greatest part of the earthly principle of these compound bodies, with which a part of the saline principles, and some of the phlogiston of the decomposed oil, are fixed and combined very intimately. Coal can never be formed but by the phlogiston of a body which has been in an oily state; hence it cannot be formed by sulphur, phosphorus, metals, nor by any other substance the phlogiston of which is not in an oily state. Also every oily matter treated with fire in close vessels, furnishes true coal; so that whenever a charry residuum is left, we may be certain that the substance employed in the operation contained oil. Lastly, the inflammable principle of coal, although it proceeds from oil, certainly is not oil; but pure phlogiston; since coal added to vitriolic acid can form sulphur, to phosphoric acid can form phosphorus, &c., and hence oil can produce none of these effects till it has been decomposed and reduced to the state of coal. Besides, the phenomena accompanying the burning of coal are different from those which happen when oily substances are burnt. The flame of charcoal is not so bright as that of oil, and produces no flame or foot.

All the phlogiston of coal is not burnt in the open air, particularly when the combustion is slow. One part of it exhales without decomposition, and forms a vapour, or an invisible and insensible gas. This vapour (which is, or at least contains a great deal of fixed air) is found to be very pernicious, and to affect the animal system in such a manner as to occasion death in a very short time. For this reason it is dangerous to remain in a close place, where charcoal or any other sort of coal is burnt. Persons struck by this vapour are stunned, faint, suffer a violent headache, and fall down senseless and motionless. The best method of recovering them is by exposure to the open air, and by making them swallow vinegar, and breathe its steam.

Amongst coals, some differences are observable, which proceed from the difference of the bodies from which they are made: some coals, particularly, are more combustible than others. This combustibility seems to depend on the greater or less quantity of saline principle they contain; that is, the more of the saline principle it contains, the more easily it decomposes and burns. For example, coals made of plants and wood containing much saline matter capable of fixing it, the ashes of which contain much alkaline salt, burn vigorously and produce much heat; whereas the coals of animal matters, the saline principles of which are volatile, and cannot be fixed but in small quantity, and the ashes of which contain little or no salt, are scarcely at all combustible. For they not only do not kindle so easily as charcoal does, nor ever burn alone, but they cannot be reduced to ashes, without very great trouble, even when the most effectual methods are used to facilitate the combustion. The coal of bullocks blood has been kept for six hours very red in a shallow crucible, surrounded with burning charcoal, and constantly stirred all the time, that it might be totally exposed to the air; yet could it not be reduced to white, or even grey, ashes: it still remained very black, and full of phlogiston. The coals of pure oils, or of concrete oily substances and root, which is a kind of coal raised during inflammation, are as difficultly reduced to ashes as animal coals. These coals contain very little saline matter; and their ashes yield no alkali. The coals which are so difficulty burnt, are also less capable of inflaming with nitre than others more combustible; and some of them even in a great measure resist the action of nitre.

in mineralogy, a kind of solid inflammable substance, supposed to be of a bituminous nature, and commonly used for fuel. Of this substance there are various species.

1. Pit-coal (Lithanthrax), is a black, solid, compact, pact, brittle mass, of moderate hardness, lamellated structure, more or less shining, but seldom capable of a good polish; and does not melt when heated. According to Kirwan, it consists of petrol or asphaltum, intimately mixed with a small portion of earth chiefly argillaceous; seldom calcareous; and frequently mixed with pyrites. A red tincture is extracted from it by spirit of wine, but caustic alkali attacks the bituminous part. From some sorts of it a varnish may be made by means of fat oils. Fixed alkali has never been found in any kind of it, nor sulphur, unless when it happens to be mixed with pyrites.—None of the various kinds are found to be electric per se (A).

The varieties of lithanthrax, enumerated by Cronstedt, are, 1. With a small quantity of argillaceous earth and vitriolic acid. It is of a black colour, and shining texture; it burns, and is mostly consumed in the fire, but leaves, however, a small quantity of ashes. 2. Slaty coal.

2. Culm coal, called kalm, by the Swedes, has a greater portion of argillaceous earth and vitriolic acid, with a moderate proportion of petrol. It has the same appearance with the foregoing, though its texture is more dull: it burns with a flame, without being consumed, but leaves behind it a flag of the same bulk with the original volume of the coal. The following is Mr Kirwan's description of it from the memoirs of the Stockholm academy. "Its fracture has a rougher section than the cannel coal; its specific gravity from 1300 to 1370. The best kind affords by distillation, at first fixed air, then an acid liquor, afterwards inflammable air, and a light oil of the nature of petrol; then a volatile alkali; and lastly pitch-oil. The residuum is nearly three quarters of the whole; and being slowly burnt, affords 13 per cent. of ashes, which consist mostly of argillaceous earth; and about three hundredth parts of them are magnetic. It is found in England, and among some alumina ores in Sweden."

3. Slate-coal contains such a quantity of argillaceous earth, that it looks like common slate; however, it burns by itself with a flame. M. Magellan is of opinion that this is the bituminous substance already described (see Clay, p. 51.) This schistus is of a dark bluish rusty colour; when thrown on the fire it burns with a lively flame, and almost as readily as the oily wood of dry olive tree, or lignum vitae; emitting the very disagreeable smell of petrol. Such large quarries of it are found near Purbeck in Dorsetshire, that the poorer part of the inhabitants are thence supplied with fuel. From the appearance of this slaty coal, Cronstedt has been induced to suppose that the earth of all kinds of coal is argillaceous, though it is not so easy to distinguish it after being burnt. The pit-coals, he says, contain more or less of the vitriolic acid; for which reason the smoke arising from them attacks silver in the same manner as sulphur does, let the coals be ever so free from marcasite, which, however, is often imbedded or mixed with them.

4. Cannel coal (Amphelites), is of a dull black colour; breaks easily in all directions; and, if broken transversely, presents a smooth conchoidal surface. It burns with a bright lively flame, but is very apt to fly in pieces in the fire; however it is said to be entirely deprived of this property by immersion in water for some hours previous to its being used. It contains a considerable quantity of petrol in a less condensed state than other coals. Its specific gravity is about 1.270. This kind of coal, being of an uniform hard texture, is easily turned on a lathe, and takes a good polish. Hence it is used for making various toys, which appear almost as well as if made of the finest jet.

5. Kilkenny coal is the lightest of any; its specific gravity being only about 1400. It contains the largest quantity of asphaltum; burns with less smoke and flame, and more intensely, though more slowly, than the cannel-coal. The quantity of earth it contains does not exceed one twentieth part of its weight; but this kind of coal is frequently mixed with pyrites. It is found in the county of Kilkenny, belonging to the province of Leinster in Ireland. The quality of it as burning without smoke, is proverbially used as an encomium on the county.

6. Sulphureous coal consists of the former kinds mixed with a very considerable portion of pyrites; whence it is apt to moulder and break when exposed to the air, after which water will act upon it. It contains yellow spots that look like metal; burns with a sulphureous smell, leaving behind it either flag or sulphureous ashes, or both. Its specific gravity is 1500 or more.

7. Bovey coal (Kylanthrax), is of a brown or brownish black colour, and of a yellow laminar texture. Its laminae are frequently flexible when first dug, though they generally harden when exposed to the

(A) "The varieties of this coal (says Mr Magellan) are very numerous according to the different substances with which it is mixed; but in regard to their economical uses, only two kinds are taken notice of by the British legislature, viz. culm and caking coals. The caking coals, in burning, show an incipient fusion, so that their smallest pieces unite in the fire into one mass; by which means the smallest pieces, and even the mere dust of this kind, are almost equally valuable with the largest pieces. The other sort called culm, does not fuse or unite in the fiercest fire; so that the small coal, being unfit for domestic purposes, can only be used in burning limestone.

"It should be an easy matter for any person to distinguish culm from small caking coal, either by trying to make fire with it in a common grate, without interposing any other fuel between it; when if it kindles, it is a caking coal; if not, it is culm: Or by putting some of these small fragments of coal on an ignited iron shovel; if they melt and run together, they belong to the caking kinds; if not, they are culm. But it seems that coal merchants are now in the custom of calling culm the powdery parts of pit-coal, of whatsoever kind they may happen to be. The reason of this is, that there is a difference in the duty payable by culm and by caking coals. There never was any difficulty, however, on the subject; nor would there be any difficulty in collecting the tax, were it not for the insufferable ignorance and love of despotic oppression which generally pervades the underling officers of the revenue." It consists of wood penetrated with petrol or bitumen, and frequently contains pyrites, alum, and vitriol. According to the German chemists its ashes contain a little fixed alkali; but Mr Mills differs from them on this subject. By distillation it yields a fetid liquor mixed with a volatile alkali and oil; part of which is soluble in spirit of wine, and part of a mineral nature, and insoluble. It is found in almost all the countries of Europe.

These are the most considerable varieties of coals commonly known; but we must not imagine that each of them is to be met homogeneous in those places where they are found. On the contrary, the different qualities and proportions of their ingredients make a vast number of other varieties, fit for different purposes, according to the quality and quantity of those they contain. Thus, various kinds of coals are often found mixed with one another under ground; and some of the finer sorts sometimes run like veins between those of a coarser kind. Thus, M. Magellan observed in the fine coals employed in a curious manufacture at Birmingham, that they produced a much clearer flame than he had ever observed from common coal; yet, on inquiry, he found that these were picked out from the common coals of the country, through which they ran in veins, and were easily distinguished by the manufacturers, though they did not afford sufficient indications of a specific difference. The purpose to which they were applied was the moulding rods of transparent and coloured glas into the shapes proper for common buttons; which they performed with astonishing expedition.

Tourcroy remarks, that this fossil bitumen, when heated in contact with a body in combustion, and having a free access of air, kindles the more slowly and with the greater difficulty in proportion as it is more weighty and compact. When once kindled, it emits a strong and durable heat, and burns for a long time before it is consumed. The matter that is burned, and produces the flame, appears very dense, and seems united to some other substance which retards its destruction. On burning, it emits a particular strong smell, which is not at all sulphureous when the coal contains no pyrites. When the combustible, oily, and other volatile parts of the coal are dissipated, if the combustion be then stopped, the remainder is found to be reduced to a true charred state, and is called coal. This substance is capable of exciting the most intense heat, for which purpose it is used in metallurgic works all over Britain.

"It is well known (says M. Magellan), that the English method of burning pit-coal into coal has been a most profitable and happy acquisition for the melting our ores, and for many other metallurgical and chemical processes in this island. But the ingenious and advantageous undertaking of lord Dundonald, by which he turns to a very considerable profit the mines of coals in his and other estates, building ovens of a proper construction for burning pit-coal into coal, and at the same time for collecting, in separate receptacles, the volatile alkali, oil, tar, and pitch, which were generally lost by the usual method, deserves to be noticed, as it affords a very remarkable instance of the great losses to mankind, for want of carefully attending to every result from great processes of art when made on a large scale. These ovens are so contrived, as to admit an under supply of air; and the coals, after being kindled, decompose themselves by a slow but incomplete combustion, which does not destroy the ingredients. The residuum left in the oven proves to be most excellent cinders or coaks; whilst the volatile parts, which otherwise would be dissipated in the air, are separated and condensed in reservoirs, or receptacles of capacious size, placed at proper distances beyond the reach of fire. Mons. Faujas de St Fond, who visited these works in a trip he made to Scotland, undertook to erect a similar kind of oven in France; and it is rather singular, that he endeavours to establish a claim of having discovered the same processes before he saw them in Scotland; as if it did not reflect a greater honour on his industry, to carry back to his country some useful knowledge, than to return as ignorant as our English travellers," &c.

On subjecting pit-coal of any kind to distillation in close vessels, it first yields a phlegm or watery liquor; then an ethereal or volatile oil; afterwards a volatile alkali; and lastly, a thick and greasy oil; but it is remarkable, that, by rectifying this last oil, a transparent thin and light oil of a straw colour is produced, which being exposed to the air becomes black like animal oils. From this and other observations, the general opinion is, that all coals, bitumens, and other oily substances found in the mineral kingdom, derive their origin from vegetables buried in the earth; since it is well known that only organized bodies have the power of producing oily and fat substances. "The amazing irregularities, gaps, and breaks (says M. Magellan) of the strata of coals, and of other fossil substances, evidence that this globe has undergone the most violent convulsions, by which its parts have been broken, detached and overturned in different ways, burying large tracts of their upper surfaces, with all the animal and vegetable productions there existing, at the time of those horrible catastrophes, whose epoch far precedes all human records. And it is easy to be conceived, that the various heaps and congeries of these vegetable and animal substances, remaining for ages and ages in the bowels of the earth, have obtained various consistencies, and still produce those oily and bituminous juices, which find way to gush out, leaving behind their thickest parts on the same places where they are found, and in many others where the industry of mankind never will be able to penetrate."

Coal-Mine. See Coalery.—Maliciously setting fire to coal-mines is felony, by stat. 17 Geo. II. c. 32. § 6.

Small Coal, a sort of charcoal prepared from the spray and brushwood stripped off from the branches of coppice wood, sometimes bound in bairns for that purpose, and sometimes charred without binding, in which case it is called "coming it together."