a gibbet made with two pieces of wood placed crosswise, whether they cross with right angles at the top like a T, or in the middle of their length like an X. The cross to which our Saviour was fastened, and on which he died, was of the former kind; being thus represented by old monuments, coins, and crossettes; and St Jerom compares it to a bird flying, a man swimming, or praying with his arms extended. The punishment of the cross was common among the Syrians, Egyptians, Persians, Africans, Greeks, Romans, and Jews.
The death of the cross was the most dreadful of all others, both for the shame and pain of it; and so scandalous, that it was inflicted as the last mark of detestation upon the vilest of people. It was the punishment of robbers and murderers, provided that they were slaves too; but otherwise, if they were free, and had the privileges of the city of Rome, this was then thought a profanation of that honour, and too infamous a punishment for such a one, let his crimes be what they would.
The Mosaic law ordained, that the persons executed should not be left upon the tree after sun-set, because he that is hanged in this manner is accursed of God. Deut. xxi. 22. The Jews believe, that the souls of those who remain upon the gibbet, and without burial, enjoy no peace, and receive no benefit from the prayers of other people; but wander up and down till their bodies are buried: which agrees with the notions that the Greeks and Romans had of this matter, as may be seen in Hom. Il. 4. and Virg. Aeneid. 6.
The form of a cross being such, as has been already described, the body of the criminal was fastened to the upright piece by nailing the feet to it, and on the other transverse piece generally by nailing the hands on each side. Now, because these parts of the body, being the instruments of action and motion, are provided by nature with a much greater quantity of nerves than others have occasion for; and because all sensation is performed by the spirit contained in these nerves; it will follow, as Stanhope observes, that wherever they abound, the senses of pain must needs in proportion be more quick and tender.
The Jews confess, that indeed they crucified people in their nation, but deny that they inflicted this punishment upon any one alive. They first put them to death, and then fastened them to the cross either by the hands or neck. But there are indubitable proofs of their crucifying men frequently alive. The worshippers of Baal-peor and the king of Ai were hung up alive; as were also the descendants of Saul, who were put into the hands of the Gibeonites, 2 Sam. xxii. 9.
Before crucifixion the criminal was generally scourged with cords: sometimes little bones, or pieces of bones, were tied to these scourges, so that the condemned person might suffer more severely. It was also a custom, that he who was to be crucified should bear his own cross to the place of execution. After this manner we find Christ was compelled to bear his own cross; and as he sunk under the burden, Simon the Cyrenian was constrained to bear it after him and with him. But whereas it is generally supposed that our Lord bore the whole cross, i.e. the long and transverse part both, this seems to be a thing impossible; and therefore Lipsius (in his treatise De Supplicio Crucis) has set the matter in a true light, when he tells us that Jesus Jesus only carried the transverse beam; because the long beam, or the body of the cross, was either fixed in the ground before, or made ready to be let up as soon as the prisoner came: and from hence he observes, that painters are very much mistaken in their description of our Saviour carrying the whole cross.
There were several ways of crucifying; sometimes the criminal was fastened with cords to a tree, sometimes he was crucified with his head downwards. This way St Peter chose out of respect to his master Jesus Christ, not thinking himself worthy to be crucified like him; though the common way of crucifying was by fastening the criminal with nails, one through each hand, and one through both feet, or one through each of them: for this was not always performed in the same manner; the ancients sometimes representing Jesus Christ crucified with four nails, and sometimes with three. The criminal was fixed to the cross quite naked; and in all probability the Saviour of the world was not used with any greater tenderness than others upon whom this punishment was inflicted. The soldiers divided his cloths among them, and cast lots for his tunic, which is an under garment worn over the flesh like a shirt.
The text of the Gospel shows clearly, that Jesus Christ was fastened to the cross with nails; and the Psalmist (xxxii. 17.) had foretold long before, that they should pierce his hands and his feet; but there are great disputes concerning the number of these nails. The Greeks represent our Saviour as fastened to the cross with four nails; in which particular Gregory of Tours agrees with them, one at each hand and foot. But several are of opinion, that our Saviour's hands and feet were pierced with three nails only, viz. one at each hand, and one through both his feet: and the custom of the Latins is rather for this last opinion; for the generality of the old crucifixes made in the Latin church have only three nails. Nonnus thinks that our Saviour's arms were besides bound fast to the cross with chains; and St Hilary speaks of the cords wherewith he was tied to it.
Sometimes they who were fastened upon the cross lived a good while in that condition. St Andrew is believed to have continued three days alive upon it. Eusebius speaks of certain martyrs in Egypt who were kept upon the cross till they were starved to death. Pilate was amazed at Jesus Christ's dying so soon; because naturally he must have lived longer, if it had not been in his power to have laid down his life and to take it up again. The thighs of the two thieves who were crucified together with our Saviour were broken in order to hasten their death, that their bodies might not remain upon the cross on the Sabbath day (John xix. 31, 32, 33.), and to comply with the law of Moses, which forbids the bodies to be left there after sun-set. But among other nations they were suffered to remain upon the cross a long time. Sometimes they were devoured alive by birds and beasts of prey. Guards were appointed to observe that none of their friends or relations should take them down and bury them. The story of the Ephesian matron and the soldier who was set to guard the cross, is very well known. The Roman soldiers who had crucified Jesus Christ and the two thieves continued near the crosses till the bodies were taken down and buried.
Crosses were usually, in former times, erected on the tops of houses, by which tenants pretended to claim the privileges of the Templars Hospitallers, to defend themselves against their rightful lords. This was condemned by the statute Wil. II. c. 37. It was usual also, in those days, to set up crosses in places where the corpse of any of the nobility rested as it was carried to be buried, that a transeuntibus pro ejus animo deprectur. Crosses, &c. are forbidden, to be brought into England by 13 Eliz. c. 2. on pain of a praemunire, &c.
Invention of the Cross, an ancient feast, solemnized on the third of May, in memory of St Helena's (the mother of Constantine) finding the true cross of Christ deep in the ground on mount Calvary; where she erected a church for the preservation of part of it: the rest being brought to Rome and reposited in the church of the Holy Cross of Jerusalem.
Theodoret mentions the finding of three crosses; that of Jesus Christ and those of the two thieves; and that they distinguished between them by means of a sick woman, who was immediately healed by touching the true cross. The place is said to have been pointed out to her by St Quiriacus, then a Jew, afterwards converted and canonized.
Exaltation of the Cross, an ancient feast, held on the 14th of September, in memory of this, that Heraclius restored to mount Calvary the true cross in 642, which had been carried off 14 years before by Cosroes king of Persia, upon his taking Jerusalem from the emperor Phocas.
The adoration of the cross appears to have been practised in the ancient church; inasmuch as the Heathens, particularly Julian, reproach the primitive Christians with it. And we do not find that their apologists disclaimed the charge. Mornay, indeed, asserted, that this had been done by St Cyril, but could not support his allegation at the conference of Fontainbleau. St Helena is said to have reduced the adoration of the cross to its just principle, since she adored in the wood, not the wood itself, which had been direct idolatry and Heathenish, but him who had been nailed to this wood. With such modifications some Protestants have been induced to admit the adoration of the cross. John Hus allowed of the phrase, provided it were expressly added, that the adoration was relative to the person of Christ. But however Roman Catholics may seem to triumph by virtue of such distinction and mitigations, it is well known they have no great place in their own practice. Imbert, the good prior of Galcony, was severely prosecuted in 1653 for telling the people, that in the ceremony of adoring the cross, practised in that church on Good Friday, they were not to adore the wood, but Christ, who was crucified on it. The curate of the parish told them the contrary: it was the wood! the wood! they were to adore. Imbert replied, it was Christ, not the wood: for which he was cited before the archbishop of Bordeaux, suspended from his functions, and even threatened with chains and perpetual imprisonment. It little availed him to cite the bishop of Meaux's distinction; it was answered, that the church allowed it not.
Cross-Bearer (port-croix, cruciger), in the Romish church, the chaplain of an archbishop or a primate, who bears a cross before him on solemn occasions.
The pope has the cross borne before him everywhere; a patriarch anywhere out of Rome; and pri- mates, Crosses, in mining, two nicks cut on the superficies of the earth, thus +, which the miners make when they take the ground to dig for ore. This cross gives the miners three days liberty to make and to set on stones. As many of these crosses as the miner makes, so many mears of ground he may have in the vein, provided he set on stones within three days after making his cross or crosses. But if he make but one cross, and a stander-by makes the second, and a stranger makes the third, every one is served with the next mear, according as they have first or last, sooner or later, made their cross or crosses upon the ground.
coins, a name given to the right side or face, the other being called the pile or reverse. It has been a common error, that the reverse was meant by the cross; because at this time, with us, it is marked with figures disposed in that form: but the stamping the head of the prince in these kingdoms on the right side of the coin, was preceded by a general custom of striking on that part the figure of a cross; while the other, called the pile, contained the arms, or some other device.
Cross, instead of a signature to a deed, &c. is derived from the Saxon practice of affixing the sign of the cross, whether they could write or not.
Cross-Bar Shot, a bullet with an iron bar passing through it, and standing six or eight inches out at both sides. It is used at sea for destroying the enemy's rigging.
Cross-Bill, in ornithology. See Loxia.
Cross-Bill, in chancery, is an original bill, by which the defendant prays relief against the plaintiff.
Cross-Bows. See Bows and Archery.
Cross-grained Stuff, in joinery. Wood is said to be cross-grained, when a bough or branch has shot out of it; for the grain of the branch shooting forward, runs athwart that of the trunk.
In wood well grown this defect is scarce perceivable, except in working; but in deal-boards these boughs make knots. If the bough grew up with the young trunk, instead of a knot is found a curling in the stuff, very sensible under the plane.
Cross-Jack, pronounced cro-jack, a sail extended on the lower yard of the mizen-mast, which is hence called the cross-jack yard. This sail, however, has generally been found of little service, and is therefore very seldom used.
Cross-Piece, a rail of timber extended over the windlass of a merchant-ship from the knight heads to the belfry. It is stuck full of wooden pins, which are used to fasten the running rigging as occasion requires. See Windlass.
Cross-Tining, in husbandry, a method of harrowing land, consisting in drawing the harrow up the interval it went down before, and down that which it was drawn up.
Cross-Trees, certain pieces of timber, supported by the cheeks and trelle-trees, at the upper ends of the lower masts, athwart which they are laid to sustain the frame of the top.
Cross-Tree Yard, is a yard standing square, just under the mizen-top, and to it the mizen-top is fastened below. See Cross-Jack.
Cross-Wort, in botany. See Valantia.
Ordeal of the Cross, a species of trial frequently practiced in the days of superstition. See Ordeal.
an English artist, famous only for copying, in the reigns of Charles I. and Charles II. Of this talent there is a story current, more to the credit of his skill than of his probity. He is said to have been employed by Charles I. to copy the celebrated Madonna of Raphael in St Mark's church at Venice; and that, having obtained leave of the state for that purpose, he executed his piece so well as to bring away the original and leave his copy in the place of it. The deception was not detected until it was too late to recover the lost; and this piece was bought in Oliver's time by the Spanish ambassador for his master, who placed it in the Escorial.