Is that which has its foundation in experience, wherein nothing is assumed as a truth but what is founded upon ocular demonstration, or which cannot be denied without violating the common sense and perceptions of all mankind.

In former times philosophers, when reasoning about natural things, instead of following this method, assumed such principles as they imagined sufficient for explaining the phenomena, without considering whether these principles were just or not. Hence for a great number of ages no progress was made in science; but systems were heaped upon systems, having neither consistency with one another nor with themselves. No proper explanations indeed were given of any thing; for all these systems, when narrowly examined, were found to consist merely in changes of words, which were often very absurd and barbarous. The first who deviated from this method of philosophizing, if we may call it by that name, was Friar Bacon, who lived in the 16th century, and who spent 2000l. (an immense sum in those days) in making experiments. The admirable Crichton, who flourished about the year 1580, not only disputed against the philosophy of Aristotle, which had for so long been in vogue, but wrote a book against it. Contemporary with this celebrated personage was Francis Bacon lord chancellor of England, who is looked upon to be the founder of the present mode of philosophizing by experiments. But though others might lay the foundation, Sir Isaac Newton is justly allowed to have brought this kind of philosophy to perfection; and to him we are certainly indebted for the greatest part of it. Unfortunately, however, neither Lord Bacon nor Sir Isaac Newton had an opportunity of knowing many important facts relating to the principles of fire and electricity, which have since been brought to light. Hence all their philosophy was merely mechanical, or derived from the visible operations of solid bodies, or of the grosser fluids upon one another. In such cases therefore, where the more subtle and active fluids were concerned, they fell into mistakes, or were obliged to deny the existence of the principles altogether, and to make use of terms which were equally unintelligible and incapable of conveying any information with those of their predecessors. A remarkable instance of the errors into which they were thus betrayed, we have in the doctrine of projectiles, where the most enormous deviations from truth were sanctified by the greatest names of the last century, merely by reasoning from the resistance of the air to bodies moving slowly and visibly, to its resistance to the same bodies when moved with high degrees of velocity. In other cases they were reduced to make use of words to express immechanical powers, as attraction, repulsion, rarefaction, &c., which have since tended in no small degree to embarrass and confound science by the disputes that have taken place concerning them. The foundations of the present system of experimental philosophy are as follow.

I. All the material substances of which the universe is composed are called natural bodies. What we perceive uniform and invariable in these substances we call their properties. Some of these are general and common to all matter, as extension; others are proper to particular substances, for instance fluidity; while some appear to be compounded of the general and particular properties, and thus belong to a still smaller number; as the properties of air, which are derived from the general property of extension combined with those of fluidity, elasticity, &c.

II. In taking a particular review of the properties of bodies, we naturally begin with that of extension. This manifests itself by the three dimensions of length, breadth, and thickness. Hence proceeds the divisibility of matter; which the present system supposes to reach even to infinity; but though this proposition be supported by mathematical demonstrations, it is impossible we can either have any distinct idea of it, or of the opposite doctrine, which teaches that matter is composed of excessively minute particles called atoms, which cannot be divided into smaller ones. The subtlety indeed to which solid bodies may be reduced by mechanical means is very surprising; and in some cases is so great, that we might be tempted to suppose that a farther division is impossible. Thus, in grinding a speculum, the inequalities of its surface are so effectually worn off, that the whole becomes in a certain degree invisible, showing not itself by the light which falls upon it, but the image of other bodies; but the smallest scratch which disturbs the equality of the surface is at once distinctly visible.

III. From the arrangement of these ultimate particles of matter, whatever we suppose them to be, arise the various figures of bodies; and hence figure is a property of all bodies no less universal than extension, unless we choose to speak of the ultimate particles of matter, which, as they are supposed to be destitute of parts, must consequently be equally destitute of figure; and the same consequence will follow whether we adopt this supposition or the other. The figures of bodies are so extremely various and dissimilar, that it is impossible to find any two perfectly alike. It is indeed the next thing to impossible to find two in which the dissimilarity may not be perceived by the naked eye; but if any such should be found, the microscope will quickly discover the imbecility of our senses in this respect. Solidity is another property essential to all matter. By this we mean that property which one quantity of matter has of excluding any other from the space which itself occupies at that time. Hence arises what we call resistance, which is always an indication of solidity; and no less so in those bodies which we call fluid than in those which are the most solid. This may at first seem to be a contradiction; but fluids yield only when they can get away from the pressure; in all other cases they resist as violently as the most solid bodies. Thus water confined in a tube will as effectually resist the impression of a piston thrust down upon it as though it were the most solid substance. Air indeed will yield for a certain time; but this, as appears from several experiments, is entirely owing to a more subtile fluid, viz. that of elementary fire being pressed out from among its particles. As long as this fluid can be forced out, either from among the particles of air, water, or any other more gross fluid substance, the latter will be found compressible, as a heap of wet sand would be by squeezing the water out from it; but when we come to the most subtile of all elements, such as we suppose that of fire to be, there cannot be any possibility of compressing it, even though we had a vessel so close as to prevent it from escaping through its sides; because its parts are already as near each other as they can be.

IV. The distance of the parts of bodies from each other is what we call their porosity, and was formerly supposed to be owing to a vacuum interposed between them; but now it is generally allowed that the pores of solid bodies as well as of fluids are filled with an extremely subtile matter which pervades all nature. The porosity of bodies with regard to one another may be thus explained. Wood, or a sponge, is porous with regard regard to water; but water itself is porous with regard to air, which it absorbs in considerable quantity. Both air and water are porous with regard to the element of fire, which produces very considerable changes upon them, according to the quantity of it they contain, or the manner it acts in their pores. This element itself, however, is not porous with regard to any other substance. Its pores, therefore, if it has any, must be absolute vacuities destitute of any matter whatever. Vacuities of this kind indeed are supposed to be absolutely necessary to motion: for though we may say, matter being divisible almost ad infinitum, that a body or substance more solid may move in another substance that is more subtile, and that will give way to its motion, we must nevertheless have recourse to a last resort, and admit of an ultimate vacuum, which will give room sufficient to the least corpuscle, that its part A may take the place of its part B without the least resistance: besides, it is not to be imagined, that nature, in fact, admits of that infinite divisibility which our imagination can conceive, and that every thing which is possible in idea, is at all times practicable. All that exists is possible, but all that is possible does not however exist. By density, is understood the proportion between the extension and solidity of a body: one body therefore is more dense than another, when, under the same degree of extension, it contains more solid matter: and this quality arises from condensation and compression. Elasticity is nothing more than that effort by which certain bodies, when compressed, endeavour to restore themselves to their former state; and this property supposes them compressible. As all these natural properties of bodies are of great utility in explaining the principles of physics and in applying them to all the arts, experimental philosophy proves their reality by a thousand examples.

V. We discover still other properties in bodies; such as mobility, which we must not here confound with motion. This mobility arises from certain dispositions which are not in an equal degree in all bodies: from whence it comes that some are more easily moved than others; and this proceeds from the resistance to motion which is perceived in all bodies, having regard merely to their masses; and this resistance is called vis inertiae, or inert force. A body is said to be in motion when it is actually moving from one place to another; or, whenever a body changes its situation with regard to the objects that surround it, either nearly or remotely, it is said to be in motion. There are three principal matters to be considered in a moving body; its direction, its velocity, and the quantity of its motion: and here physics explains the force or moving power; it likewise distinguishes between simple and compound motion. Simple motion is that which arises from only one force, or which tends to only one point. It describes the laws, and explains the resistance, of mediums; the resistance of friction; the difficulties of a perpetual motion; the alteration of direction occasioned by the opposition of a fluid matter; reflected or reverberated motion; the communication of motion by the shock of bodies, &c. Compound motion is that of a body impelled to move by several causes or powers which act according to their different directions. Physics here likewise investigates the laws of motion; and is particularly applied to the explaining, under this head, what are called the central forces, which produce a motion that is either circular or in a curve line, and which incessantly urge the moving body either to approach or recede from the centre. To distinguish these from each other, the former is called the centripetal force, and the latter the centrifugal force.

VI. By gravity, or ponderosity, is to be understood that force which occasions bodies to pass from a higher to a lower place, when nothing opposes their course, or when the obstacles are not sufficient to stop them. Speculative philosophy investigates its cause, and perhaps vainly. Experimental philosophy contents itself with describing the phenomena, and teaching the laws of gravity, which are thoroughly established by a thousand reiterated experiments. In order properly to understand this subject, we must take care not to confound the term gravity with that of weight. By the former, we understand that force which urges bodies to descend through a certain space in a given time. By the latter, is meant the quantity of a heavy body that is contained under the same bulk. The phenomena are explained by the experiments themselves, and by inferences deduced from them.

VII. Hydrostatics is a science of which the object is the gravity and equilibrium of fluids in particular. Though the gravity of these bodies is the same with that of others, and is subject to the same laws, yet their state of fluidity gives rise to particular phenomena, which it is of consequence to know. But as hydrostatics cannot be successfully treated on without the assistance of calculation, it has been ranked among the mathematical sciences.

VIII. We say the same with regard to mechanics; which is the art of employing, by the aid of machines, the motion of bodies, in conformity to its properties and laws, as well with regard to solids as fluids, either more commodiously or more advantageously.

IX. After it has made the most accurate experiments, and the most judicious observations, on all these different subjects, and the properties of bodies in particular, Experimental Philosophy passes to the examination of the air, the water, fire, the wind, colours, &c. The air is a fluid with which we are surrounded from the infant of our birth, and without which we cannot exist. It is by the properties and the influences of the air, that nature gives increase and perfection to all that it produces for our wants and conveniences; it is the spirit of navigation: sound, voice, speech itself, are nothing more than vibrations of the air; this globe that we inhabit is completely surrounded by air; and this kind of coverture, which is commonly called the atmosphere, has such remarkable functions, that it evidently appears to concur to the mechanism of nature. Experimental physics, therefore, considers the air, 1. Of itself, independent of its bulk, and the figure of its whole body: it examines its essential properties; as its gravity, density, spring, &c. The air-pump is here of indispensible use; and by this machine physics examines in what manner space, or a vacuum, is made. It likewise shows the necessity of air to the preservation of animal life; the effect it has on found, fire, and gunpowder, in vacuo; and a hundred other experiments of various degrees of curiosity. 2. It considers the air as the terrestrial atmosphere, sometimes as a fluid at rest, and sometimes as in motion. And by these means it accounts for the variation of the mercury in the barometer, and why it sinks in proportion as the height of the atmosphere diminishes; as also for the figure, the extent, and weight of the atmosphere: it shows the method of determining the height of mountains, the nature of sound in general, of its propagation, and of sonorous bodies. The late discoveries of Dr. Priestley and others have added a new and very considerable branch to experimental philosophy in this respect, of which an account is given under the article Aerology.

X. It is here also, that experimental philosophy considers the nature of the wind; which is nothing more than agitated air, a portion of the atmosphere that moves like a current, with a certain velocity and determinate direction. This fluid, with regard to its direction, takes different names according to the different points of the horizon from whence it comes, as east, west, north, and south. Winds are likewise distinguished into three sorts; one of which is called general or constant, as the trade-winds which continually blow between the tropics; another is the periodical, which always begin and end within a certain time of the year, or a certain hour of the day, as the monsoons, the land-breezes and sea-breezes, which arise constantly in the morning and evening; and lastly, such as are variable, as well with regard to their direction as their velocity and duration.

M. Mariotte computes the velocity of the most impetuous wind to be at the rate of 32 feet in a second, and Mr Derham makes it 66 feet in the same time. The first, doubtless, meant the wind of the greatest velocity that had then come to his knowledge. The invention of aerostatic machines has tended more to show the real velocity of the wind than any other invention as yet made public; but all of them move slower than the aerial current; so that the real velocity of the wind remains yet undetermined.

XI. The force of the wind, like that of other bodies, depends on its velocity and mass; that is, the quantity of air which is in motion: so the same wind has more or less force on any obstacle that opposes it, in proportion as that obstacle presents a greater or a less surface: for which reason it is that they spread the sails of a vessel more or less, and place the wings of a windmill in different directions. The machines by which the winds are measured, are called anemometers. They show the direction, the velocity, and the duration of winds. It is by the agitations of the wind that the air is purified; that the seeds of trees and herbs are conveyed through the forests and fields; that ships are driven from one pole to the other; that our mills turn upon their axes, &c.; and art, by imitating nature, sometimes procures us artificial winds, by which we refresh our bodies, invigorate our fires, purify our corn, &c.

XII. Water is an universal agent, which nature employs in all her productions. It may be considered as in three states, 1. As a liquid; 2. As a vapour; 3. As ice. These three different states do not in any manner change its essence, but make it proper to answer different ends. The natural state of water would be that of a solid body, as fat, wax, and all those other bodies which are only fluid when heated to a certain degree: for water would be constantly ice, if the particles of fire, by which it is penetrated in the temperate climates, did not render it fluid, by producing a reciprocal motion among its parts; and, in a country where the cold is continually strong enough to maintain the congelation, the affluence of art is necessary to make it fluid in the same manner as we do lead, &c. Water, when not in ice, is a fluid that is insipid, transparent, without colour, and without smell, and that easily adheres to the surface of some bodies, that penetrates many, and extinguishes fire. Experimental philosophy investigates the origin of fountains; the cause of the saltness of the sea; the means of purifying water; what is its weight, and what are its effects when heated, &c. It likewise examines this fluid in the state of vapour; and finds that a drop of water, when in vapour, occupies a space vastly greater than it did before. It explains the volatile and its effects; fire engines; and the force of vapours that give motion to immense machines in mines and elsewhere, &c. and lastly, it considers water in the state of ice. Ice consequently is more cold than water; and its coldness increases if it continue to lose that matter, already too rare, or too little active, to render it fluid. Experimental physics endeavours to investigate the causes of the congelation of water, and why ice is lighter than water; from whence it derives that expansive force by which it breaks the containing vessel; the difference there is between the congelation of rivers and that of standing waters; why ice becomes more cold by the mixture of salts; and many other similar phenomena.

XIII. The nature of fire is yet very much unknown to the most learned philosophers. As objects when at a great distance are not perceptible to our senses, so when we examine them too nearly, we discern them but confusedly. It is still disputed whether fire be a homogeneous, unalterable matter, designed, by its presence, or by its action, to produce heat, inflammation, and dissolution, in bodies; or if its essence consists in motion only, or in the fermentation of those particles which we call inflammable, and which enter as principles, in greater or less quantities, in the composition of mixed bodies. The most learned inquirers into nature incline to the former opinion; and to have recourse to a matter which they regard as the principle of fire. They suppose that there is in nature a fluid adapted to this purpose, created such from the beginning; and that nothing more is necessary than to put it in action. The numberless experiments which are daily made in electricity seem to favour this opinion, and to prove that this matter, this fluid, this elementary fire, is diffused through all nature, and in all bodies, even ice itself. We cannot say what important knowledge this great discovery of electricity may lead if we continue our inquiries concerning it. It appears, however, that we may believe, without any inconvenience or absurdity, that fire and light, considered in their first principle, are one and the same substance differently modified.

XIV. Be this matter however as it may, experimental philosophy is employed in making the most ingenious and most useful researches concerning the nature of fire, its propagation, and the means by which its power may be excited or augmented; concerning the phosphorus and its inflammation; fire excited by the reflection of the sun's rays from a mirror; and on the effects of fire in general; concerning lightning and its effects; the fusion of metals; gunpowder and its explosion; explosion; flame and the aliments of fire; and an infinity of like objects which it explains, or concerning which it makes new discoveries, by the aid of experiments.

XV. By the word light, we understand that agent by which nature affects the eye with that lively and almost constantly pleasing sensation, which we call seeing, and by which we discern the size, figure, colour, and situation of objects, when at a convenient distance. All philosophers agree, that the light, which is diffused in any place, is a real body. But what this body is, and by what means it enters that place where it is perceived, is a question about which philosophers are divided.

XVI. Experimental philosophy is applied in discovering or proving, by an infinity of experiments, what is the nature of light, in what manner it is propagated, what its velocity and progressive motion. It also investigates and explains the principles of optics properly so called, and shows the directions which light observes in its motions. From thence it proceeds to the examen of the principles of catoptrics, and describes the laws and effects of reflected light. It next treats of the principles of dioptries, and explains the laws of refracted light; and lastly, it teaches, from the principles of natural and artificial vision, the construction of optical instruments, as lenses, concave mirrors, prisms, telescopes, &c. &c. and the uses to which they are applied.

XVII. By resolving or separating the rays of light, philosophy has obtained true and clear discoveries of the nature of colours. We are naturally led to imagine that colours, and their different degrees, make a part of the bodies that present them to our sight; that white is inherent in snow, green in leaves and grass, and red in a stuff dyed of that colour. But this is far from being true. If an object, which presents any colour to our sight, be not illuminated, it presents no colour whatsoever. In the night all is black. Colours therefore depend on light; for without that we could form no idea of them: but they depend also on bodies; for of several objects presented to the same light, some appear white, others red, blue, &c. But all these matters being separate from our own bodies, we should never acquire any ideas of them, if the light, transmitted or reflected by these objects, did not make them sensible to us, by striking upon the organs of our sight, and if these impressions did not revive in us those ideas which we have been used to express by certain terms. For these reasons philosophers consider colours from three points of view, 1. As in the light; 2. In bodies, as being coloured; and, 3. From the relation they have to our visual faculties, which they particularly affect, and by which we are enabled to distinguish them.

It is unnecessary in this place to say more either on colour in particular or experimental philosophy in general. The different subjects of this collective article are particularly treated under their proper names, in the order of the alphabet: the reader will therefore turn, as he has occasion, to Acoustics, Catoptrics, Chromatics, Dioptries, Hydrostatics, Mechanics, Optics, Pneumatics, Electricity, Magnetism, &c. &c. &c. Also Aerology, Aerostation, Atmosphere, Burning-Glass, Cold, Colour, Congelation, Evaporation, Fire, Flame, Fluidity, Heat, Ignition, Light, Sound, Steam, Water, Wind, &c.