in gardening and husbandry, a hedge, wall, ditch, bank, or other inclosure, made round gardens, fields, woods, &c.

In hot climates, where they have not occasion for walls to ripen their fruit, their gardens lie open, where they can have a water-fence, and prospects; or else they bound their gardens with groves, in which are fountains, walks, &c. which are much more pleasing to the sight than a dead wall; but, in colder countries, we are obliged to have walls to shelter and ripen our fruit, although they take away much from the pleasant prospect of the garden. Brick-walls are accounted the best and warmest for fruit; and these walls, being built panelwise, with pillars at equal distances, will save a great deal of charge, in that the walls may be built thinner than if they were made plain without these panels, for then it would be necessary to build them thicker everywhere; and, besides, these panels make the walls look the handsomer. Stone-walls, however, on account of their durability, are to be preferred to those of brick, especially those of square hewn stones. Those that are made of rough stones, though they are very dry and warm, yet, by reason of their unevenness, are inconvenient to nail up trees to, except pieces of timber be laid in them here and there for that purpose.

But, in large gardens, it is better to have the prospect open to the pleasure-garden; which should be surrounded with a fosse, that from the garden the adjacent country may be viewed. But this must depend on the situation of the place: for, if the prospect from the garden is not good, it had better be shut out from the sight than be open. As also, when a garden lies near a populous town, and the adjoining grounds are open to the inhabitants; if the garden is open, there will be no walking there in good weather, without being exposed to the view of all passers-by, which is very disagreeable.

Where the fosses are made round a garden which is situated in a park, they are extremely proper; because hereby the prospect of the park will be obtained in the garden, which renders those gardens much more agreeable than those that are confined.—In the making these fosses there have been many inventions; but, upon the whole, none seem preferable to those which have an upright wall next the garden, which (where the soil will admit of a deep trench) should be five or six feet high; and, from the foot of this wall, the ground on the outside should rise with a gradual easy slope, to the distance of 18 or 20 feet; and where it can be allowed, if it slopes much farther it will be easier, and less perceptible as a ditch, to the eye, when viewed at a distance: but, if the ground is naturally wet, so as not to admit a deep fosse, then, in order to make a fence against cattle, if the wall be four feet high, and flight posts of three feet high are placed just behind the wall, with a small chain carried on from post to post, no cattle or deer will ever attempt to jump against it; therefore it will be a secure fence against them; and if these are painted green, they will not be discerned at a distance, and at the same time the chain will secure persons walking in the garden from tumbling over.

In places where there are no good prospects to be obtained from a garden, it is common to make the inclosure of park-paling; which, if well performed, will last many years, and has a much better appearance than a wall: and this pale may be hid from the sight within, by plantations of shrubs and evergreens; or there may be a quick-hedge planted within the pale, which may be trained up, so as to be an excellent fence by the time the pales begin to decay.

Fences round parks are generally of palings; which if well made of winter-fallen oak, will last many years. But a principal thing to be observed, in making these pales, is not to make them too heavy; for, when they are so, their own weight will cause them to decay: therefore the pales should be cleft thin; and the rails should be cut triangular, to prevent the wet lodging upon them; and the posts should be good, and not placed too far asunder. If these things are observed, one of these pales will last, with a little care, upwards of 40 years very well. The common way of making these fences is, to have every other pale nine or ten inches above the intermediate ones; so that the fence may be six feet and a half high, which is enough for fallow deer; but, where there are red deer, the fence should be one foot higher, otherwise they will leap over.

Some inclose their parks with brick walls; and in countries where stone is cheap, the walls are built with this material; some with, and others without, mortar.

A kitchen-garden, if rightly contrived, will contain walling enough to afford a supply of such fruits as require the affluence of walls, for any family; and this garden, being situated on one side, and quite out of sight of the house, may be surrounded with walls which will screen the kitchen-garden from the sight of persons in the pleasure-garden; and, being locked up, the fruit will be much better preserved than it can be in the public garden; and the having too great a quantity of walling is often the occasion that so many ill-managed trees are frequently to be seen in large gardens.

The height of garden walls should be 12 feet, which is a moderate proportion; and, if the foil be good, it may in time be well furnished with bearing-wood in every part, especially that part planted with pears, notwithstanding of the branches being trained horizontally from the bottom of the walls.

With regard to the more common kinds of fences, Mr Anderson gives the following directions, in his Essays on Agriculture, &c. "The fences that are most universally employed, are either stone-dikes or hedges (a). Dikes, if well built, as effectually preserve a field from the intrusion of domestic animals, as any other kind of fence whatever; but they afford little warmth

(a) Dike is a term employed to denote any kind of wall reared for the purpose of inclosing a field and nothing else. Fence.

warmth or shelter to the field; whereas hedges, if good, answer both these purposes equally well. But the most material distinction between dikes and hedges is, that dikes are in their highest degree of perfection as soon as they are reared, and from that moment begin to tend towards decay; so that the person who builds this kind of fence immediately receives the full benefit thereof; whereas hedges, being at first weak and tender, stand in need of attention and care, and do not become a fence for several years after they are planted; and, as they continue to increase in strength, and gradually acquire a higher and higher degree of perfection, it is long before they begin to fall towards decay; so that they are, in general, infinitely more durable than dikes, although they are longer of becoming of use to the person who plants them. Which of these two kinds of fences may, upon the whole, be most eligible, must, in general, be determined by the circumstances and views of the possessor of the ground to be inclosed. If he is a tenant who has a short lease, without a prospect of getting it renewed; or, if he has immediate occasion for a complete fence; it will be, in general, most prudent in him to make choice of dikes, if the materials for rearing these are at hand; but, if there is any probability that his posterity may reap any advantage from these inclosures, it will be almost always more for his advantage to make choice of hedges.

"A dike built of freestone and lime will be almost as durable as a hedge; although, in general, it will neither be so cheap nor agreeable. But dry-stone dikes, unless built of the finest quarried stone, are of such a perishable nature, as to be hardly ever worth the expense of rearing; and never, excepting where the field that you would wish to inclose has plenty of stones upon its surface, which you are under a necessity of carrying away before the field can be improved. In this situation a man may, in some measure, be excused, if he should be tempted to put them into dikes; because the carriage of these stones may be said to cost him nothing; and he may, perhaps, be at some loss how to dispose of them in any other manner. But, in all other circumstances, it is very bad economy to rear fences of this kind, as such dikes can always be built at one-fourth of the expense that these would cost—will answer all purposes equally well; and, if carefully built, will be kept in repair for any number of years at as small an expense as they could be.

"The want of durability generally complained of in these dikes is owing to their bad construction. The greatest part of them are made of a considerable thickness, with a ditch on each side; the heart of the dike being made up with the earth that is taken from these ditches; and only a thin wall, on each side, is built of solid feal from top to bottom; the consequence of which is, that as the loose earth that is thrown into the middle of the dike subsides much more than the feal on each side, the top of the dike sinks down; and, of course, the two side-walls are pressed too much upon the inside, so as to bilge (swell) out about the middle, and quickly crumble down to dust. To avoid this inconvenience, I have always chosen to build my dikes of this sort thinner than usual: they being only three feet and a half thick at the bottom; one foot, or a very little more, at top; and five feet high: taking care to have them built in such a manner, as that every

fod (feal), from top to bottom binds the joinings of the others below it, with as much accuracy as the bricks in a well built wall. The uppermost course of feal is cut a little longer than those that are immediately below it, and placed with the grassy side uppermost, so as to project a little on each side; which not only helps to throw the water a little off the dike, but also to prevent sheep or cattle from attempting to jump over it so readily as they otherwise might do. At the foot of the dike, on each side, is dug a small ditch, about a foot and a half or two feet deep; leaving a ledge of a few inches broad on each side, that the dike may not be undermined by the crumbling down of the loose earth into the ditch. These ditches not only help to give the dike an additional height, and keep its foundation dry; but are also of use to prevent cattle from coming close to it and rubbing upon it, or tearing it down with their horns, which they are very apt to do if this precaution be omitted. The earth that is taken out of the ditches may be thrown outwards into the place that was occupied by the feal that has been taken to build the dike; and if the field is in grass, a few seeds may be sown upon it, and it will soon be covered as well as the rest of the field.

"By having the joints bound in every direction, the fabric is rendered much firmer than it could be by any irregular manner of working, while it is at the same time more easily reared. If the ground is soft, and the feal rise well, I get a fence of this kind done for one penny halfpenny per yard; but, if it is not good to work, a little more than that must be allowed. As to the time that a fence of this kind may stand without needing any repair, I cannot speak with certainty, as it is not long since I fell into this method of building them. The oldest has just now stood ten years, and seems to be nearly as firm as when first built. I have seen some walls of poor cottages which have been built somewhat after this manner, that have been good after standing 40 or 50 years; but their durability depends greatly upon the nature of the feal of which they are formed. The best is that which is taken from poor ground of a spongy quality, which is generally covered with a strong layer of coarse bent grass. And, in situations where this can be had, I would have no hesitation in recommending this as the cheapest and best temporary fence that could be reared.

"The greatest inconvenience that attends this species of fence, is the danger it runs of being torn down by the horns, or waited away by the rubbing, of cattle upon it; which they will sometimes do notwithstanding the ditches. This may be effectually prevented by planting a row of sweet-briar (eglantine) plants between the first and second course of feal when the dike is built, which will not fail to grow with luxuriance, and in a short time defend the dike from every attack of this kind. But if sheep are to be kept in the inclosures, this plant ought not, on any account, to be employed; for, as that animal naturally flies to the fences for shelter in stormy weather, the prickles of the trailing branches of the briar will catch hold of the wool, and tear it off in great quantities, to the great detriment of the flock and lots of the proprietor. In these cases, if the possessor of the ground is not afraid of the bad consequences that may be dreaded from the spread- spreading of whins (furze), it would be much better to scatter a few of the seeds of this plant along the ledges at the foot of the dike, which would quickly become a preservative for it, and be otherwise of use as a green food for his sheep during the winter season. But, before he ventures to sow this plant, let him remember, that where it is once established, it will hardly fail to spread through the adjoining fields, and can hardly be ever afterwards thoroughly rooted out.

"I have often imagined that this kind of fence might be greatly improved both in beauty and strength, by planting a row of ivy plants beneath the first course of flail in building the dike; which would, in a short time, climb up the sides of the dike and cover the whole with a close and beautiful network of woody fibres; covered with leaves of the most beautiful verdure; which would tend to preserve the dike from being eaten away by frost, and other vicissitudes of weather. And when it is arrived at the top, it would there send out a number of strong woody branches, forming a fort of hedge, that would afford some shelter to the fields, and break the force of the wind considerably; but as I never have yet had an opportunity of trying the experiment, I only here offer it as a probable conjecture. I have seen a garden-wall that had been built of stone and clay, ornamented and strengthened in this way. I have had the experience of ivy growing well upon a dry stone-dike; and have likewise seen it growing up the walls, and covering whole cottages built of flail; which have by this means been preserved entire, long after the walls that had been naked have fallen to decay. But, not having had plants of this kind at hand, I have not had an opportunity of trying it in the manner proposed; although, I think, there is the greatest reason to hope for success.

"Whins (furze) have been often employed as a fence when sowed upon the top of a bank. They are attended with the convenience of coming very quickly to their perfection, and of growing upon a foil on which few other plants could be made to thrive; but, in the way that they are commonly employed, they are neither a strong nor a lasting fence. The first of these defects may, in some measure, be removed, by making the bank upon which they are sowed (for they never should be transplanted) of a considerable breadth; in order that the largeness of the aggregate body, considered as one mass, may in some measure make up for the want of strength in each individual plant. With this view, a bank may be raised of five or six feet in breadth at the top, with a large ditch on each side of it; raising the bank as high as the earth taken from the ditches will permit; the surface of which should be sowed pretty thick with whin-seeds. These will come up very quickly; and in two or three years will form a barrier that few animals will attempt to break through, and will continue in that state of perfection for some years. But the greatest objection to this plant as a fence is, that, as it advances in size, the old prickles always die away; there being never more of them alive at any time upon the plant, than those that have been the produce of the year immediately preceding; and these thus gradually falling away, leave the stems naked below as they advance in height; so that it very soon becomes an exceeding poor and unsightly fence; the stems being entirely bare, and so slender without as not to be able to make a sufficient resistance to almost any animal whatever. To remedy this great defect, either of the two following methods may be adopted. The first is, to take care to keep the bank always stored with young plants; never allowing them to grow to such a height as to become bare below; and it was principally to admit of this, without losing at any time the use of the fence, that I have advised the bank to be made of such an unusual breadth. For if one side of the hedge be cut quite close to the bank, when it is only two or three years old, the other half will remain as a fence till that side become strong again; and then the opposite side may be cut down in its turn; and so on alternately as long as you may incline: by which means the bank will always have a strong hedge upon it without ever becoming naked at the root. And as this plant, when bruised, is one of the most valuable kinds of winter-food yet known for all kinds of domestic animals*, the young tops may be carried home* See Agric. and employed for that purpose by the farmer; which will abundantly compensate for the trouble of cutting, and the waste of ground that is occasioned by the breadth of the bank.

"The other method of preserving a hedge of whins from turning open below, can only be practised where sheep are kept; but may be there employed with great propriety. In this case it will be proper to sow the seeds upon a conical bank of earth, shored up from the surface of the ground on each side without any ditches. If this is preserved from the sheep for two or three years at first, they may then be allowed free access to it; and, as they can get up close to the foot of the bank upon each side, if they have been accustomed to this kind of food, they will eat up all the young shoots that are within their reach, which will occasion them to send out a great many lateral shoots; and these being continually browsed upon, soon become as close as could be desired, and are then in no sort of danger of becoming naked at the root, although the middle part should advance to a considerable height.

"The fences hitherto mentioned are only intended to preserve fields from the intrusion of cattle; but, on some occasions, it is necessary to have a fence that would even repel the efforts of men to break through it: as around bleaching-fields, orchards, &c.; the want of which often subjects the proprietor of such fields to very disagreeable accidents. And, as such a fence might, on some occasions, be procured at no great expense or trouble, it were to be wished that the method of doing this were more generally known than it is at present. To effectuate this, it is necessary to begin by trenching up or ploughing a large belt all around the field you mean to inclose, of 40 or 50 feet or more in breadth, if you find it convenient: the outer edge of which should be inclosed by a good dike, or a ditch and hedge. This belt should be kept in culture one year, and well manured, if your situation will admit of it; and laid up before winter in such a manner that no water may be allowed to lodge upon it; and planted in the winter-time all over with plants of eglantine to thick as not to be above two feet from one another; and between these put a good number of young birch plants not above two years old, interpered with hazels, oak, ash, rawn (wild service), and other trees that you think will thrive upon your soil; together with thorns. thorns, hollies, brambles, and wood-bine (honeysuckle): and having then fenced it from cattle, and kept down the weeds that may rise upon its surface by the hoe, as long as you can conveniently get access into it, leave it afterwards to nature. If this is done, and your soil be not extremely bad, the belt in a very few years will be entirely filled with a close bush of trees, so intermixed with the bending branches of the eglantine, and bound together by the trailing shoots of the bramble and woodbine, that no animal above the size of a cat could penetrate; especially when it is of such a depth as I have recommended.

"The first hint that I got for a fence of this kind was from a small thicket of brushwood that I had planted for ornament, pretty much in the manner above described; which in a short time became so much interwoven with the sweet-briar, that it was impossible to find any access into it. But as all kinds of trees and shrubs, if planted very close upon one another, become naked at the root when they arrive at any considerable size, care should be taken to prevent it from ever coming to that state, by cutting it down whenever it becomes in danger of being open at the root. And as it would be improper ever to leave the field entirely defenced, it is a great advantage to have the belt as broad as it conveniently may be, so that the one half of it may be a sufficient fence; by which means, we will have it in our power to cut down the inside and the outside of the belt alternately, so as still to keep the thicket young, and never to want at any time a sufficient fence; and the brushwood that this afforded at each cutting would, in almost every situation, yield such a revenue as would do much more than indemnify the proprietor for the rent of the ground that was occupied by this fence. And if the field was in such a situation as required shelter, some trees might be allowed to grow to their full size about the middle, without any inconvenience, if the belt were of a sufficient breadth.

"There is one other species of fencing as useful as any of those already mentioned, which is in general much less understood, and more difficult to execute properly, that deserves here to be taken notice of; viz., the method of securing the banks of rivers from being washed away by the violence of the stream, and of preventing the damages that may otherwise be occasioned by the swelling of the waters.

"It frequently happens that, when a river runs in a bed of rich vegetable mould, the least accident that may chance to divert the stream towards any particular part of the bank, causes it to sweep away large tracts of fine ground, to the very great detriment of the proprietor, as well as the public; as this fine mould is usually carried to the sea, and the place that the water leaves to occupy the new bed that it thus forms for itself is generally of a much worse quality; consisting chiefly of stones, sand, and gravel. In some cases, where the whole force of the current is quite close to the bank, and the materials necessary for fencing it are not to be found, it may perhaps be impossible or very difficult totally to prevent this evil; but, for the most part, it admits of a cure that can be obtained at a pretty moderate expense.

"These ravages are always greatest where the bank rises perpendicularly to a pretty considerable height above the ordinary surface of the water, and never at those places where the banks shelved down gradually towards the water's edge; for, when the river is swelled to a great height by rains, and runs with a force and rapidity greater than usual, it strikes violently against these perpendicular banks that directly oppose its course, which being composed of earth quite bare and uncovered, are easily softened by the water, and quickly washed away; so that the upper part of the bank being thus undermined, falls by its own weight into the river, and is carried off in prodigious quantities; whereas at those parts of the bank that slope gradually downwards to the water's edge, when the river rises to any considerable height, it gently glides along its surface; which being defended by the matted roots of the grasses with which it is covered, scarcely sustains any damage at all; and is nearly the same after the water has retired within its banks as before the inundation. These facts, which no one who has bestowed the least attention to this subject can fail to have observed, clearly point out, that the first and most necessary step towards a cure, is to level down the edge of the bank that is next to the water, so as to make it slope gradually down towards the river. If the bank is very high, and you have no other particular use for the earth that must be taken from it, the safest method of disposing of it, will be to throw it into the river; but, in whatever manner you may dispose of the earth, the slope of the bank must be continued until the inner edge of it is as low as the surface of the water at the driest time of the year, and be made to ascend gradually upwards from the water with an easy slope, till it comes to the level of the ground, or at least rises to such a height as that the water never exceeds. This operation ought to be performed as early in summer as possible; and should be either immediately covered with turf, pared from the surface of some field that has a very strong sward upon it, taking care to lay these in such a manner as to be in as little danger as possible of being washed away by any accidental flood that might happen before they had grown together; or, if the turf of this kind cannot be easily had, it should be sowed very thick with the seeds of some small mat-rooted grasses, that should be kept in readiness for this purpose (c).

"If the stream has not been extremely rapid at the foot of the bank, some of the earth that was thrown into the water will be allowed to subside to the bottom, and will there form a bank of loose soft earth, which will be of great use afterwards in preventing the face of the bank under water from being washed away; but, in order to secure this bulwark effectually for the future, the surface of this soft earth ought to be instantly stuck full of the roots of bog-reeds, flags, water-spiderwort, rushes, and other mat-rooted aquatic plants; which, if allowed to remain till they have once struck root, will afterwards form a barrier that nothing will ever be able to destroy. But, if the stream be too rapid to admit of this, and the bank of soft earth is much deeper than the surface of the water, it will be of use to fill up the breast of the bank with loose stones carefully.

(c) The creeping meadow-grass, *poa repens*, is a proper grass for this purpose. carelessly thrown in, till they rise near the surface of the water; which would most effectually secure it against any future encroachments, if the bank is sloped away above.

"If it should so happen that stones cannot be easily got for this purpose, the only resource which in this case remains, is to dig the bank so low, that at the undermined edge, it may be always below the surface of the water, and carry it out in this way for a considerable distance, and then stick the whole surface that is below the water full of mat-rooted aquatic plants; which will in a great measure, if not entirely, defend it from any future encroachments. This bank ought to continue to slope downwards even where it was below water, and those aquatics that will grow in the greatest depth of water be planted on the innermost brink, and the others behind them. The water-spiderwort will grow in four feet depth of water, and the roots of the common yellow-flowered water-iris forms such a strong and compact covering upon the surface of the soil on which it grows, as would defend it from being affected by the water almost as well as if it were a rock: it is likewise an advantage attending this plant, that it grows upon a firm bottom, and chiefly delights in running water.

"If the stratum of soft earth is not so deep as to reach to the surface of the water, and lies upon a stratum of rock or hard gravel, there will be no occasion for throwing in stones of any kind. But, as it is difficult to unite the vegetable mould to any of these strata, there will always be some danger of its separating from these in violent inundations; and if the water once get an entry, it will not fail to grow larger and larger by every future inundation. To prevent this inconvenience, it will be necessary, after you have flooded the earth away till you reach the gravel or rock, to cover the place where the edge of the earth joins the inferior stratum with a good many small stones, if they can be found; sowing between them the seeds of any kind of plants that you think are most likely to thrive, which have strong matted roots with as small and flexible tops as possible. You will easily observe, that from the impossibility of ever making earth adhere firmly to stone of any kind, it must always be an improper practice to face the banks of a river to a certain height with stone which is coped at top with earth."

For the most proper methods of raising hedges of different kinds, see Hedge.