slaughter, and soon after made himself master of the imperial city of Delhi. At this time the capital consisted of three cities, named Old Delhi, Seyri, and Jehan Penah. Seyri was surrounded with a wall in the form of a circle; and Old Delhi was the same, but much larger, lying to the southwest of the other. These two were joined on each side by a wall; and the third, which was larger than the other two, lay between them. As the city made no resistance, there could not be a pretence for using the inhabitants with any cruelty; and thus matters passed on quietly till the 12th of January, when the Tartar soldiers inflicted some of the inhabitants at one of the gates. The Emirs were ordered to put a stop to these disorders, but found it impossible. The Sultanas, having a curiosity to see the rarities of Delhi, and particularly a famous palace adorned with 1000 pillars built by an ancient Indian king, went in with all the court; and the gate being thus left open for everybody, above 15,000 soldiers got in unperceived. But there was a far larger number of troops in a place between the cities above mentioned, who committed such disorders, that an insurrection commenced; some of the inhabitants attacking them, while others, in despair, set fire to their houses, and burnt themselves with their wives and children. The soldiers, taking advantage of this confusion, pillaged the houses; while the disorder was augmented by the admission of more troops, who seized the inhabitants of the neighbouring cities that had fled to Delhi for shelter. The Emirs caused the gates to be shut; but they were quickly opened by the soldiers, who rose in arms against their officers; so that, by the morning of the next day, the whole army was entered, and the city totally destroyed. Some soldiers carried off no fewer than 150 slaves, men, women, and children; nay, some of their boys had 20 slaves apiece to their share. The other spoils in jewels, plate, and manufactures, were immense: for the Indian women and girls were all adorned with precious stones, and had bracelets and rings on their hands, feet, and even toes, so that the soldiers were loaded with them. On the 15th the Indians attempted to defend themselves in the great mosque of Old Delhi; but being attacked by the Tartars, they were all slaughtered, and towers erected. A dreadful carnage now ensued throughout the whole city, though several days elapsed before the inhabitants could be forced to quit it entirely; and as they went, the Emirs took many of them into their service. The artisans were also distributed among the princes and commanders, all but the masons, who were reserved for the emperor, in order to build him a large stone mosque at Samarcan.

After this terrible devastation, Tamerlane marched into the different provinces of Hindostan, everywhere defeating the Indians who opposed him, and slaughtering the Ghebirs or worshippers of fire. On the 25th of March he retired, and thus set the miserable inhabitants free from the most bloody conqueror that had ever invaded them. He did not, however, disturb the succession to the throne, but left Mahmud in quiet possession of it, referring to himself only that of the Panjab country. The death of Mahmud, which happened in 1413, put an end to what is called the Patan dynasty, founded by Cuttub in 1205. He was succeeded by Chizer, who derived his pedigree from the im-

postor Mohammed, and his posterity continued to enjoy it till the year 1450; when Belloli, an Afghan of the tribe of Lodi, took possession of it, the reigning prince Alla II. having abdicated the government. Under him all Hindostan was divided into separate states; and a prince, whose title was the king of the East, who resided at Jionpour in the province of Allahabad, became so formidable, that the king of Delhi had only a shadow of authority remaining to him. A considerable part of the empire, however, was recovered by the son of Belloli; who, in the year 1501, fixed his royal residence at Agra. During his reign the Portuguese first accomplished the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, but they had no connection with any other part of Hindostan than some maritime places in the Deccan which had always been independent of the court of Delhi. In 1516, during the reign of Ibrahim II., matters fell into such confusion that Sultan Baber, a descendant of Tamerlane, found means to conquer a very considerable part of the empire. His first expedition took place in the year 1518; and the year 1525 made himself master of Delhi. In his last invasion he is said to have brought with him only 10,000 horse; having been furnished with the rest by the disaffected subjects of the emperor. During the five years that he reigned, his chief employment was the reduction of some of the eastern provinces, but had not time to compose the disturbances which took place throughout the whole of his dominions. On his death the seeds of rebellion, which Baber had not been able to exterminate, produced so many revolts and insurrections, that his son Humaioon, though a prince of great abilities and virtue, was driven from the throne, and obliged to take shelter among the Rajpoot princes of Agimere, where he lived in great distress. During the time of his exile his son Ackbar was born, whom Mr Rennell looks upon to be one of the greatest princes that ever sat on the throne of Hindostan. The sovereignty was held in the mean time by an usurper, named Sheer Khan, who in 1545 was killed at the siege of Chitore, and buried in a magnificent mausoleum, of which Mr Hodges lately exhibited a drawing in this country. His territories, at the time of his death, extended from the Indus to Bengal; but so unsettled was the government, that after his decease no fewer than five sovereigns appeared in the space of nine years. This induced a strong party in Hindostan to recapture Humaioon; but he lived only one year after his return.

In 1555, Humaioon was succeeded by his son Ackbar, at that time only 14 years of age. During his long reign of 51 years, he established the empire on a more sure foundation than it had probably ever been before; though even at this time Mr Rennell is of opinion, that all the tranquillity enjoyed by the people was merely that there was no actual rebellion. The first years of his reign were spent in reducing the provinces which had revolted from Agimere to Bengal; and the obedience of these he took care to secure as well as possible by a careful choice of governors; particularly by an unlimited toleration in religious matters, and an attention to the rights and privileges of the people. In 1585, he resolved to invade the Deccan, which had hitherto resisted the power of the Mogul princes. The war continued for 20 years; during all which time no farther Hindostan farther progress was made than the reduction of the western part of Berar, Candehi, Tellingana (a division of Golconda), and the northern part of Amednagar; the capital of which, named also Amednagar, was taken in 1601, after a long and bloody siege, and an unsuccessful attempt of the princes of the Deccan to relieve it. Under his successor Jehan Guire, the project was but faintly carried on; the empire was disturbed by the rebellion of Shah Jehan the emperor's son; and the influence of Noor Jehan his mistress perplexed the councils of the nation. In this prince's reign Sir Thomas Roe, the first English ambassador, arrived at the court of Hindostan. The Portuguese had now acquired considerable possessions in Guzarat and Bengal, but only those in the former province attracted the attention of the court; so that the Persian historian takes no notice of those in Bengal. In the reign of Shah Jehan, who succeeded his father Jehan Guire in 1627, the conquest of the Deccan was more vigorously pushed than before; and the war was carried on in such a destructive manner, that most of the princes in those parts were fain to make submission to the emperor. During this reign a war took place with the Portuguese, which ended in the expulsion of the latter from Hoogly on the Ganges. In his private character Shah Jehan was a very debauched and wicked prince, which gave occasion to one of his sons named Aureng-zib or Aureng-zebe, to dethrone him.

This prince attained his end by a train of deep hypocrisy and dissimulation; covering his ambition with a pretence of religion, and under that pretence committing the greatest crimes. He engaged in a war with two of his brothers, both of whom he defeated by unforeseen accidents, when he himself seemed to be on the brink of destruction. Having at last got them into his power, he put them both to death, and then lamented their misfortune. One of his brothers who assisted him, was rewarded first with imprisonment, and then with death. By the year 1660, he had attained full possession of the sovereignty, and from that time to the year 1678 there reigned a profound tranquillity throughout the whole empire. In the latter part of his reign he undertook the conquest of the Deccan, to which he was supposed to be incited by the resolution and growing power of Sevagee, the founder of the Mahratta state; and who, in that character, appeared almost as a rival to Aurengzebe himself. Having quelled a rebellion of the Patans, who lived beyond the Indus, he persecuted the Hindoos to such a degree, that the Rajpoot tribes in Agamere commenced a war against him. On this occasion he headed his armies also in person; but having the misfortune to be hemmed in among the mountains, he would certainly have been taken prisoner, had not the enemy thought proper to allow him to escape. They allowed also the empress to make her escape after she had been actually taken. In 1681 he renewed his incursions into that country, took and destroyed Chechur, committing other devastations, and everywhere destroying the Hindu-temples and objects of worship; but notwithstanding all his efforts, he was at last obliged to abandon his enterprise, and allow them to remain in peace. From the year 1678 to the time of his death in 1707, he is said to have been chiefly employed in the Deccan, the greatest part of which he reduced, and for the last five years of his life is said to have been actually employed in the field. This long absence from his capital could not but be productive of bad consequences. Rebellions broke out in various parts of the empire; and during this period, the Jats or Jauts first made their appearance in the province of Agra. They were at first only a set of banditti; but have since grown to be a very considerable state, and once were of some consequence in Upper Hindostan. After the tenth year of Aurengzebe's reign, however, we know very little of his transactions, as he would not allow any history of it to be written. At the time of his death the empire extended from the tenth to the thirty-fifth degree of latitude, and almost as many degrees in longitude. "His revenue (says Major Rennell) exceeded 35 millions of pounds Sterling, in a country where the products of the earth are about four times as cheap as in England. But so weighty a sceptre could be wielded only by a hand like Aurengzebe's; and we accordingly find, that in a course of 50 years after his death, a succession of weak princes and wicked ministers reduced this astonishing empire to nothing."

Aurengzebe left four sons; Mauhum, afterwards emperors, under the title of Bahader Shah; Azem, Kaum Buft, and Achar, who had been obliged to fly to Persia 30 years before on account of his having engaged in rebellion against his father. A civil war instantly commenced between Azem and Mauzum; the event of which was decided in a great battle, where 300,000 combatants were brought into the field on each side. In this battle Azem was defeated and killed; after which Mauzum ascended the throne by the title of Bahader Shah. He was a prince of considerable abilities; but the disorders of the empire were already risen to such an height, that during his short reign of five years, he found it impossible to compose them. He was first engaged in war with his brother Kaum Buft, whom he also defeated and killed; after which his attention was engaged by the Seiks, a new set of religionists, who, during the reign of Shah Jehan, had silently established themselves along the foot of the eastern mountains. They now appeared in arms in the province of Lahora, and ravaged the whole country thence to the banks of the Jumna. The emperor marched against these adversaries in person, and with great difficulty brought them under subjection. He then took up his residence at Lahore, where he died after a short illness, without having ever visited the imperial cities of Agra or Delhi.

After the death of Bahader Shah the empire was again contested among his four sons. Of these the second, named Azem Oofhaun, took possession of the treasuries; but was opposed by his three brothers, who agreed to divide the empire among them. Azem was defeated and killed in a battle, gained chiefly by the valour and conduct of the youngest named Shah Jehan, who seemed resolved to abide by the agreement, and as a proof of his sincerity, ordered the treasuries to be divided. This was prevented by the intrigues of Zoofecar khan, an omrah in high trust. A new civil war commenced, in which Jehan Shah was killed. The two remaining brothers tried their fortune in a third battle, which left Jehaunder, the eldest, in possession of the throne. In nine months he was dethroned by Fera rakere. This revolution was accomplished by the assistance of two brothers, Houssein Ali Khan and Abdoola Khan, who had extensive governments in the eastern provinces. The calamities of the empire were not at all abated during this reign. In 1713 the Seiks appeared again in arms; and in 1716 were grown formidable, that the emperor himself was obliged to march against them; but we are totally ignorant of the particulars of this campaign. About this time the English East India company obtained the famous Firman or grant, by which their goods of export and import were exempted from duties or customs; which was regarded as the company's commercial charter in India, while they stood in need of protection from the princes of that country.

Ferokshere was deposed, and his eyes put out by the two brothers who had raised him to the throne; and in the course of the same year two other emperors, whom they afterwards set up, were deposed and murdered: and thus, in eleven years after the death of Aurengzebe, 11 princes of his line, who had either mounted the throne or been competitors for it, were exterminated, while the government declined with such rapidity, that the empire seemed ready to be dismembered to a greater degree than it had even been before the invasion of Tamerlane. In 1718 the two brothers raised to the throne Mohammed Shah, the grandson of Bahader Shah; but this prince having got sufficient warning by the fate of his predecessors, took care to rid himself of these powerful subjects, though this could not be accomplished without a civil war. New enemies, however, started up. Nizam-al-Muluk, viceroy of the Deccan, had been for some time augmenting his power by every possible method, and was evidently aspiring at independence. Having received some affronts from the two brothers, who for some time had ruled everything with an absolute sway, he thought proper to retire to his government. In 1722 he was invited to court, and offered the place of vizier or prime minister, but declined accepting it, while the growing and formidable power of the Mahrattas furnished him with a pretence for augmenting his army. At last, having by the year 1738 attained a sufficient degree of strength to accomplish his purposes, and confident of his having a large party at court, he came thither attended by a great body of armed followers. Finding, however, that the interest of the emperor was still too powerful for him, he invited the celebrated Persian usurper Nadir Shah, commonly known by the name of Khoulai Khan, to invade Hindostan. The invitation was accepted, and Nadir entered the country without opposition. The imperial general Douran being killed in a skirmish, no decisive engagement took place; and the Persian chief, though far advanced into Hindostan, yet looked upon matters to be so uncertain, that he offered to evacuate the country and retire for 500000 rupees, about half a million sterling. The intrigues of the Nizam and his party hindered the emperor from complying with this moderate demand; instead of which he absurdly threw himself upon the usurper's mercy, who then took possession of Delhi, demanding a ransom of 30 millions sterling. At an interview with the emperor, he severely reprimanded him for his misconduct; however he told him, that as he was of the race of Timur (Tamerlane), who had not offended the reigning family of Persia, he would not take the empire from him; only as he had put him to the trouble of coming so far to settle his affairs, he insisted that his expenses should be paid. The unfortunate emperor made no answer to this speech; but Nadir took care to enforce the latter part of it. Some time after the departure of the emperor, Nadir went to the camp to pay him a visit; where he seized upon 200 cannon, with some treasure and valuable effects, sending them off immediately to Candahar. He then marched back to Delhi, where a mob arose about the price of corn. As Nadir Shah was endeavouring to quell it, a musket was indignantly fired at him, by which he narrowly escaped being killed. Exasperated at this, he commanded an indiscriminate massacre to be made, which his cruel soldiers instantly put in execution with the greatest of Delhi alacrity, and 120,000, or according to others, 150,000, slaughter of the miserable inhabitants were slaughtered without mercy. This was followed by a seizure of all the jewels, plate, and valuable articles which could be found, besides the exaction of the 30 millions, which was done with the utmost rigour; infomuch that many of the inhabitants chose rather to put an end to their own lives than to bear the torments to which they were subjected in case of inability to pay the sum imposed upon them. During these horrid scenes, Nadir caused the marriage of his son to be celebrated with a grand daughter of Aurengzebe; and after having extorted every thing which he demanded, at last took leave of the emperor with every mark of friendship. He put the crown upon his head with his own hands; and after having given him some salutary advice relative to the government of his empire, he set out from Delhi on the 6th of May 1739.

By this invasion the empire sustained prodigious loss. Since the arrival of Nadir in Hindostan, about 200,000 people had been destroyed, and goods and treasure carried off to the amount of 125 millions sterling. Mohammed had ceded to the usurper all the provinces of Hindostan situated to the west of the Indus. His departure left the Nizam in possession of all the remaining power in the empire, which he instantly made use of to establish himself in the sovereignty of the Deccan. The province of Bengal had already become independent under Aliverdy Cawn, in the year 1738; and not long after, it was invaded by a vast army of Mahrattas under sanction of the emperor's name; who being unable to satisfy them in the arrears of tribute he had been obliged to consent to pay, sent them into Bengal to collect for themselves. About the same time, the Rohillas, a tribe from the mountains which lie between India and Persia, erected an independent state on the east of the Ganges, within 80 miles of Delhi.

The total dissolution of the empire seemed now to be fast approaching. In the confusion which took place after the murder of Nadir Shah, Abdallah, one of his generals, seized upon the eastern part of Persia, and the adjoining provinces of India, which had been ceded to Nadir by Mohammed Shah; which he formed into a kingdom still known by the name of Candahar. This year Mohammed Shah died, after a reign of 29 years; which, considering the fate of his immediate predecessors, and the anarchy universally prevalent throughout Hindostan, must be accounted very wonderful. He was succeeded by his son Ahmed Shah; during whose reign, which lasted about six years, the total division of the remainder of the empire took place. Nothing now remained to the family of Tamerlane but a small tract of territory round the city of Delhi, now no longer a capital, and exposed to the repeated depredations of invaders, with consequent massacres and famines. The last army which could with propriety be termed imperial, was defeated by the Rohillas in 1749; by which their independence was fully established in the eastern parts of the province of Delhi. The Jauts, or Jats, a Hindoo tribe, established themselves in the province of Agra; the Deccan and Bengal were seized upon by their viceroys, Nizam and Aliverdy. Oude was seized on by Seifdar Jang (father to the late Sujah Dowlah); Allahabad by Mohammed Kooli. Maliva was divided between the Poonah Mahrattas and several native princes and Zemindars; Agimere reverted of course to its ancient lords, the Rajput princes; and the Mahrattas, in addition to their proper share of Maliva, possessed the greatest part of Guzerat, Berar, and Orissa; besides their ancient dominions in the Deccan. These people were now become so powerful, that they were alternately courted and employed by the contending parties, like the Swits in Europe; with this difference, that the Swits are paid by those who employ them, whereas the Mahrattas always take care to pay themselves. Abdalla having established his empire in the manner above related, entered Lahore and Moulton, or the Panjab, with a view to conquest. "The whole country of Hindostan was in commotion (says Major Rennel) from one entrance to the other, each party fearing the machinations or attacks of the other; so that all regular government was at an end, and villany was practised in every form. Perhaps in the annals of the world it has seldom happened that the bonds of government were so suddenly dissolved, over a portion of country containing at least 60 millions of inhabitants."

In 1748 the Nizam died at the age of 104, and was succeeded by his son Nazir Jung, to the prejudice of his eldest brother Gazi, vizier to the nominal emperor. The contests that followed on this occasion for the throne of the Deccan, and nabobship of Arcot, first engaged the French and English as auxiliaries on opposite sides. This was followed by a long series of hostilities, which terminated in the total expulsion of the French from Hindostan, the entire humiliation of the Mogul, and his being reduced to the state of a mere tool of the English East India company; together with the subjection of a vast tract of country to the latter. These transactions have occasioned very considerable revolutions, not only in the country properly called Hindostan, but in other places of that extensive tract called the East Indies; for some account of which see the article India.

The vast country of Hindostan is at present divided among the following powers.

1. Timur Shah, son of Ahmed Shah, or Abdallah,

Vol. VIII. Part II. the Paishwa's brother, of whom so much mention has already been made. Next year, however, Ahmed crossed the Indus, and easily recovered his former territories; soon after which he became head of a league formed among some of the Indian princes, in order to oppose the overgrown power of the Mahrattas. In this enterprise he proved successful; and overthrew the Mahrattas in a decisive and very bloody battle, in which more than 50,000 of them were killed on the spot. The pursuit lasted several days, and their vast army was totally dispersed; Ahmed being everywhere received with acclamations as the deliverer of the faithful. In 1762 he again crossed the Indus, with a view to conquer, or rather to exterminate, the Seiks, whose incursions had become very troublesome, and even dangerous, to his kingdom. Having defeated their army, and forced them to take refuge in the woods and strong holds, he set a price on the heads of all those who professed their tenets; and that with such success, that heaps of them are said to have been piled up in all the principal towns in these parts. At last, hearing that they had assembled in great numbers to celebrate an annual festival, he marched with an army to surprise them. The Seiks, however, were well provided for his reception, and an obstinate battle ensued. During the time of the engagement an eclipse of the sun happened, which, though disregarded by the Seiks, greatly dismayed the superstitious Mohammedans. Ahmed was therefore defeated; and though he frequently returned, was never able thoroughly to subdue that people. At last, having been long afflicted with an ulcer in his face, he died on the 15th of July 1773, at a place named Kohloba, among the mountains of Kandahar, to which he had retired for the sake of coolness, and was succeeded by his son Timur, who still continues to enjoy the sovereignty.

The dominions of this prince extend a very considerable way to the northward of the Indus, but he possesses nothing in Hindostan besides the province of Kashmir.

2. The Seiks inhabit a country on the other side of the Indus, and making part of Hindostan properly so called. They derive their origin from a Hindoo named Nanuck of the caste of Khatri. His father, named Baba Caloo, possessed a small district in the province of Lahore named Telvandi, where Nanuck was born in the year 1470. Like other founders of new sects or nations, he is said during his infancy to have given many indications of his future superiority to the rest of mankind. He seems, however, to have received no farther education than what was common to young men of his caste; viz. reading, writing, and arithmetic, and hearing the sastras or commentaries on the sacred books. In his early youth he was married to a woman of his own caste, by whom he had two sons. Being a convert to the worship of the Invisible, or deism, he accustomed himself to declaim against the folly of worshipping idols, and the impiety of paying adoration to any but the supreme Being. At the age of 25 he left his family to visit Bengal and the eastern parts of Hindostan; in a second journey he visited the south, and in a third he went as far as Persia and Arabia. On his return from this last journey, he expressed a desire of remaining in his native country; and was furnished, according to his wish, with a piece of ground on the banks of the river Bavy, about 80 miles north-eastward from the city of Lahore. Here he took up his residence for the rest of his days; and choosing to be free from the cares of this world, he dwelt at a distance from his wife and children, who came occasionally to visit him. Having acquired great reputation for his piety, wisdom, and learning, he died at the age of 70; and since his death the place of his abode has obtained the name of Dihra Daira, or "the place of worship." His eldest son founded a sect of devotees named Nanuck Shoyi; but his second employed himself in the usual occupations of mankind. On account of the oppression of the Mohammedan governors, however, he removed from Telvandi, the estate of his ancestors, and settled at Kartarpour, which his descendants still possess. They are respected by the Seiks on account of their being the posterity of Nanuck, but are not held in any veneration on a religious account.

The doctrines of Nanuck were taught by a favourite disciple of his named Lhina, but on whom he bestowed on his death-bed the appellation of Angud. By him the doctrines of the sect were collected in a work named Pothy, or "the book;" and an history of the life of Nanuck himself was given in another named Jenum Sakky. Both these were written in a particular kind of character called Gaur Mookty, and said to have been invented by Nanuck himself. Angud named for his successor another disciple called Amerdos; and this method of continuing the succession seems to have been practised as long as the disciples continued to own one supreme chief.

For many years the Seiks lived in peace, and gained the good-will of the Mohammedan governors by their quiet and inoffensive behaviour. By degrees their numbers and their power greatly increased, but in proportion to their good fortune, they seem to have lost their virtue; so that their gourous, or chiefs, who had hitherto borne the character of apostles, at last stood forth as military leaders. The first of these was named Taigh, whose successor, named Govand Sing, was the tenth and last of the gourous. He engaged in a rebellion against the government; but was at last obliged to submit, and even attended the emperor Bahader Shah in person. At last he was assassinated by a Peeta soldier, not without a suspicion of the emperor himself being concerned. As he did not name a successor, his followers chose a chief for themselves named Banda, who soon began to make depredations on his neighbours; but being at last taken prisoner, and sent to Delhi with his family and many of his countrymen, they were all put to an ignominious death. By this execution the Seiks were so much exasperated, that they swore eternal vengeance against the Mohammedans, and have ever since manifested a most implacable hatred against them. Taking advantage of the dilatation of the Mogul empire by the invasion of Nadir Shah, they conquered several provinces. Wherever they came they threw down the mosques, and obliged every one to quit the country who refused to embrace their tenets. Their war with Ahmed Shah has been already mentioned. Since his death they have recovered all the territories they lost during their contest with him; and now possess the greatest part of Moultan, as well as several districts in the province of Delhi; including in their territories the the whole of that rich country named the Panjab, on account of five rivers which descend from the northern mountains, and inclose or interfect it, running afterwards into the Indus.

The Seiks, as has already been mentioned, worship one God; but without image, or believing in any mediator. They eat all kinds of meat except beef; sparing the black cattle, in all probability, on account of their utility. Pork is very generally eaten, probably on account of its being forbidden by the Mohammedans. They are commonly dressed in blue, a colour reckoned unlucky by the other Hindoos. Their dress consists of blue trousers of cotton, a sort of plaid generally chequered with blue and thrown over the right shoulder, with a blue turban. Their government is lodged in an assembly of different chiefs; but who, as individuals, are independent of one another, and have separate territories. They meet annually, or oftener if occasion requires, at a place called Antlerfer, which is held in a kind of religious veneration; where there is a large tank lined with granite, and surrounded with buildings, and beautifully ornamented. Their force is very considerable, amounting to no fewer than 200,000 cavalry. However, they can seldom be brought to act in concert, unless the whole nation be threatened with some imminent danger. They are a strong hardy race of men, and capable of bearing much fatigue; and so expert in war, that of late almost all the neighbouring countries have been laid under contribution by them, several petty chiefs having consented to pay them a small annual tribute in order to avoid their incursions. When in the field, none but the principal officers have tents, and those extremely small, so that they may be struck and transported with the greatest quickness and facility. In cold weather the soldiers wrap themselves during the night in a coarse blanket, which in the time of marching is folded and carried on their horse. Their country is well cultivated, populous, and abounding in cattle, particularly horses, which are reckoned the best in all Hindoostan. This may probably be owing to the studs which were formerly established in different places of the province of Lahore on account of the Mogul himself. Stallions were sent thither from Persia and Arabia, and there was a fixed order to send to the studs in Lahore all such Arabian and Persian horses as by any accident should be rendered unfit for mounting. Notwithstanding their deceit, the Seiks are said to have a superstitious veneration for their sword; insomuch, that before one of them will eat with a person of another religion, he draws his sword, and passing it over the victuals, repeats some words of prayer, after which he will freely partake of them. Contrary to the practice of all the other Hindoos, they dislike the smoking of tobacco; but many of them smoke and chew bhang, which sometimes produces a degree of intoxication.

3. The provinces of Delhi have, in the course of a few years, frequently changed their masters, but have scarce at any period during that time been under the authority of the sovereign. Their last governor was named Nadjiff Khan, under the title of generalissimo of the emperor. He was involved in the ruin of Mohammed Kouly Khan, cousin to Soujah al Dowlah; after which he went to Caflim Aly Khan nabob of Bengal; after whose expulsion he retired with a party of horse to Bundelcund into the service of Rajah Coman Sing. He next joined the English; and at last became the general of Shah Allum. With a body of English sepoys who had been put under his command, and some other troops whom he had taken into his service, he subdued the countries near Delhi, conquered almost all the territories of the Jauts, reducing the cities of Agra, Dieg, and other principal towns. These conquests were indeed effected in the name of the Mogul, but he derived little benefit from them; Nadjiff being the real master, and keeping possession of them till his death, which happened in 1782; and since that time the countries we speak of have been involved in a scene of continual anarchy and bloodshed.

4. Next to the provinces of Delhi are the dominions of the independent rajahs, whose dominions lie contiguous to one another. The principal are those of Joinagar or Jaypour, Joadpour or Marwar, Oudiapour or Chitore, and Jefalmire. These countries are under a kind of feudal constitution, and every village is obliged to furnish a certain number of horsemen at the shortest warning. The people are brave, hardy, and very much attached to their respective chiefs; and their army is very formidable, amounting when collected to about 150,000 horsemen.

5. The Jauts were a tribe who followed the occupation of agriculture in the northern parts of Hindoostan. About 40 years ago they were formed into a nation by Tackou Souragemul, proprietor of an inconsiderable district. After making himself master of all the countries dependent on Agra, of the town itself, and many other important places, he was killed in battle with Nadjib ul Dowlah, the Rohilla chief, in 1763. Since that time the power of this people has been so much reduced by domestic contentions and foreign wars, that the present rajah possesses only a strong town named Bartpoor, with a small district around it. The Jauts, however, it is said, are now manifesting a martial disposition, and thus may possibly be soon in a condition to recover their former extent of territory.

6. The most considerable of all the Hindoo powers are the Maharratas, with whom the Europeans first became acquainted in their original territories of Malabar. The first of their chiefs was named Seeva, or Seeva-jee; who is said to have been descended from the ancient Hindoo emperors, and whose father was lord of a small district, for which he paid tribute to the Mohammedan king of Viziapour. For some reason, unknown to us, he was at last arrested by order of that king, and died in confinement; but his son Seeva-jee took up arms in defence of his country, and made himself master of several important places, with a considerable tract of territory, which were afterwards ceded to him by the queen-regent, the king of Viziapour having died soon after the commencement of the war.

Seeva-jee having thus established himself, soon became formidable to his neighbours. Many of the Hindoo princes put themselves under his protection, and he at length ventured to make war upon the emperor Aurengzebe. In this he proved unsuccessful, was taken prisoner, and carried to Delhi. Having found means, however, to make his escape, he quickly recommenced hostilities; Hindostan, and the emperor, who was now far advanced in life, thought proper to come to an accommodation with so troublesome an enemy. On this occasion the Mahrattas pretend that their prince obtained a grant of 10 per cent. on all the revenues of the Deccan; which has often served as a pretence to invade that country, and levy contributions on the southern nabobs. Since that time the Mahrattas have become so powerful, that all the princes of Hindostan are alarmed when they put themselves in motion. Their territories extend about 1000 miles in length and 700 in breadth; and they are governed by a number of separate chiefs, all of whom acknowledge the Ram Rajah as their sovereign, and all except Moodajee Booslah acknowledge the Paishwa as his vicegerent. The capital of the sovereign was Sattarrah; but the Paishwa generally resides at Poonah, one degree to the southward, and about 100 miles distant from Bombay. The country extends along the coast nearly from Goa to Cambay. On the south it borders on the territories of Tippoo Saib; on the east it has those of the Nizam and the rajah of Berar; and on the north those of the Mahratta chiefs Sindia and Holkar.

7. The rajah of Berar, besides that country, has the greatest part of Orixia. His dominions extend about 600 miles in length from east to west, and 250 from north to south. The eastern part of the Orixia extends along the sea-coast for about 150 English miles, and divides the British possessions in Bengal from those commonly called the Northern Circars. On the west his territories border upon those of the Paishwa; on the south, upon those of the Nizam, Mahomet Hyat a Patan chief, Nizam Shah, and Ajid Sing. The rajah himself resides at Nagarpour, about midway betwixt Calcutta and Bombay.

8. Madajee Sindia has the greatest part of the government of Malva, together with the province of Cardeith. The remainder is under the government of Holkar; who, as well as Sindia, pretends to be descended from the ancient kings of Malva. The principal residence of Sindia is at Ugein near the city of Mundu, which was once the capital of these kings. Holkar resides at Indoor, a town little more than 30 miles to the westward of the former. The dominions of these, and some other princes of smaller note, extend as far as the river Jumna.

The two last mentioned princes, though properly Mahrattas, own no allegiance to the Ram Rajah or great chief to whom the main body are nominally subject. Some time ago the Mahrattas aimed at the conquest of all Hindostan, and even avowed a design of expelling all the Mohammedan princes; but their power was effectually checked by the British, and their dispositions among themselves put an end to all schemes of that kind. Still, however, they were ready to watch every opportunity of invading the territories of their neighbours; and their resources being so considerable, they were deservedly accounted a very formidable enemy. The strength of their army consists chiefly in cavalry; and both men and horse are capable of enduring a great deal of fatigue. Bodies of 50 or 60,000 cavalry have been known to travel 50 miles a day for many days together; which, considering the excessive heat of the country, must certainly appear very surprising. The country abounds very much in horses, and there is one kind named the Bheemerteddy horse, which is greatly Hindostan esteemed, and sold at a very high price. The common horse of these parts is lean and looks ill, but is abundantly fit for the purposes of war. The only weapon used by the horsemen is a sabre; in the use of which they are so dexterous, that it is supposed the best European hussar would not be more than a match for a Mahratta horseman. There are considerable studs in every province belonging to the Paishwa and different chiefs; and there are likewise many jundis or great herds of horses belonging to particular persons, who turn those they have no occasion for loose in the open plains.

The Mahratta horsemen are dressed in a quilted jacket of cotton, which is supposed to be one of the best defences against a sword that can easily be contrived of equal lightness; but the heat of the climate frequently renders it necessary to be taken off. The rest of their dress consists of a pair of trousers, and a kind of broad turban which descends low enough to cover the neck and shoulders. In cases of emergency the horsemen carry provision both for themselves and their horses in a small bag tied upon the saddles: the food of the rider consists only of a few small cakes with a little flour or rice, and some salt and spices; the horse is fed with a kind of peas named gram, or with balls made of the flour of these peas mixed with butter, prepared after a certain manner, and named ghee, together with some garlic and hot spices. These balls are given by way of cordial, and have the property of invigorating the animal after extraordinary fatigue. Sometimes it is said that they add a small quantity of ganga; a kind of drug which possesses an exhilarating virtue, and produces some degree of intoxication. The Mahratta cavalry seldom make any use of tents: even the officers frequently have no other accommodation than a small carpet to sit and lie on; and a single camel is able to carry the whole baggage of the general. The officers, however, are generally well mounted, and have spare horses in the field.

All the subjects and vassals of the Mahratta princes are generally ready to follow them into the field; and in any case in which the honour or interest of the nation appears to be concerned, they generally unite in the common cause. Before they invade any country, the general is at great pains to inform himself of the nature and situation of it; and they have now made incursions into so many different parts of Hindostan, that there are but few countries there with which they are not very well acquainted. Their great sobriety, and the fatigue they are capable of undergoing, render them very dangerous enemies. In all their expeditions the soldier first provides for his horse, and then goes to his own meal; after which he lies down contented by the side of the animal, and is ready to mount him at the first sound of the nagar or great drum. They have their horses under the most excellent management; and by perpetually caressing and conversing with them, the animals acquire a degree of docility and sagacity unknown in other countries. When on an expedition, the horses are accustomed to eat grass pulled up by the roots, which is said to be very nutritive, and to be destitute of that purgative quality which belongs to the blade alone. When they make an invasion, the devastation is terrible; the cattle Hindostan, are driven off, the harvest destroyed, the villages burned, and every human creature destroyed who comes in their way. Notwithstanding this barbarity in time of war, however, they are very humane in time of peace, living in great harmony among themselves, and being always ready to entertain and assist strangers. Many of the cruelties they commit may be justly reckoned the effects of retaliation for other cruelties exercised upon them by their adversaries. Thus in 1771, after having given Hyder Ally a great defeat, they cut off the ears and noses of a whole regiment of prisoners, and in that condition sent them back to their commander in return for his having done the same to a few prisoners he had taken some time before.

The revenue of the Paishwa is very considerable; being not less than ten millions sterling; but after deducting the expense of collection, and the expense of troops kept in readiness for the service of the state, it is supposed that he cannot receive more than four millions. From this again we must deduct the expenses of the troops immediately belonging to the Paishwa himself, and which may amount to about three millions sterling; so that there remains a surplus only of one million after paying all the necessary expenses of government. This nevertheless has been managed with such economy, that though long and expensive wars were carried on after the death of Narain Row, the state was not only clear of debt, but there was a surplus of two millions in the treasury, which Rogobah dissipated.

9. The Deccan, as left in 1748 by Nizam al Mulek, was by far the most important and extensive feudatory or viceroyship in the empire. It then surpassed in size the largest kingdom in Europe; but since that time many provinces have been conquered by the Mahattas, and the northern Circars by the British. The possessions of the Nizam are also diminished by the cession of the Carnatic to the nabob of Arcot; great part of the territories of Tippoo Saib; and many other provinces of less note. Still, however, the Nizam possesses very considerable territories; but his finances are in such a wretched condition, and his provinces so ill governed, that he is accounted a prince of no consequence, though otherwise he might be reckoned one of the most considerable powers of Hindostan.

10. The dominions of Tippoo Saib, the son and successor of Hyder Ally, are bounded on the north by the territories of the Paishwa; on the south by Travancore, the territory of an independent Hindoo prince; on the west by the sea; and on the east by a great ridge of mountains, which separate them from the territories of the nabob of Arcot. The country lying to the eastward of these mountains is called the Carnatic Payen Ghat, and to the westward the Carnatic Bhalla Ghat. The latter belongs to Tippoo Saib; and the two together make up the country formerly named the Carnatic, though the name is now restricted to the Payen Ghat. The situation of the Bhalla Ghat is considerably more elevated than the other; by which means the temperature of the air is much cooler. On the coast of Coromandel there is a pile of ruins called by the natives Malavipatam, and by the British the seven pagodars. Concerning this there is a tradition, that it once stood at a considerable distance from the sea; though most of the ruins are now covered with water; and there is likewise a tradition, that the mountains Hindostan, we speak of once formed the boundary of the ocean.

The revenue and strength of Hyder Ally are said to have been greatly exaggerated; the former amounting to no more than four millions annually, though by his economy and good management he made it answer every purpose both in time of war and peace. He was at great pains to introduce the European discipline among his troops; but notwithstanding all his endeavours, he was far from being able to make them cope with the British. The advantages he gained were owing to his vast superiority in cavalry, and the celebrity of his marches; which would have been counteracted had his adversaries been possessed of a good body of cavalry; and it is probable that the event of the war would have been decided in a single campaign. His son Tippoo Saib is said to be a man of less abilities than his father, though more violent in his disposition. Against this prince hostilities have lately been commenced by the British in conjunction with the Mahattas, between whom an alliance had been formed. But this event has not as yet been attended with any consequences that merit a detail.

With regard to the present government of Hindostan, our limits will not allow us to enter particularly upon it, nor indeed is it perhaps of any importance. As the country is divided into so many different kingdoms, the sovereigns of which, however they may differ in other respects, seem all to agree in despotic and oppression of their subjects. As a very considerable part is now under the dominion of Britain, it may be necessary to take some notice of the behaviour of our countrymen in that part of the world, especially as an idea of their excessive despotic and oppression of the natives has of late prevailed so much, that the national character has suffered considerably by it. This has arisen partly from the great pains taken to propagate it, and partly from the ignorance of those among whom the report was circulated; and the exaggerated accounts and contentions of the members of the government themselves, have contributed no less to confirm and heighten the prejudices of the public.

The British territories in the East Indies were originally under the jurisdiction of a governor and 13 members; but this number has fluctuated occasionally from 14 to 4, at which it was fixed by act of parliament. In this council all matters, whether relating to peace or war, government or commerce, were debated, the governor having no other superiority than that of giving the casting vote. In other respects the whole executive power was lodged in his hands, and all the correspondence with the native princes of India was carried on by his means, the dispatches to them being signed by him singly; and all the princes and great men who visited the presidency were first received by him, and then introduced to the counsellors. He was military governor of Fort William, and commander in chief of the presidency; whence, as by his office he was invested with a considerable degree of power, he became an object of some envy and jealousy to the members of the council and other considerable people in that part of the world. In consequence of this, the government was divided into two parties, one siding with the governor, and the other opposing him; in consequence of which, the debates were frequently carried... ried on with such heat and violence, that the records of the company are frequently stuffed with nothing but accounts of the contentions of these jarring parties. This indeed may be looked upon as one of the principal causes by which the reputation of the British government in the eastern parts of the world has suffered; for as there were very frequently opinions diametrically opposite to one another recorded upon the same subject, the contending parties in the British parliament had always sufficient authority for what they said, let them take which side they would; and thus the characters of all concerned in the East India government were, by one person or other, set forth in the most opprobrious light.

Another source of reproach to the British government in India was, that the court of directors in England became infected with the same spirit of party and contention which pervaded all other departments of the state. Lord Clive and Mr Sullivan were the two great leaders in these party-disputes; and as the interest of the one or the other prevailed, different persons were appointed to the administration, and different measures adopted. The event of all this was, that whenever a new administration was formed, the first object was to condemn the measures of those who had gone before them. Thus, in the year 1764, when Lord Clive was made governor of Bengal, the new directors represented the affairs of the company as in the worst situation imaginable, from which they could only be extricated by the abilities of Clive. On the arrival of the latter in the east, he took care to write home reports to the same purpose, and to condemn in the most violent manner every thing that had been done; the whole body of the company's servants were censured indiscriminately without being allowed any means of defence, as they were in truth ignorant of the charges brought against them. When the affairs of the company were brought under a parliamentary review in the year 1774, the government was brought under a new regulation. It now consisted of a governor-general and four counsellors; three of whom were sent from England; two being military gentlemen of high rank, and the third a gentleman employed in the war-office. On their arrival they proceeded in the same manner that Lord Clive had done before them: they pronounced in the most decisive manner, that the company's affairs were in a ruinous state; and that every species of corruption had been practised by the former government. This general accusation, unsupported by any kind of evidence, was the constant theme of the dispatches sent by them to England; and thus has the reputation of the British government suffered exceedingly through the unwarrantable liberties which its own servants have been allowed to take with one another. It must also be considered, that from the remote situation of India, and the unavoidable ignorance of its affairs on that account, it was easy for any person, whose malicious purposes it might suit, to prejudice the public against the servants of the company to as great a degree as he pleased. Hence some persons, soured by disappointment, or envious of the supposed emoluments of others, represented matters in such an unfair light to their correspondents in England, that the most unjust and shameful charges were frequently brought against innocent persons, which they could neither prevent nor defend themselves against. The dreadful famine which took place in Bengal in the year 1769, offered to these malevolent persons a most fruitful source of calumny; and many individuals were accused of having brought on this dreadful calamity, which arose entirely from a natural cause, viz. the failure of the rains, and which no human power could have prevented or removed.

Opinions of this kind have not only been circulated through the island of Britain in the most open manner, but have even appeared in some very respectable publications. Thus in Mr Smith's Treatise on the Wealth of Nations, when speaking of the oppression arising from monopolies, and comparing their effects in different states: "The English company (says he) have not yet had time to establish in Bengal so perfectly destructive a system. The plan of the government, however, has had exactly the same tendency. It has not been uncommon, I am well assured, for the chief, that is, the first clerk of a factory, to order a peasant to plow up a rich field of poppies, and sow it with rice or some other grain. The pretence was to prevent a scarcity of provisions; but the real reason, to give the chief an opportunity of selling at a better price a large quantity of opium he had on hand. Upon other occasions the order has been reversed, and a rich field of rice or other grain has been plowed up to make room for a plantation of poppies, when the chief saw that extraordinary profit was to be made by opium." To this, however, the following answer has appeared in a late publication, intitled A short Review of the British government in India. "The poppy is a plant which requires a peculiar soil, and particular care in the culture of it. The medium price of the land on which it is cultivated is about 11 or 12 rupees a begah, or one third of an English acre. It is sowed at the beginning of October, when the season of the periodical rain expires. The plant begins to be fit for incision, in order to extract its juice, of which opium is made, about the end of December, and continues till March. It requires a dry soil, and can be brought to maturity only in the dry season, when the periodical rains have ceased. Paddy or rice lands let on a medium at three rupees a begah. Rice is sowed about the end of May, just before the periodical rains commence. One crop is raised about the end of September; and another, which is the last, and by far the greatest, about the end of December. It requires a soil saturated with water, and lies soaked in it for a considerable time. On this account it is sowed just before the periodical rains commence; and nine-tenths of the quantity of rice produced in the company's provinces grow in the kingdom of Bengal, which is so low and flat, that the grounds are either overflowed by the rivers Ganges and Burampooter, with their tributary streams, or soaked with the rain which falls and stagnates upon them. It is therefore evident, that the soil and the season, which alone can fructify the paddy or rice, would rot and destroy the poppy; and it is therefore as evident, that it is utterly impossible, from the nature of the two plants, that the one can be plowed up to sow the other."

With regard to the administration of the British affairs in the East Indies, it must also be remarked, that the company now act in a very different capacity from what Hindostan what they originally did. From a society of merchants, they are now become sovereigns of the country to which they trade. The latter character was quite foreign to them; and they have accordingly looked upon that of merchants to be the principal one, while that of sovereigns was to be only a kind of appendage to it. Thus, instead of acting for the interest of the country they govern, and which as sovereigns they naturally ought to do, they have acted in many cases directly opposite to it, which, as merchants, is also their natural interest. Hence also, when the administration in India did any thing in obedience to the orders of the directors, which orders being dictated by merchants, were prejudicial to the interests of the country, that injury has been sometimes unjustly attributed to their servants, who acted merely in obedience to the orders they received. On the other hand, when the India administration acted with the generous spirit of sovereigns, they were sometimes blamed by the directors, who judged as merchants, and sometimes by the ministry, who were always ready upon the smallest pretence to interfere in their affairs.

At the time when the British administration first commenced in Hindostan, the Hindoo governors were universally named Rajahs; but though many of the Hindoo families yet bear that title, it does not appear to resemble, in any manner of way, our titles of nobility, or to be a dignity which can be conferred by any of the princes, or even by the Mogul himself. Hence, in that part of the world there are no ancient nobility, the titles being conferred merely by usurpers, who have neither right nor title derived from anything but violence.

In this country we find the title of Zemindar very common; a word compounded of two others, signifying, in the Peric language, a landholder. It appears to have been introduced by the Mohammedans, and to have been a kind of temporary office, preferring the performance of certain duties, and requiring security for the personal appearance of the Zemindar. He is obliged to attend the exchequer of the king's chief collector, at the commencement of every new year, to settle his revenues; and he is not allowed to enter upon the duties of his office for the year without a special order for that purpose. On the death of a Zemindar, the candidate for succession must petition the sovereign, engaging himself to perform all the stipulated duties, and to pay the customary fees; nor can he enter upon his office without a special investiture. As the Zemindars were by virtue of their office invested with considerable power, they soon became not only very despotic in their own dominions, but by degrees began to encroach on the power of the sovereign himself. After the irruption of Nadar Shah everything was thrown into confusion; the viceroys threw off obedience to the emperor, the nabobs threw off all obedience to them, and usurped their power; at which time it is probable that the Zemindars likewise assumed powers to which they were by no means entitled from their office. Notwithstanding this, however, they were sometimes treated by the Mohammedan governors as mere revenue-officers, and used very harshly. At some times there were a set of people bound for the Zemindars under the title of Woodedars; and these had either a joint power with the former, or were superior to them in the collection of the revenues; and sometimes they were supereded by officers appointed immediately by government itself, under the various names of Aumils, Tabilders, or Sazawruls.

The Zemindaries are not limited in extent or value; there being some in Bengal which yield a revenue as high as £350,000 sterling, while others scarcely amount to £50; but all the great Zemindars, and many of those in middling circumstances, having procured for themselves the title of Rajah, affect much pomp and state in their different districts, and keep their inferiors in as great subjection as the Mohammedan governors keep them. Some of them also have their power augmented by being of the brahm caste; and by the reverence supposed to be due to religion on that account, joined with the power conferred upon them by the sovereign, they are in general rendered exceedingly despotic, with an almost unlimited authority to plunder their tenants; in which they were indulged by the Nabobs from the motive of plundering them again. From the consultations of the select committee in 1769, we are informed that the Zemindars have a power of levying fines at pleasure; that they raise large sums from duties collected in the market; and that they frequently oblige the ryots or husbandmen to work for nothing. In short, the same claims made by the European barons on their vassals in the times of the feudal system, are now made by the Zemindars on the common people of Hindostan. If one of them is to be married, if he has a child born, if honours are to be conferred upon him; nay, if he is even to be fined for his own misconduct, the poor ryot must always contribute his share. Mr Scrofton, in his history of Hindostan, sets forth the situation of the inhabitants in the following words:—"Unhappily for the Gentooes, themselves are made the ministers of oppression over each other; the Moor men, haughty, lazy, and voluptuous, make them, of whom they have no jealousy, the ministers of their oppression, which further answers the end of dividing them, and prevents their uniting to fling off the yoke; and by the strange intoxication of power, they are found still more rapacious and cruel than their foreign masters: and what is more extraordinary, the bramins fill exceed the rest in every abuse of power, and seem to think, if they bribe God by bestowing a part of their plunder on cows and faquirs, their iniquities will be pardoned."

From this account of the situation of the people of Hindostan under their native rulers, it is by no means probable that they could make a worse exchange by falling under the jurisdiction either of the Mohammedans or Europeans. A notion indeed hath been industriously propagated, that the British government has behaved with the greatest cruelty in collecting the revenues, and that they have even invented tortures to make the rich people discover their treasures; but on examining the matter impartially, the reverse of this is found to be true. At the time that the British government interfered in the affairs of Hindostan, the provinces were found to be in a ruinous state, in consequence of the wars which had taken place in the country. Even in the most settled state, and when the administration was most regular, the government was altogether despotic, and the mode of collecting its revenues extremely arbitrary. arbitrary; the punishments inflicted very cruel; and the whole system of government such as would be reckoned quite shocking in Europe. It is only within these few years that the British could effectually interpose in behalf of the natives; and in that short time it has produced a very considerable reformation. It is certain, that the British government has discouraged oppressive measures as much as possible; abolished the cruel modes of punishment used by the Mohammedans; and by instituting a more regular plan of justice, has procured ease and security to the natives, and preserved them in a state of tranquillity altogether unknown to them before its commencement. Many instances of the greatest cruelty exercised upon the Zemindars and other collectors are to be met with in the history of Bengal, written by a native historian, and translated by Gladwin: yet the person who exercised these cruelties was dignified with the titles of the faithful servant of the Empire, and the Glory of the State; which shows that the people were absolutely familiarised with cruelty, and did not know what it was to be under a lenient government. Since the British had the dominion, matters have been totally reversed, and the Hindoos, instead of being treated with cruelty, persecuted on account of their religion, and compelled to renounce it, have been used with at least comparative lenity, and great indulgence has been shown to them even in their most absurd practices and superstitions. When the British government first accepted of the office of Dewanny, or collection of the revenues, it was not in their power to interpose with any kind of efficacy for the relief of the inhabitants; because it was at first thought proper to allow the taxes to be collected by natives, who would undoubtedly follow their ancient modes of collection. Even at that time, however, the mildness of the British governors had some effect upon the Asiatics; so that the people in general were treated with more lenity than formerly: and in the year 1772, when the council of Bengal openly assumed the office of Dewan themselves, an immediate stop was put to all those arbitrary and oppressive methods which had been formerly in use. Formerly some Zemindars had been flogged even to death, by an instrument called a Korah: but from the moment that the British council took the collection into their own hands, not only this instrument was laid aside, but all kind of corporal punishment; by which means the severity of the Mohammedan government has been entirely abolished, and no other punishments inflicted in cases of insolvency than such as are in use in our own country. Still, however, in such extensive dominions, where a great share of power must be one way or other committed to the natives, it is impossible but some arbitrary acts must be committed, as the natives are always prone to acts of despotism whenever they can commit them with impunity; but examples of this kind cannot with any degree of candour be brought as a general charge against the British government in India.—Mr Scrofton gives the following account of the wretched state of the provinces now under the British jurisdiction at the time they were ceded to them by the Mogul. "When the governors of the provinces found the weakness of the Mogul, and each set up as sovereign in his own province, although they could not break through these immutable laws, they invented new taxes under new names, which doubled or trebled the value of the original ones, and which the landholder was obliged to levy upon his tenants. The old stock of wealth for some time supported this; but when that failed, and the tenants were still pressed for more, they borrowed money of usurers at an exorbitant interest; and the government still continuing these demands, the lords of the lands were obliged to do the same: but as all this while the value of lands did not increase, the consequence was, that at last, unable to pay the interest of the mortgages, the rents were seized by rapacious usurers. The government finding the revenues fall shorter every year, at last sent collectors and farmers of the revenues into the provinces. Thus the lord of the land was divested of power over his country, and the tenants exposed to merciless plunderers; till the farmer and manufacturer, finding that the more they laboured the more they paid, the manufacturer would work no more, and the farmer would cultivate no more than was just sufficient for the subsistence of his family. Thus this once flourishing and plentiful country has, in the course of a few years, been reduced to such misery, that many thousands are continually perishing through want. The crown lands are still worse off, let out to the highest bidder; and the Jagheer lands alone remain plundered. Hence that equal distribution of wealth that makes the happiness of a people, and spreads a face of cheerfulness and plenty through all ranks, has now ceased; and the riches of the country are settled partly in the hands of a few usurers and greedy courtiers, and the rest is carried out of the country by the foreign troops taken into pay to maintain the governors in their usurpations. This unhappy decay the India company has already experienced in the decay of their trade, and the rise and price of their manufactures; and will, I fear, experience more and more annually."

With regard to the depopulations of the Nabobs by the British, which has been used as a great argument against the general spirit of British government in those parts, it must be remembered, in the first place, that these Nabobs were mere usurers, who had not the least title to their dominions, and consequently could not, in point of right, complain more reasonably of being deprived of their dominions, than the persons from whom they had taken them might do of their injustice in driving them out. Their behaviour in government also was such, that it was impossible it could have subsisted for any length of time without the absolute ruin of the countries they possessed. Thus, in the case of Jaffer Aly Cawn, Mr Vanstuart declared the country to be in so confused and impoverished a state, that in all human appearance another month could not have been run through before he would have been cut off by his own Sepoys for want of pay, and the city become a scene of plunder and disorder. On this account he was degraded, though without any of those circumstances of cruelty which generally characterise the revolutions in this part of the world. The administration was transferred to his son-in-law Meer Coffin; who being an enemy to the British government altogether, a war followed, terminating in his expulsion. This was followed by the invasion of Sujah Dowlah, and by scenes of horrid barbarity and devastation; when in 1765 Lord Clive took took upon him the office of Dewan, or minister who superintends the lands and collections of the revenue. An account of his proceedings has already been given; but whatever applause he might gain, and in some respects deservedly at the time, it is now said, with some probability, that he raised the expectations of the people of England by far too high. The seeds of the succeeding evils were already sown. Many sources of wealth were dried up. Raw silk, cloths, and other manufactures, had formerly been exported to Guzerat, Lahore, and even Ifpahan. This had ceased on the invasion of Nadar Shah; and the influx of wealth from the European nations had ceased before the British government in Bengal had an existence. It was computed that Coffin Aly Cawn robbed the country of near five millions sterling in jewels and specie. China, Madras, and Bombay, were supplied from Bengal to the amount of more than two millions; and several other circumstances besides these contributed to diminish the riches and opulence of the country. In the meantime the internal administration of the country had been extremely defective. The Zemindars being under very little restraint, acted in a very arbitrary manner within their own districts; and the tenants had no redress against the impositions and exactions which were laid upon them. Meir Coffin appointed Aumils to the collection of the revenues rather than Zemindars. The Aumils derive their authority directly from the person who has the command of the country for the present time, and consequently are more easily called to an account than the Zemindars. At last, however, these Aumils, having obtained too great an influence in the country, Lord Clive thought proper to change the plan of collection. Three natives were now appointed, in the nabob's name, to superintend this department; and one English gentleman, through whom the business was transacted, had his residence at the nabob's court, and communicated the intelligence to Calcutta. The principal acting minister in this plan, however, thought proper to change the mode of collection once more, and to re-appoint the Aumils; in consequence of which the revenue became greatly diminished, and they were besides complained of as greatly oppressing the people. To remedy these evils, it was first proposed by Mr Verelst to lend some of the company's servants into the internal parts of the country with the title of supervisors; but the defects of administration were now beyond their power to remedy; the revenue was not only greatly diminished, but the expense of government exceedingly augmented; and in the year 1771 the company were alarmed by accounts that bills had been drawn upon them to the amount of 1,200,000l. At this time Mr Hastings was appointed to be governor of Bengal; and the confused state in which matters were at the commencement of his administration will easily appear from the following part of a letter from the government of Bengal, dated in the month of November 1772.—"Every zemindary was left to its own particular customs. The articles which composed the revenue, the form of keeping the accounts, the computation of time, even the technical terms, which ever form the greatest obscurity in every science, differed as much as the soil and productions of the province. The nabobs exacted what they could from the zemindars and great farmers of the revenue, whom they left at liberty to plunder all below, referring to themselves the liberty of plundering them in their turn, when they were supposed to have enriched themselves with the spoils of the country. The mutaddies, who stood between the nabob and zemindars, and between them and the people, had each their shares of the public wealth. These profits were considered as illegal embezzlements, and therefore were taken with every precaution which could ensure secrecy; and being, consequently, fixed by no rule, depended on the temper, abilities, or power, of each individual for the amount. It therefore became a duty to every man to take the most effectual measures to conceal the value of his property, and evade every inquiry into his conduct; while the Zemindars and other landholders, who had the advantage of long possession, availed themselves of it by complex divisions of the lands, and intricate modes of collection, to perplex the officers of government, and confine the knowledge of the rents to themselves. The internal management of each district varied no less than that of the whole province. The lands subject to the same collection, and intermixed with each other, were some held by farm, some superintended by thickdors or agents on the part of the collector, and were left to the Zemindars themselves, under various degrees of control." For some political reasons the company, though they had acquired the Dewanny, had not yet chosen to assume the executive part of the office themselves, but committed it to the management of natives, as has already been mentioned, and their plans had been found extremely defective. By the time that Mr Hastings had been invested with the government, the court of directors had resolved to change their plan, and openly assume the office of the Dewanny; and the rules established by that gentleman for the collection of the revenues, his mode of administering justice, and his police for the government of the country, are still observed with very little variation.

The plan for collecting the revenues consisted, in the first place, in rendering the accounts as simple and intelligible as possible; in the next, in establishing fixed rules for the collection; and in the third, making the mode of them uniform in all parts of the provinces; and in the fourth, providing for the equal administration of justice. The power of the Zemindars was now circumscribed, and their extortions thoroughly put a stop to; many vexatious taxes and tolls were abolished, and a new mode of collecting the customs was established, to the great relief of the merchants; and so well were all the parts of this plan found to be adapted to the purposes they were designed to answer, that it has hitherto been made the model of all subsequent regulations.

One great objection to the India government is, that the English law, which undoubtedly is better calculated than any other for securing the liberties of the people, has not yet been adopted in India; whence it is thought that the company's servants have still showed a disposition to oppress, rather than to relieve, the oppressed inhabitants of Hindostan. But in answer to this it is said, that the difference betwixt the two countries is so great, that there can be no comparison betwixt the one and the other, nor can the constitution of England be in any degree adapted to that of the other. The religion, laws, manners, and customs, of both Hindoos and Mohammedans, are so essentially different from those of this country, that it is impossible to assimilate them, should ever any thing of the kind be attempted. The only true method therefore of judging whether the present state of Hindostan is preferable to what it formerly was, is to compare it with what it was under the best Mogul emperors; and in this comparison it must certainly appear that the preference is greatly in favour of the British administration. In Major Rennell's work we are informed, that during the reign of Akbar, whom he styles "the glory of the house of Timur," the country had never enjoyed so much tranquillity; "but this tranquillity would hardly be deemed such in any other quarter of the world, and must therefore be understood to mean a state short of actual rebellion, or at least commotion."

The same author, speaking of the state of the British empire there, uses the following words: "The Bengal provinces, which have been in our actual possession near 23 years, have, during that whole period, enjoyed a greater share of tranquillity than any other part of India, or indeed than those provinces had ever experienced since the days of Aurangzebe." To this we may add, that the provinces have not only experienced a perfect freedom from external invasions, but likewise enjoy a degree of internal tranquillity altogether unknown before, by the subjection and civilization of a set of banditti who inhabited the hills of Rajmahal, and infested the travellers who passed that way; a wandering tribe of religious mendicants, who were wont to commit the greatest enormities.

Another advantage the inhabitants of this country reap from the British government, is the security from violence and oppression either by their Mohammedan superiors or by one another. Under the article Hindoo we have already mentioned the particular circumstance that these people are liable to the punishment of losing their caste from a variety of causes, and that this is looked upon by them to be the most grievous calamity they can suffer. The Mohammedan governors frequently took advantage of their superstition in this respect to oppress them; and this circumstance alone frequently produced the most horrid confusion. In the instructions given to the supervisors, Mr Verelst informs them, that "it is difficult to determine whether the original customs, or the degenerate manners of the Musulmen, have most contributed to confound the principles of right and wrong in these provinces. Certain it is (adds he), that almost every decision of theirs is a corrupt bargain with the highest bidder. Compensation was frequently accepted of even for capital crimes, and fines became at last an intolerable grievance; nay, so venal were the judges at that time, that it became at last a settled rule to allow each of them a fourth part of any property in dispute as a compensation for his trouble.—It is impossible to suppose that such monstrous abuses continue under the British government: on the contrary, we must readily believe, what the governors themselves assert, that immediately after the provinces fell under British jurisdiction, both Hindoos and Mohammedans have been left to the free exercise of their religion, laws, and customs. The Hindoos themselves acknowledge this, and are as well pleased with the mildness of the British government, as they are displeased with the superstition and cruelty of the Mohammedans. Under the British government we cannot suppose but that commerce, to which the inhabitants of this country are so much addicted, will be much more encouraged than by the avaricious and barbarous Mohammedans. The latter had imposed so many restraints upon trade of all kinds, by the multitude of taxes collected at the landing-places, watch-houses, markets, &c. that it was almost impossible to carry it on with any advantage. Among other salutary regulations, however, enacted by the British government in 1772, many of those taxes upon commerce were abolished, and a plan laid for effectually liberating the inhabitants from those shackles by which their commerce had been so long fettered.—Regard has also been paid to the instruction of the people in useful knowledge; and the seminary established at Calcutta by Sir William Jones, certainly does much honour to the founder. Some regard had indeed been paid to this by the Mohammedan emperors; but at the time that the British government commenced, these had been entirely neglected, their endowments returned by government, and even the buildings fallen into ruin.

From a comparison of any government to which the Hindoos have hitherto been subject, with that of Britain, indeed, it is evident that the preference must be given greatly in favour of the latter. At the time when the British first visited that country, they were not under the jurisdiction of their native sovereigns, nor had they been so for a long time before. The Moguls were not only foreigners, but a most cruel and detestable race of men; and it was by usurpations of their own rebellious subjects that the anarchy and confusion was introduced, in which the country was involved for so long a time. The British are foreigners as well as the Moguls; but the latter, who profess the intolerant superstition of Mohammed, suffer their conduct to be influenced by it in such a manner as to treat the natives with the utmost cruelty. The greatest evil perhaps which results from the British government is, the exportation of great sums of money to a foreign country; but this evil, with respect to the provinces possessed by the British, existed also under the Mohammedan government. The Mogul emperors resided at Delhi, which is far distant from the provinces of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, the territories now possessed by Britain; so that the greatest part of the treasure sent to that capital was totally lost to them. In the time of Aurangzebe, the emperor's tribute amounted to three millions sterling; and of this a considerable part was specie; but since that time the tribute was fixed at only 1,250,000l. and even this was a vast sum; to which if we add that carried out of the country by commanders of mercenary troops who were all foreigners, it is not unreasonable to suppose that under the Mogul government matters were still worse, even in this respect, than under that of Britain.

We shall conclude this apology for the British government, with the following extract from the treatise lately quoted, A short Review of the British Government in India. "A more detestable or detested race of people never appeared than the Mohammedan conquerors of India; whether we consider the brutality of their passions, the bigotry of their religion, the corrup- Hindostan canes here, as well as tobacco; but the latter is not so rich and strong as that of America, for want of knowing how to cure and order it.

Hindostan affords also plenty of ginger, together with carrots, potatoes, onions, garlic, and other roots known to us, besides small roots and herbs for salads; but their flowers, though beautiful to look at, have no scent, excepting roses, and some few other kinds.

There is a great variety of animals in this country, both wild and tame; of the former are elephants, rhinoceroses, lions, tigers, leopards, wolves, jackals, and the like. The jackals dig up and eat dead bodies, and make a hideous noise in the night. The rhinoceros is not common in the Mogul's empire; but elephants are very numerous, some 12, 14, or 15 feet high. There is plenty of venison, and game of several kinds; as red-deer, fallow-deer, elks, antelopes, kids, hares, and such like. None of these are imparked, but all in commons, and may be any body's who will be at the pains to take them. Among the wild animals also may be reckoned the musk-animal, apes, and monkeys.

Hindostan affords variety of beasts for carriage, as camels, dromedaries, mules, asses, horses, oxen, and buffaloes. Most of the horses are white, and many curiously dappled, pied, and spotted all over. The flesh of the oxen is very sweet and tender. Being very tame, many use them as they do horses to ride on. Instead of a bit, they put one or two small strings through the gristle of the nostrils, and fastening the ends to a rope, use it instead of a bridle, which is held up by a bunch of grizzly flesh which he has on the forepart of his back. They saddle him as they do a horse; and, if spurred a little, he will go as fast. These are generally made use of all over the Indies; and with them only are drawn waggons, coaches, and chariots. Some of these oxen will travel 15 leagues in a day. They are of two sorts; one six feet high, which are rare; another called dwarfs, which are only three. In some places, where the roads are stony, they shoe their oxen when they are to travel far. The buffalo's skin makes excellent buff, and the female yields very good milk; but their flesh is neither so palatable nor wholesome as beef. The sheep of Hindostan have large heavy tails, and their flesh is very good, but their wool coarse.

This country is much infested with reptiles and insects; some of a noxious kind, as scorpions, snakes, and rats; but the lizards, which are of a green colour, are not hurtful. Snakes and serpents, we are told, are sometimes employed to dispatch criminals, especially such as have been guilty of some atrocious crime, that kind of death being attended with the most grievous torture. The most troublesome insects in this hot country are flies, mosquitoes, and chinchies or bugs, the first by day, and the others in the night; when they offend no less by their stench than their bite.