of the most ancient monarchies in Europe, comprehending the peninsula of Jutland, and the islands of Zealand, Tunen, &c. But Denmark, properly so called, is only that part of Scandinavia which formerly went by the name of Cimbriae Chersonesus, and now is called Jutland. Including Holstein, it is bounded by the sea called the Categate on the north; by the Baltic on the east; by the river Elbe, which separates it from Bremen, on the south; and by the duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg towards the south-east; Denmark extending from 54° 40' to 58° 20' N. Lat.

The origin of the name Denmark is very uncertain. The most probable conjecture concerning it is that of whence Saxo-Grammaticus, the most ancient and best Danish derived historian. He derives it from Dan the son of Humble, the first king, and Mark, or Marc, signifying a country in several dialects of the Teutonic; according to which etymology, the word Denmark signifies the land, or country, of Dan.—This Dan is thought to Dan have lived about 1038 years before the Christian era, first king. Almost all historians agree that he was the son of Humble, a native of Zealand. His possessions and influence were very considerable, not only in Zealand, but in the islands of Langland and Mona. It was his courage, however, and skill in the art of war, that induced the inhabitants of Denmark to choose him for their king. He was called to the assistance of the Jutlanders upon an irruption of the Saxons into their territories, and promised the sovereignty of the country if he drove out the enemy. On this he immediately raised an army, gained a complete victory over the Saxons, and obliged them to leave the country; and he was accordingly elected king.

In such early ages as these, we are not to look for History of any authentic history either of this or any other kingdom. The history of Denmark, for a great number of ages after the reign of Dan, is filled with fabulous exploits of heroes, encounters with giants, dragons, &c. One of their kings named Frotho, who reigned about 761 years before Christ, is said to have conquered all Britain, Sleswick, Ruffia, Pomerania, Holstein, &c., an assertion which cannot easily be credited, considering the difficulty which succeeding warriors, even the greatest in the world, found to subdue the inhabitants of those countries.—It is certain, however, that anciently the kingdom of Denmark made a much more conspicuous figure than it does at present. The Danes appear to have had a very considerable naval force almost from the foundation of their empire; and the conquests they undoubtedly made in our island are certain proofs of their valour.

The natural enemies of the Danes were the Swedes, Norwegians, and Saxons; especially the first. With one or other of these nations almost perpetual war was carried on. The kingdom was also often rent by civil dissensions; which the neighbouring monarchs did not fail to take advantage of, in order to reduce the kingdom of Denmark under their subjection. As neither party, however, generally came off with advantage, the history of these wars affords nothing interesting or entertaining.—One of the greatest of the Danish monarchs was Valdemar I. who obtained the throne in Valdemar, 1157; having defeated and killed his competitor Swen, a great monarch, after a ten years civil war. He maintained a long war with the Vandals, whose power he at last entirely broke, and reduced under his subjection the island of Rugen. He also proved victorious over the Norwegians, so that their king and queen came in person to submit to him. In 1165, he also laid the foundations of the city of Dantzig: which, though it hath since become a place of such consequence, consisted at first only of a few poor fishermen's huts; but the privileges and immunities conferred upon it by this monarch, soon proved the means of its becoming a flourishing city. Denmark.—In 1169, he entirely subdued the Courlanders; and, soon after, was invested with the duchy of Holstein, by the emperor Frederic Barbarossa. He is said to have been poisoned by a quack medicine, given with a design to recover him from a distemper with which he was seized in 1182.

In the year 1195, Canute, Valdemar's successor, caused a muster to be made of all the men fit to bear arms in his dominions; and ordered each province to fit out its proportion of shipping, every way equipped, and ready for action. The whole force of Denmark, at that time, consisted of 670 ships of war, besides the squadrons supplied by vassals, tributary states, and allies. The number of the land-forces is not mentioned.

In the reign of this prince, the Danish dominions were enlarged by the entire conquest of Stromar; the districts of Lubec and Hamburgh, formerly known by the name of Nordalbingia, but now included under the general name of Holstein. He died in 1203, and was succeeded by Valdemar II., who proved a very great and warlike prince. In 1211, he founded the city of Stralsund, opposite to the Isle of Rugen. The same year his queen died in child-bed; and in memory of her he built the castle of Droningholm, that name importing the Queen's-Island. In 1218, he undertook an expedition against the Livonians, having received advice that they, assisted by the Lithuanians, Muscovites, and other barbarous nations, had driven from their habitations all those in their neighbourhood who had embraced Christianity, and taken an oath of allegiance to the crown of Denmark. Fitting out a powerful fleet, therefore, he immediately set sail for that country; but his troops were no sooner landed, than they were seized with a panic at the sight of such a powerful army of savages as were assembled to oppose them. The king himself was dismayed at the unusual spectacle of a whole army clothed in skins, and resembling beasts more than human creatures. Encouraged, however, by the bishops who attended him, he ventured an engagement, and overthrew the barbarians with incredible slaughter. This victory was gained near the fortresses of Valdemar, which received its name on that account.

How potent and flourishing the kingdom of Denmark was at this time, appears from an estimate of the revenues of the tributary provinces, those countries conquered by Valdemar, and the standing forces of the whole kingdom. This account was copied by Pontanus from Witfeld a writer of those days, who had it from a register kept by Valdemar's steward. From the provinces were daily sent in 24 lasts of oats, 24 lasts of rye, and half that quantity of wheat, 13 talents of cheese and butter, and nine of honey; 24 oxen, 300 sheep, 200 hogs; and 600 marks of coined money. This was the certain revenue: but to this was added near an equal sum from adventitious circumstances; such as fines, forfeitures, taxes on law-suits and pleadings, with a variety of other contingencies; the whole amounting to upwards of 100,000 marks a-day, or £3,730,000 per annum; a sum in those days almost incredible.—With this revenue were kept for constant service 1400 great and small ships for the king's use, each of which at a medium carried 121 soldiers; making the whole of the standing forces, besides garrisons, consist of 169,400 fighting men.

In 1223, a very great misfortune befell Valdemar, notwithstanding all his power. Henry earl of Swerin, otherwise called Henry Palatine, a German prince, having been deprived of part of his dominions by Valdemar, surprized and carried off the king himself, and taken prisoner on which he at last obtained his liberty were very hard. He was obliged to pay a prodigious sum of money; to relinquish Holstein, Swerin, Hamburg, and all his possessions on the other side of the Elbe, and lastly, solemnly to swear that he would maintain this compulsive contract, and never take any measures to punish Henry or his associates. This treaty was signed on the 25th of March 1226.

Besides these territories which the Danish monarch had been obliged to cede by treaty, many tributary princes took the opportunity of his captivity to recover their liberty; and among the rest, the inhabitants of Lubec revolted, and entered into alliance with Albert duke of Saxony against Valdemar. The latter, however, was not of a disposition to submit tamely to such treatment. He obtained a dispensation from the Pope to break his engagements with Henry, and immediately entered Holstein at the head of a numerous army. Here he was met by several German princes, at the head of a very numerous army; and a desperate engagement ensued. Valdemar at first had the advantage; but being wounded in the eye, his troops were at last defeated with great slaughter. It doth not appear that ever the king of Denmark was able to revenge himself of his enemies, or to recover the dominions he had lost. So far from this, he was obliged, in 1228, to cede Lawenberg to the duke of Saxony, who had already seized on Ratzburg and Molna. Soon after this, his eldest son Valdemar was accidentally killed as he was hunting, and his two other sons married the daughters of his two greatest enemies. Abel, the third son, married the daughter of Adolphus duke of Holstein; and Eric, the second, married the duke of Saxony's daughter. These misfortunes are supposed to have hastened his death, which happened in the month of April 1242.

On the death of Valdemar, the kingdom was divided between the two young princes; and between them a war commenced the very next year. A peace was concluded the year following, and war renewed the year after; but how long it continued, we are not informed. In 1250, Eric paid a visit to his brother Abel, intreating his mediation between him and the princes of Holstein, with whom he was then at war. Abel received him, in appearance, with great kindness, and promised that his utmost endeavours to procure a reconciliation should not be wanting; but in the meantime, laid a plan for having him murdered at sea: this was effected, and Abel became master of the whole kingdom.

The new king did not long enjoy the sovereignty he had so wickedly obtained. He was tormented by divided his own conscience; especially when he found among number of his brother's papers, one by which he was left heir to petty tythe whole kingdom on the decease of Eric, and many ranskind expressions with regard to himself. He was at last killed in a battle with his own subjects in 1252; on account of some taxes he intended to impose.

From this time to the year 1333, the kingdom of Denmark gradually declined. Usurpers established themselves Denmark themselves in different provinces; while the kings of Sweden did not fail to avail themselves of the distracted state of the Danish affairs. In 1333, died Christopher II. who possessed only the cities of Scandernberg in Jutland and Neoburg in Fionia, with some few other inconsiderable places, of all the hereditary dominions of Denmark. Halland, Holbæk, Calemburg, and Samfoe, were held by Canute Porfius; Schonen, Lytter, and Bleking, by the king of Sweden, to whom they had been lately sold; John earl of Wagria had the jurisdictions of Zealand, Falster, Laaland, and Femern; Gerhard, of Jutland and Fionia; and Lawrence Jonea, of Lang-land and Arras.

After the death of Chritopher, an interregnum of seven years ensued.—The first attempt for the sovereignty was made by Otho, second son to the late king, who laid a scheme for driving Gerhard out of Jutland; but not being able to accomplish it, he was taken prisoner, and closely confined by Gerhard.—The king of Sweden next wrote to Pope Benedict XIII. beseeching his Holines to confirm to him the provinces of Schonen and others which he possessed; and to allow him to subdue the rest of the kingdom, which was now usurped and rendered miserable by a set of petty princes, who knew not how to govern. To influence him the more powerfully, he also promised to hold this kingdom of the Pope; and to pay him the usual tax collected by the church. This request, however, was refused. Valdemar of Sletvic, nephew to Gerhard, then aspired to the sovereignty. He had formerly been elected king; but, had given over all thoughts of enjoying the sovereignty, on account of the superior influence of Chritopher; but now resumed his ambitious views at the instigation of his uncle. Several of the nobility also cast their eyes on young Valdemar Chritopher's son, now at the emperor's court. But while each of these princes were laying schemes to aggrandize themselves, the unhappy Danes were distressed by exorbitant taxes, famine, and pestilence; the two last in consequence of the former. The peasants neglected to cultivate the lands, which they held on a very precarious tenure; the consequence of this was poverty and an unwholesome diet; and this, co-operating with the peculiar disposition of the air, produced a plague, which destroyed more than half the inhabitants of the country. The poor dropped down dead on the streets with disease and hunger, and the gentry themselves were reduced to a state of wretchedness; yet, though the whole kingdom was evidently on the verge of ruin, ambitious projects employed the great, as if every thing had been in the most profound tranquillity.

In the midst of these grievous calamities, Gerhard, sovereign of Jutland, proposed to his nephew Valdemar an exchange of territories, which he believed would prove favourable to the designs of the latter on the crown. A treaty for this purpose was actually drawn up and signed; but the inhabitants, notwithstanding their distressed situation, so highly resented their being disposed of like cattle, from one master to another, that they refused to pay the usual taxes. Gerhard resolved to compel them; and therefore led 10,000 men, whom he had levied in Germany, into the heart of the province. Providence, however, now raised up an enemy to this tyrant. One Nicholas Norevi, a man greatly esteemed for his courage, public spirit, and prudence, beheld with sorrow the condition to which Denmark was reduced. He had long meditated a variety of projects for its relief, and at last imagined things were Norevi in such a situation that the whole depended on his single efforts. Young Valdemar, Chritopher's son, had a number of adherents in the kingdom; his most dangerous enemy was Gerhard; and could he be removed, the Jutlanders would at least be free from an oppressor, and might choose Valdemar, or any other they thought proper, for their sovereign. Collecting a body of chosen horse, therefore, he marched in the night to Randershusen, where Gerhard had fixed his head quarters; and having forced open the tyran's quarters, immediately put him to death. He then fled with the utmost expedition; but was pursued and overtaken by a party of the enemy's horse, through which he forced his way and escaped. Gerhard's sons hearing of his death, retired into Holstein from whence they had come; leaving the army, composed chiefly of Holsteiners, to be cut in pieces by the enraged peasants, who fell upon them from every quarter.

Still, however, the Holsteiners kept possession of the citadels and fortified places, from whence Nicholas resolved to dislodge them. He accordingly raised a body of forces; attacked and took Landen, a castle situated on the river Scherne; After which he laid siege to Alberg; but the garrison making an obstinate defence, he turned the siege into a blockade, by which they were soon reduced to great extremity. The governor sent an express to the sons of Gerhard, acquainting them with the impossibility of his holding out more than a few days, without being relieved. This determined them to march to the relief of so important a place. They came up with Nicholas just as the governor was ready to surrender, but were defeated; though Nicholas was unfortunately killed in the engagement.

Jutland having thus regained its liberty, the rest of the kingdom followed its example. Zealand first openly declared itself. Here Henry, Gerhard's son, maintained several garrisons; and resolved to defend his possessions in spite of all the power of the inhabitants. For this purpose he drew together an army; but, in the mean time, a tumult arose among the peasants on account of a Danish nobleman slain by the Holsteiners. By this the people were at last so irritated, that falling upon the Holsteiners sword in hand, they killed 300 of them, drove the rest out of the island, and chose Valdemar, Chritopher's son, for their sovereign.

The Danes now resumed their courage; the lands were cultivated, the famine and pestilence ceased, and the kingdom began to flourish as formerly. Matters Margaret continued in a prosperous way till 1387, when Mar. united the garet mounted the throne. She raised the kingdom to its highest pitch of glory, as partly by her address, and partly by hereditary right, she formed the union of Calmar, by which she was acknowledged sovereign of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. She held her dignity with such firmness and courage, that she was justly styled the Semiramis of the North. Her successors being destitute of her great qualifications, the union of Calmar fell to nothing; but Norway still continued annexed to Denmark. About the year 1448, the crown Denmark, crown of Denmark fell to Christian count of Oldenburg, from whom the present royal family of Denmark is descended; and, in 1536, the Protestant religion was established in Denmark by that wise and politic prince Christian III.

Christian IV. of Denmark, in 1629, was chosen for the head of the Protestant league formed against the house of Austria; but, though brave in his own person, he was in danger of losing his dominions; when he was succeeded in that command by the famous Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden. The Dutch having obliged Christian, who died in 1648, to lower the duties of the Sound, his son Frederic III. consented to accept of an annuity of 150,000 florins for the whole. The Dutch, after this, persuaded him to declare war against Charles, Gustavus king of Sweden, which had almost cost him his crown in 1657. Charles stormed the fortress of Fredericia; and in the succeeding winter, he marched his army over the ice to the island of Funen, where he surprised the Danish troops, took Odensee and Nyburg, and marched over the Great Belt to besiege Copenhagen itself. Cromwell, the English usurper, interposed; and Frederic defended his capital with great magnanimity till the peace of Roskilde; by which Frederic ceded the provinces of Halland, Bleking, and Sconia, the island of Bornholm, Bahu, and Drontheim, in Norway, to the Swedes. Frederic sought to elude those severe terms; but Charles took Cronenburg, and once more besieged Copenhagen by sea and land. The steady intrepid conduct of Frederic under these misfortunes endeared him to his subjects; and the citizens of Copenhagen made an admirable defence, till a Dutch fleet arrived in the Baltic, and beat the Swedish fleet. The fortune of war was now entirely changed in favour of Frederic, who showed on every occasion great abilities, both civil and military; and having forced Charles to raise the siege of Copenhagen, might have carried the war into Sweden, had not the English fleet, under Montague, appeared in the Baltic. This enabled Charles to besiege Copenhagen a third time; but France and England offering their mediation, a peace was concluded in that capital; by which the island of Bornholm returned to the Danes; but the island of Rugen, Bleking, Halland, and Schonen, remained with the Swedes.

The year 1660 affords us an example of a revolution almost unequalled in the annals of history, viz. that of a free people resigning their liberty into the hands of their sovereign, and of their own accord, and without the least compulsion, rendering him despotic. This was occasioned by the great character which Frederic had acquired by his prudent and valiant conduct when Copenhagen was besieged by the king of Sweden; and at that time he had also taken care to ingratiate himself with the commonalty, by obliging the nobility to allow them some immunities which they did not enjoy before; allowing them also, by a special edict, to possess lands, and enjoy all the privileges of nobility. After the conclusion of the treaty with Sweden, a diet was summoned at Copenhagen, to take into consideration the state of the kingdom, which was now very much exhausted, both by reason of the debts in which it was involved and by the calamities of war. This distressed state of affairs was, by the commons, attributed to the nobility; who, on the other hand, took no care to conciliate the affections of the inferior classes, but rather increased the discontents by their arrogance. They had even the imprudence to remonstrate against the immunities above mentioned, which had been granted by the king during the siege. In consequence of this the deputies of the commons and clergy united against them; and being joined by the citizens of Copenhagen, formed a very considerable party. On bringing forward in the assembly the sums necessary for the national exigencies, a general excise was proposed by the nobles on every article of consumption; and to which they themselves were willing to submit, though, by an express law, their order was to be exempted from all taxes. This offer was accompanied with a remonstrance to the king; in which they endeavoured not only to reclaim many obsolete privileges, but to add fresh immunities, and introduce many other regulations, all of them tending to diminish the royal prerogative, and check the rising influence of the commons and clergy. This proposal occasioned great disputes in the diet; and the two inferior orders insisted that they would not admit of any tax which should not be levied equally upon all ranks, without reserve or restriction. The nobles not only refused to comply with this proposal, but even to be subject to the tax for more than three years; pretending that all taxes whatever were infringements on their privileges. By way of compensation, however, they proposed new duties upon leather and stamped paper, and at last offered to pay a poll-tax for their peasants. This exchange seemed at first to be agreeable to the two inferior estates; but they suddenly altered their mind, and demanded that the fiefs and domains, which the nobles had hitherto possessed exclusively, and at a very moderate rent, should be let to the highest bidder.

Such a proposal appeared to the nobles to be to the last degree unreasonable. They said it was an infringement of their dearest privileges; as, by the 46th article of the coronation oath taken by Frederic, the possession of the royal fiefs was guaranteed to their order; but, in the heat of dispute, one of the chief senators having imprudently thrown out some reproachful expressions against the commons, a general ferment ensued, and the assembly was broken up in confusion. This gave occasion to the interposition of the king's friends; and an idea of rendering the crown hereditary, and enlarging the royal prerogative, began to be suggested as the proper method of humbling the nobility. This was first broached by the bishop of Zealand, at whose house a numerous meeting was held on the 6th of October 1660, where the scheme was fully laid open and approved; an act for rendering the crown hereditary drawn up; and the best method of publicly producing it taken into consideration. All this time the king seemed quite inactive, nor could he be prevailed upon to take any part in an affair which so nearly concerned him. But this indolence was abundantly compensated by the alertness and diligence of the queen; between whom and the heads of the party matters were soon concerted. On the morning of the 8th of October, therefore, the bishop of Zealand having obtained the consent and signature of the ecclesiastical deputies, delivered it to Naufensburgomaster of Copenhagen and speaker of the commons. The latter, in a most persuasive suasive speech, expatiated upon the wretched state of the kingdom, the oppressive power of the nobles, and the virtues of the king; concluding with an exhortation to the commons, to subscribe the act as the only means of saving their country.

The exhortations of the speaker had such an effect upon the assembly, that they subscribed it without a single dissent; the nobles being all the while in perfect security, and entirely ignorant of the transaction. Next day it was presented to the king by the bishop and Naufen; and as they were returning from the palace, they met the senator who had already given offence to the commons. With him they had a violent altercation, and were threatened with imprisonment for presuming to approach the king without acquainting the order of nobles. This threat was now altogether nugatory. The nobles having got some intelligence of what was going forward, had just assembled in order to consider of what was to be done, when the deputies of the two other estates entered, and informed them of their proceedings, and delivered to them the proposal for rendering the crown hereditary. By this declaration the nobles were thrown into the utmost consternation; but judging it improper to put a negative on the proposal at present, they endeavoured to gain time, and replied, that though they willingly gave their assent to the declaration, yet that, as it was a matter of great consequence, it deserved the most serious discussion. Naufen, however, replied, that the other estates had already taken their resolution; that they would lose no time in debate; and that if the nobles would not concur with them, they would immediately repair to the palace by themselves, where they had not the least doubt that the king would graciously accept their offer.

In the meantime the nobles had privately dispatched a message to the king, intimating, that they were willing to render the crown hereditary in the male line of his issue, provided it was done with all the usual formalities. But this proposal did not prove agreeable to his majesty, unless they would confirm the right of succession in the female line also. He added, however, with great appearance of moderation, that he by no means wished to prescribe rules for their conduct; they were to follow the dictates of their own judgment; but as for his part, he would owe every thing to their free consent. While the nobles were waiting for this answer, the other deputies, perceiving that they wished to keep the matter in suspense, lost all patience, and repaired in solemn procession to the court; where, being admitted into the royal presence, the matter was opened by the bishop of Zealand. He addressed his majesty on the resolution taken by the clergy and commons, offering in their name to render the crown hereditary, and to invest him with absolute authority; adding, that they were ready to sacrifice their lives in the defence of an establishment so salutary to their country. His majesty thanked them for their favourable intentions; but mentioned the concurrence of the nobles as a necessary condition; though he had no doubt of this—when they should have time to accompany the declaration with all the necessary formalities; he assured them of his protection, promised a redress of all grievances, and dismissed them with an exhortation to continue their sittings until they should have brought their design to perfection, and he could receive their voluntary submission with all due solemnity.

On departure of the commons from the place where they had been conferring with the nobles, the latter had been so distracted and confused, that they broke up without coming to any resolution, desiring, however, to decide the matter finally at their meeting on the afternoon of the following day. But while they were thus wavering and irresolute, the court and the popular party took the necessary measures to force them to a concurrence. This was effectually done by an order to shut the gates; for by this they were so much dispirited that they instantly dispatched deputies to the court, with a message that they were ready to concur with the commons, and subscribe to all the conditions of the royal pleasure.

Nothing now remained but to ratify the transaction with all proper solemnity. Accordingly, on the 16th of October, the estates annulled, in the most solemn manner, the capitulation or charter signed by the king on his accession to the throne; absolved him from all his engagements; and cancelled all the limitations imposed upon his sovereignty. The whole was concluded by the ceremony of doing homage, taking the new oath with great ceremony; after which a new form of government was promulgated under the title of The Royal Law of Denmark.

Frederic was succeeded, in 1672, by his son Christian V., who obliged the Duke of Holstein Gottorp to renounce all the advantages he had gained by the treaty of Roschild. He then recovered a number of places in Schonen; but his army was defeated in the bloody battle of Lundten by Charles XI. of Sweden. This defeat did not put an end to the war; which Christian obstinately continued, till he was defeated entirely at the battle of Landseron; and he had almost exhausted his dominions in his military operations, till he was in a manner abandoned by all his allies, and forced to sign a treaty on the terms prescribed by France, in 1679. Christian, however, did not desist from his military attempts; and at last he became the ally and subsidiary of Louis XIV., who was then threatening Europe with chains. Christian, after a vast variety of treating and fighting with the Holsteiners, Hamburgers, and other northern powers, died in 1699. He was succeeded by Frederic IV., who, like his predecessors, maintained his pretensions upon Holstein; and probably must have become master of that duchy, had not the English and Dutch fleets raised the siege of Tonningen; while the young king of Sweden, Charles XII., who was no more than 16 years of age, landed within eight miles of Copenhagen, to assist his brother-in-law the Duke of Holstein. Charles probably would have made himself master of Copenhagen, had not his Danish majesty agreed to the peace of Travendahl, which was entirely in the Duke's favour. By another treaty concluded with the States-General, Frederic obliged himself to furnish a body of troops, who were to be paid by the confederates; and who afterwards did great service against the French.

Notwithstanding this peace, Frederic was perpetually engaged in wars with the Swedes; and while Charles was an exile at Bender, he marched through Holstein into Swedish Pomerania; and in the year 1712, into Bremen, and took the city of Stade. His troops, however, Denmark, however, were totally defeated by the Swedes at Gadebusch, who laid his favourite city of Altena in ashes. Frederic revenged himself, by seizing great part of the ducal Holstein, and forcing the Swedish general, count Steinbock, to surrender himself prisoner, with all his troops. In the year 1716, the successes of Frederic were so great, by taking Tonningen and Stralsund, by driving the Swedes out of Norway, and reducing Wismar and Pomerania, that his allies began to suspect he was aiming at the sovereignty of all Scandinavia. Upon the return of Charles of Sweden from his exile, he renewed the war against Denmark with a most embittered spirit; but on the death of that prince, who was killed at the siege of Fredericksburg, Frederic durst not refuse the offer of his Britannic majesty's mediation between him and the crown of Sweden; in consequence of which, a peace was concluded at Stockholm, which left him in possession of the duchy of Sleswig. Frederic died in the year 1730, after having, two years before, seen his capital reduced to ashes by an accidental fire. His son and successor, Christian Frederic, made no other use of his power, and the advantages with which he mounted the throne, than to cultivate peace with all his neighbours, and to promote the happiness of his subjects, whom he eased of many oppressive taxes.

In 1734, after guaranteeing the Pragmatic Sanction, Christian sent 6000 men to the assistance of the emperor, during the dispute of the succession to the crown of Poland. Though he was pacific, yet he was jealous of his rights, especially over Hamburg. He obliged the Hamburgers to call in the mediation of Prussia, to abolish their bank, to admit the coin of Denmark as current, and to pay him a million of silver marks. He had, two years after, viz. 1738, a dispute with his Britannic majesty about the little lordship of Steinhorst, which had been mortgaged to the latter by the Duke of Holstein-Lauenburg, and which Christian said belonged to him. Some blood was spilt during the contest; in which Christian, it is thought, never was in earnest. It brought on, however, a treaty, in which he availed himself of his Britannic majesty's predilection for his German dominions; for he agreed to pay Christian a subsidy of 70,000l. Sterling a-year, on condition of keeping in readiness 7000 troops for the proportion of Hanover: this was a gainful bargain for Denmark. And two years after, he seized some Dutch ships for trading without his leave to Iceland; but the difference was made up by the mediation of Sweden. Christian had so great a party in that kingdom, that it was generally thought he would revive the union of Calmar, by procuring his son to be declared successor to his then Swedish majesty. Some steps for that purpose were certainly taken; but whatever Christian's views might have been, the design was frustrated by the jealousy of other powers, who could not bear the thoughts of seeing all Scandinavia subject to one family. Christian died in 1746, with the character of being the father of his people.

His son and successor, Frederic V. had, in 1743, married the princess Louisa, daughter to his Britannic majesty. He improved upon his father's plan for the happiness of his people; but took no concern, except that of a mediator, in the German war. For it Denmark was by his intervention that the treaty of Closterfelsen was concluded between his royal highness the late duke of Cumberland and the French general Richelieu. Upon the death of his first queen, who was mother to his present Danish majesty, he married a daughter of the duke of Brunswick Wolfenbuttel; and died in 1766.

He was succeeded by his son Christian VII. his present Danish majesty, who married the princess Carolina Matilda of England. But this alliance proved extremely unfortunate, which is generally ascribed to the intrigues of the queen dowager, mother-in-law to the present king. She is represented as ambitious, sly, artful, and designing; and as one who wished to have the young set aside the king himself in favour of her own son Frederic. On the arrival of the young queen, however, she received her with much apparent affection, telling her the faults of her husband, and at the same time promising to assist her on all occasions in reclaiming him from his vicious courses. Thus, under pretence of kindness and friendship, she sowed the seeds of dissension betwixt the royal pair before the unfortunate princess had the least suspicion of her danger; and while the unthinking queen revealed to the dowager all her secrets, the latter is said to have placed spies about the king to keep him constantly engaged in riot and debauchery, to which he was at any rate too much inclined. At last it was contrived to throw a mistress in his way, whom he was advised to keep in his palace.

It was impossible that any woman could pass such a piece of conduct unnoticed; however, in this affair, the queen dowager behaved with her usual duplicity. In the absence of the king she pretended great resentment against him, and even advised the queen not to live with him; but as soon as he returned, when his consort reproached him, though in a gentle manner, with his conduct, she not only took his part, but insisted that it was presumptuous in a queen of Denmark to pretend to direct her husband's conduct. Notwithstanding this incendiary behaviour, the queen was in a short time reconciled to her husband, and lived on very good terms with him until she again excited the jealousy of the dowager by assuming to herself the direction of that part of the public affairs which the dowager had been accustomed to look upon as her own privilege. For some time it seemed to be difficult for her to form any effectual plan of revenge, as the king had displaced several of her friends who had for some time had a share in the administration. Two new favourites, Brandt and Struenfée, had now appeared; and as these paid great court to the queen, the dowager took occasion to insinuate not only that the queen was harbouring improper designs with regard to the government, but that she had an intrigue with Struenfée. The new ministers indeed behaved imprudently, in attempting to make a reformation in several of the departments of the state at once, instead of waiting patiently until an opportunity should offer; and in these precipitate schemes they were certainly supported by the queen. These instances of want of circumspection in the ministers, were represented by the dowager and her party to be a settled scheme to make an alteration in the government; and a design was even spoken spoken of to supercede the king as being incapable of governing, to declare the queen regent during the minority of her son, and to make Struenfee prime minister.

Thus a very formidable opposition was formed against Brandt and Struenfee; and as the latter had made some innovations in the military department as well as the civil, some of the principal officers, who were the creatures of the dowager, represented him as designing to overthrow the whole system of government. When matters were brought to a proper bearing, it was at last resolved to surprise the king in the middle of the night, and force him instantly to sign an order which was to be ready prepared, for committing the obnoxious persons to separate prisons, accuse them of high treason in general, and particularly with a design to dethrone or poison the king. If this could not be properly authenticated, it was determined to stubborn witnesses to confirm the report of a criminal correspondence between the queen and count Struenfee. This design was executed on the night of the 16th of January 1772, when a masked ball was given at the court of Denmark. The queen, after having danced most part of the night with count Struenfee, retired to her chamber about two in the morning. About four the same morning, prince Frederic got up, and went with the queen dowager to the king's bed-chamber, accompanied by general Eichstedt and count Rantzau. Having ordered the king's valet de chambre to awake him, they informed his majesty that the queen, with count Struenfee, his brother, and Brandt one of the new ministers, were at that moment busy in drawing up an act of renunciation of the crown, which they would immediately after compel him to sign; and therefore there was a necessity for him to give an order for their arrestment. The king is said to have hesitated for some time, and inclined to refuse this scandalous requisition; but at length, through importunity, and according to some accounts, being even threatened into compliance, he consented to what they required. Count Rantzau was dispatched, at that untimely hour, into the queen's apartments, and immediately executed the orders of the king. The unfortunate princess was conveyed in one of the king's coaches to the castle of Cronenburgh, together with the infant princess, attended by lady Maffyn, and escorted by a party of dragoons. Struenfee and Brandt were seized in their beds and imprisoned, as well as several other members of the new administration, to the number of 18. The queen dowager and her adherents seemed to assume the government entirely into their own hands, and a total change took place in the departments of administration. The prince royal, son of queen Matilda, then in the fifth year of his age, was put under the care of a lady of quality, who was appointed governess, under the superintendence of the queen dowager. Struenfee and Brandt were put in irons, and very severely treated; they underwent long and frequent examinations; and Struenfee at last confessed that he had a criminal intercourse with the queen. Both their heads were struck off on the 28th of April; but many of their partisans were set at liberty. The confession of Struenfee is by many, and indeed with no small degree of probability, supposed to have been extorted by fear of the torture, and to have no foundation in truth; but as no means were used by the court of Britain to clear up the queen's character, the affair must undoubtedly wear a suspicious aspect. At last, however, his Britannic majesty interfered so far as to send a small squadron of ships to convey the unhappy princess to Germany. Here the city of Zell was appointed for her residence; and in this place she died of a malignant fever on the 10th of May 1775, aged 23 years and 10 months.

The inhuman treatment of this princess did not long prove advantageous to the queen dowager and her party: A new revolution took place in April 1784, when the queen dowager's friends were removed, a new council was formed under the auspices of the prince royal, and no instrument deemed authentic unless signed by the king, and counterfeited by the prince. Since that time, the king, who from the beginning of his administration showed a great degree of incapacity, has been entirely laid aside from public business, and has no share in the government. The Danes are at present engaged on the side of Russia in her war with the Turks, the immediate opponent of Denmark being Sweden.

The kingdom of Denmark at present is divided into six grand districts or provinces; viz. 1. Denmark proper, comprehending the islands of Zealand, Funen, Langland, Laaland, Falster, Mona, Samsoe, Arroe, Bornholm, Anholt, Leflaw, and that part of the continent called North Jutland. 2. The duchy of Sleswick, or South Jutland. 3. The duchy of Holstein. 4. The earldoms of Oldenburg and Dalmenhorst. 5. The kingdom of Norway; and 6. Iceland, with the islands lying in the Northern Seas; for a particular description of which see these articles.

The language of Denmark is a dialect of the Teutonic tongue; but is disagreeable to strangers, on account of its drawling tone with which it is pronounced. They have borrowed many words from the German; and, indeed, the high Dutch is used in common discourse by the court, the gentry, and the burghers. The better sort likewise understand French, and speak it fluently. The Lutheran doctrine is universally embraced through all Denmark, Sweden, and Norway; so that there is not another sect in these kingdoms. Denmark is divided into six dioceses, one in Zealand, one in Funen, and four in Jutland: but the bishops are, properly speaking, no other than superintendants, or primi inter pares. They have no cathedrals, ecclesiastical courts, or temporalities. Their business is to inspect the doctrine and morals of the inferior clergy. The revenue of the bishop of Copenhagen amounts to about 2000 livres; and this is the richest benefice in the kingdom. The clergy are wholly dependant on the government. They never meddle, nor are employed or consulted in civil affairs. They, nevertheless, have acquired great influence, and erected a sort of spiritual tyranny over the minds of the common people, by whom they are much revered. They are, generally speaking, men of exemplary lives, and some erudition. Their churches are kept more clean, and better adorned, than those of England: the people are great lovers of music, and their organs commonly entertain the congregation for half an hour before or after service. The state of literature is very low in Denmark. There is, indeed, an university at Copenhagen; but meanly endowed, and very ill supplied with matters. Taste and the belles lettres are utterly unknown in this country, which yet has produced some- men of great eminence in mathematics and medicine; such as Tycho Brahe, Borrichius, and the Bartholines.

The constitution of Denmark was heretofore of the free Gothic original. The convention of the estates, even including the representatives of the boors or peasants, elected a king for his personal virtues, having full regard to the son of their late monarch, whom, however, they made no scruple of setting aside, if they deemed him unworthy of the royal dignity. They enacted laws; conferred the great offices of state; debated all affairs relating to commerce, peace, war, and alliances; and occasionally gave their consent to the imposition of necessary taxes. The king was no other than chief magistrate, generalissimo, and as it were prime minister to his people. His business was to see justice administered impartially; to command the army in time of war; to encourage industry, religion, arts, and sciences; and to watch over the interests of his subjects.

In 1660, however, the constitution was new modelled, as has been already related, and which was to the following purport. "The hereditary kings of Denmark and Norway should be in effect, and ought to be esteemed by their subjects, the only supreme head upon earth; they shall be above all human laws, and shall acknowledge, in all ecclesiastical and civil affairs, no higher power than God alone. The king shall enjoy the right of making and interpreting the laws, of abrogating, adding to, and dispensing with them. He may also annul all the laws which either he or his predecessors shall have made, excepting this royal law, which must remain irrevocable, and be considered as the fundamental law of the state. He has the power of declaring war, making peace, imposing taxes, and levying contributions of all sorts," &c. &c.

Then follow the regulations for the order of succession, the regency in case of minority, the majority of the king, the maintenance of the royal family; and, after having enumerated all the possible prerogatives of regal unencumbered authority, as if sufficient had not yet been laid down; it is added in the 26th article: "All that we have hitherto said of power and eminence, and sovereignty, and if there is any thing further which has not been expressly specified, shall all be comprised in the following words: "The king of Denmark and Norway shall be the hereditary monarch, and endowed with the highest authority; insomuch, that all that can be said and written to the advantage of a Christian, hereditary, and absolute king, shall be extended under the most favourable interpretation to the hereditary king or queen of Denmark and Norway," &c. &c.

The laws of Denmark are so concise, that the whole body is contained in one quarto volume, written in the language of the country. Every man may plead his own cause, without employing either council or attorney; but there are a few advocates for the benefit of those who cannot or will not speak in their own defence. The proceedings are so summary, that a suit may be carried through all the courts, and finally decided, in 13 months. There are three courts in Denmark, and an appeal lies from the inferior to the superior tribunal. The lowest of these is, in cities and towns, denominated the Byfogd's Court; and in the country, the Herredsfogds. Causes may be appealed from this to the Landtag, or general head court for the province; but the final appeal lies to the court of Denmark, High right in Copenhagen, where the king presides in person, assisted by the prime nobility. The judges of the two other courts are appointed by his majesty's letters patent, to sit and determine causes durante bene placito. These are punishable for any misdemeanours of which they may be guilty; and when convicted of having passed an unjust sentence, they are condemned to make reparation to the injured party. Their salaries are very inconsiderable, and paid out of the king's treasury, from the fines of delinquents, besides a small gratuity from the plaintiff and defendant when sentence is passed. Such is the peculiar privilege enjoyed by the city of Copenhagen, that causes appealed from the Byfogd's court, instead of passing through the provincial court, are tried by the burgomaster and common-council; from whence they proceed immediately to the highest court as the last resource. Affairs relating to the revenue are determined in the rent-chamber of Denmark, which is analogous to our court of exchequer. To another tribunal, composed of some members from this rent-chamber, from the admiralty, and college of commerce, merchants appeal for redress, when their commodities are seized for non-payment of duties. All disputes relating to the sea are determined by the court of admiralty, constituted of commissioners appointed for these purposes. The chancellery may be more properly termed a secretary's office. It consists of clerks, who write and issue all the king's decrees and citations, transcribe papers, and, according to the directions they receive, make draughts of treaties and alliances with other nations. The government of Denmark is very commendable for the excellent policy it maintains. Justice is executed upon criminals with great severity; and such regulations are established as effectually prevent those outrages that are daily committed in other countries. No man presumes to wag his tongue against the government, far less to hatch schemes of treason. All the subjects are, or seem to be, attached to their sovereign by the ties of affection. Robbery on the high-way, burglary, coining or clipping, are crimes seldom or never heard of in Denmark. The capital crimes usually committed are theft and manlaughter. Such offenders are beheaded very dexterously with one stroke of a sword. The executioner, though infamous, is commonly rich; because, over and above the functions of his office, he is employed in other scandalous occupations, which no other person will undertake. He, by means of his undertrapper, called the preacher, empties all the jakes, and removes from housetops, stables, or streets, dead dogs, horses, &c. which no other Dane will vouchsafe to touch on any consideration whatsoever.

The Danish nobility and gentry are all included in Slavish con, the term noblesse; and formerly there were no distinction of titles; but within these 60 or 70 years, some few favourites have been dignified with the titles of count and baron. These, and these only, enjoy the privilege of disposing of their estates by will; though others may make particular dispositions, provided they have sufficient interest to procure the king's approbation and signature. The noblesse of Denmark formerly lived at their own seats with great magnificence; and at the conventions of estates met the king with numerous and superb retinues; but since he became absolute, they are so impoverished by exorbitant taxes, that they can hardly Denmark hardly procure subsistence; and, for the most part, live obscurely in some corner of their ruined country palaces, unless they have interest enough to procure some employment at court. They no longer inherit the spirit and virtues of their ancestors; but are become servile, indolent, ostentatious, extravagant, and oppressive.

Their general character is a strange composition of pride and meanness, insolence and poverty. If any gentleman can find a purchaser for his estate, the king, by the Danish law, has a right to one third of the purchase-money; but the lands are so burdened with impositions that there would be no danger of an alienation, even though this restriction was not in force. Nay, some gentlemen in the Island of Zealand have actually offered to make a surrender to the king of large tracts of very fertile land in the Island of Zealand, if his majesty would be pleased to accept of them in place of the impositions laid on them. The reason of this is, because, by the law of Denmark, if any estate is burdened beyond what it can bear, the owner must make up the deficiency out of his other estates, if he has any. Hence the king generally refuses such offers; and some gentlemen have been transported with joy when they heard that his majesty had been "graciously pleased to accept their whole estates."

This oppression of the nobles by the king produces in them a like disposition to oppress the commons; and the consequence of all this is, that there is no part of the world where extravagance and dissipation reigns to such a degree. The courtiers maintain splendid equipages, wear fine clothes, drink a vast quantity of French wine, and indulge themselves with eating to excess. Such as derive money from their employments, instead of purchasing land in Denmark, remit their cash to the banks of Hamburg and Amsterdam. The merchants and burghers tread in the steps of their superiors; they spend all their gains in luxury and pleasure, afraid of incurring the suspicion of affluence, and being stripped by taxation. The peasant, or boor, follows the same example. No sooner has he earned a rix-dollar than he makes haste to expend it in brandy, lest it should fall into the hands of his oppressive landlord. This lower class of people are as absolute slaves as the negroes in the West Indies, and subsist upon much harder fare. The value of estates is not computed by the number of acres, but by the stock of boors, who, like the timber, are reckoned a parcel of the freehold; and nothing can be more wretched than the state of these boors. They feed upon stock-fish, salted meats, and other coarse diet; there is not the least piece of furniture of any value in their houses, except feather-beds, of which there is great plenty in Denmark; and which are used not only as beds to lie on but as blankets for covering. After the boor has toiled like a slave to raise the king's taxes, he must pay the overplus of his toil to his needy landlord. Should he improve his ground and repair his farm-house, his cruel master will immediately transplant him to a barren farm and a naked habitation, that he may let the improved ground to another tenant at a higher price. The peasants likewise fulfill a great deal of damage and violence from the licentious soldiery that are quartered in their houses. They are moreover obliged to furnish horses and waggons for the royal family and all their attendants when the king makes a progress through the country, or removes his residence from one palace to another. On such occasions the neighbouring boors are summoned to assemble with their cattle and carriages, and not only to live at their own expense, but to bear every species of outrage from the meanest lackeys of those who attend his majesty. The warlike spirit of the Danes no longer subsists: the common people are mean-spirited, suspicious, and deceitful; nor have they that talent for mechanics so remarkable in some northern nations. While the peasants are employed in their labours without doors, the women are occupied at home in spinning yarn for linen, which is here made in great perfection.

In Denmark, all persons of any rank above the vulgar drefs in the French taste, and affect finery; the winter-dress of the ladies is peculiar to the country, very neat, warm, and becoming. The common people are likewise remarkably neat, and pride themselves in different changes of linen. They are very little addicted to jollity and diversion: their whole amusements consist in running at the goose on Shrove Tuesday, and in winter in being drawn in sleds upon the ice. They also feast and make merry at weddings and funerals. With respect to marriage, the man and woman frequently cohabit together on contract long before the ceremony is performed. The nobility and gentry pique themselves on sumptuous burials and monuments for the dead; the corpse is very often kept in a vault, or in the chancel of a church, for several years, before an opportunity offers of celebrating the funeral.

The taverns in this country are poorly supplied; and he who dines in them must be contented to eat in a public room, unless he will condescend to pay an extravagant price for a private apartment. The metropolis is but indifferently furnished with game. The wild-ducks and plover are hardly eatable; but the hares are good, and the markets sometimes produce tolerable roebuck. Their sea-fish are not to be commended; but the rivers produce plenty of delicious carp, perch, and craw-fish. The gardens of the gentry are well provided with melons, grapes, peaches, and all sorts of greens and salads in perfection.

The army of Denmark is composed, 1. of the troops of Denmark and Holstein; and, 2. of Norway.

The forces of Denmark and Holstein are divided into regulars and national or militia. These forces (the foot and horse guards excepted who are all regulars) are not separated, as in our army, into distinct regiments, but are formed in the following manner: Before the late augmentation, every regiment of infantry, when complete, consisted of 26 officers and 1632 privates, divided into ten companies of fusiliers and two of grenadiers. Of these 1632 privates, 480, who are chiefly foreigners enlisted in Germany, are regulars. The remaining 1152 are the national militia, or peasants who reside upon the estates of their landlords, each estate furnishing a certain number in proportion to its value. These national troops are occasionally exercised in small corps upon Sundays and holidays; and are embodied once every year for about 17 days in their respective districts. By a late addition of ten men to each company, a regiment of infantry is increased to 1778, including officers. The expense of each... Denmark. each regiment, which before amounted to L.6000, has been raised by the late augmentation to L.8000. The cavalry is upon the same footing; each regiment consisting of 17 officers, including sergeants and corporals, and 565 privates, divided into five squadrons. Of these about 260 are regular and the remainder national troops. The regiments of foot and horse guards are regulars; the former is composed of 21 officers and 465 men, in five companies; and the latter of 7 officers and 154 men, in two squadrons.

The forces of Norway are all national troops or militia, excepting the two regiments of Sundentfield and Nordenfield; and as the peasants of that kingdom are free, the forces are levied in a different manner from those of Denmark. Norway is divided into a certain number of districts, each whereof furnishes a soldier. All the peasants are, upon their birth, registered for the militia; and the first on the list supplies the vacancy for the district to which he belongs. After having served from 10 to 14 years they are admitted among the invalids; and when they have attained the seniority of that corps receive their dismission. These troops are not continually under arms; but are only occasionally exercised like the national forces of Denmark. A fixed stipend is assigned to the officers, nearly equal to that of the officers in the regulars; but the common soldiers do not receive any pay except when they are in actual service, or performing their annual manoeuvres. The Academy of Land Cadets, instituted by Frederic IV., supplies the army with officers. According to this foundation, 74 cadets are instructed in the military sciences at the expense of the king. The whole amount of the Danish troops is computed at 60,900.

From their insular situation the Danes have always excelled as a maritime people. In the earlier ages, when piracy was an honourable profession, they were a race of pirates, and infested from the Baltic to the conquests of England and Normandy. And though, since the improvement of navigation by the invention of the compass, other nations have risen to a greater degree of naval eminence, still, however, the Danes, as they inhabit a cluster of islands, and possess a large tract of sea-coast, are well versed in maritime affairs, and are certainly the most numerous, as well as the most experienced, sailors of the north.

The greatest part of the Danish navy is stationed in the harbour of Copenhagen, which lies within the fortifications: the depth of water being only 20 feet, the ships have not their lower tier of guns on board, but take them in when they get out of port. Beside large magazines, each vessel has a separate storehouse on the water's edge, opposite to which she is moored when in harbour, and may by this means be instantly equipped. The number of registered seamen are near 40,000, and are divided into two classes; the first comprises those inhabiting the coasts, who are allowed to engage in the service of merchant-ships trading to any part of the world. Each receives 8s. annually from the crown as long as he sends a certificate of his being alive; but is subject to a recall in case of war. The second comprehends the fixed sailors, who are constantly in the employ of the crown, and amount to about 4,000, ranged under four divisions, or 40 companies: they are stationed at Copenhagen for the ordinary service of the navy, and work in the dockyard. Each of them, when not at sea, receives 8s. per month, beside a sufficient quantity of flour and other provisions; every two years a complete suit of clothes; and every year breeches, stockings, shoes, and a cap. Some of them are lodged in barracks. When they fail, their pay is augmented to 20s. per month. The marine artillery consists of 800-men, in four divisions.

The whole navy consists of 38 ships of the line, including 9 of 50 guns and one of 44, and 20 frigates; but if we except those which are condemned, and those which are allotted only for parade, we cannot estimate that in 1779 the fleet consisted of more than 25 ships of the line and 15 frigates fit for service; a number, however, fully adequate to the situation of Denmark; and if we include the excellence of the sailors, it must be deemed as complete a navy as any in the north.

The revenue of his Danish majesty arises from taxes laid on his own subjects; from the duties paid by foreigners, from his own estate, crown-lands, and confiscations. The taxes are altogether arbitrary, and therefore fluctuating; but they are always grievous to the subject. They commonly consist of customs or toll, for export and import; of excise upon the consumption of wine, salt, tobacco, and all kinds of provisions; of taxes upon marriages, paper, brewing, grinding, and the exercise of different professions; of impositions on land, poll-money, ground-rent for all houses in Copenhagen and elsewhere; of money raised for maintaining fortifications, and for a portion to the king's daughter when she happens to be married: but this seldom exceeds 100,000 rixdollars. One considerable article in the revenue is the toll paid by foreign ships that pass through the Sound, or Ore-Sound (the strait between Schonen and Zealand), into the Baltic. This was originally no other than a small contribution, which trading nations agreed to make for maintaining lights at certain places, to direct their course through the passage in dark and stormy weather. At the same time these trading nations agreed, that every ship should pass this way and pay its share of the expense, rather than use the Great Belt, which is the other passage, but unprovided with any such conveniency. In process of time the Danes converted this voluntary contribution into an exorbitant toll, and even exacted arbitrary sums, in proportion to the weakness of the nation whose ships they visited. These exactions sometimes involved them in quarrels with their neighbours, and the toll was regulated in repeated treaties.