in natural history. Most naturalists and chemists divide all natural bodies into three great classes, which they call kingdoms. These are the mineral, the vegetable, and the animal kingdoms:

This great and first division is founded on this consideration, that any plant or vegetable which is produced, which grows, which is organized, which contains a seed, and which produces its like, seems to be a being very distinct and different from a stone or a metal, in which we at most observe only a regular arrangement of parts, but not a true organization, and which contains no seed by which it is capable of reproduction; and another foundation of this division is, that an animal differs no less from a simple plant, by sensation, kingdom by the use of its senses, and by the power of voluntary motion which it possesses, while these qualities do not belong to anything which is merely vegetable.

But notwithstanding these so distinctive marks, philosophers pretend, that this division of natural bodies into classes is only ideal. They affirm, that, by observing nature attentively, we may perceive, that all her productions are connected together by an uninterrupted chain; and that by surveying the several beings, we must be convinced, that any one being differs very little from some other two between which it seems to be placed; so that we may descend from the most perfect animal to the rudest mineral by insensible degrees, and without finding any interval from which a division might be made. The opinions of naturalists are therefore divided upon this subject; and each opinion seems to be founded upon observations, analogies, and reasonings more or less conclusive.

If we avoid investigating extremes, however, the distinctive marks must be acknowledged sufficiently obvious to justify the triple division above mentioned, and to discriminate the individuals of each.

For a general view of the operations or conduct of nature in these three kingdoms, see the article NATURE. For a particular consideration of them—(in the animal kingdom), see ZOOLOGY, ANIMAL, BRUTE, BIRD, ORNITHOLOGY, INSECT, ENTOMOLOGY, Ichthyology, FISH, COMPARATIVE Anatomy, and the different animals under their respective names;—(in the vegetable kingdom), BOTANY, PLANT, AGRICULTURE, VEGETATION, DEPOLITATION, FRONDDESCENTIA, GEMMATIO, FRUIT, LEAF, GERMINATION, &c. and the different plants under their respective names;—(in the mineral kingdom), MINERALOGY, METALLURGY, and the different stones and metals under their respective names.

In what remains of this article we shall consider natural bodies only in a chemical view; that is to say, relatively to the several principles which we obtain in the analysis of these bodies. In the decomposition of all beings truly living, organized, and containing within themselves a seed by which they may be reproduced, such as vegetables and animals, we always obtain an inflammable, fat, or oily substance; and on the contrary, we do not find the smallest trace of this principle in any substance purely mineral, not even in sulphur, which is the most inflammable of all these substances. On the other side, if we carefully examine and compare with each other the analogous principles obtained from the three kingdoms; such as the saline substances obtained in the analysis of animals, vegetables, and minerals; we shall easily perceive, that all the saline matter which comes from the vegetable or animal kingdoms is altered by oil, while all the saline matter which comes from the mineral kingdom is entirely free from oil.

We ought to observe here, that because any matter is found in one or more individuals of any kingdom, we must not therefore conclude, that it belongs to the kingdom of such individuals; for we may be convinced, from a slight observation of nature, that by a thousand combinations, and particular circumstances, substances of quite different classes or kingdoms are daily found mixed and confounded together. Thus, for example, within We shall now proceed to examine, if, by comparing the principles obtained in the decomposition of vegetables with those obtained in the decomposition of animals, we can find some essential character by which these two kingdoms may be chemically distinguished, in the same manner as we have seen that both of them may be distinguished from minerals. From experiments we indeed learn, that the principles of vegetables differ evidently enough from those of animals; that in general the saline principles of the former are acid, and are transformable in great measure into fixed alkali by incineration, while the principle of the latter are volatile alkalis, or easily changeable into these; that vegetables are much farther removed from putrefaction than animals; lastly, that oils truly animal have a character different from vegetable oils, and are in general more attenuated, or at least more disposed to be attenuated and volatilized. But we must at the same time confess, that these differences are not clear and decisive, like those betwixt these two kingdoms and the mineral kingdom; for we do not find any essential principle, either in animals or in vegetables, which is not also to be found in the other. In some plants, chiefly the cruciform, as much volatile alkali, as little fixed alkali, and as much disposition to putrefy, are found as in animal-matters; and thence we conclude, that if these two great classes of natural bodies differ chemically from each other, this difference proceeds only from the quantities or proportions of their several principles and properties, and not from anything distinct and peculiar; nor is it similar to the manner in which both vegetable and animal substances differ from minerals, namely, by containing an oil, and possessing a fermentable quality. Besides, the degrees of the chemical differences betwixt these three great classes of natural bodies are found to be the same, in whatever manner we consider them or compare them together.

**Chemistry, paffim.**

**Kinghorn**, a parliament town in the county of Fife in Scotland, on the Frith of Forth, directly opposite to Leith. Here is a manufacture of thread-stockings knit by the women; the men, being chiefly mariners, are employed in coasting ships, in the fishery, or the passage-boats from hence to Leith, from which the town of Kinghorn derives considerable advantage. This place gives a second title to the earl of Strathmore.

**Kingsbridge**, a town of Devonshire, 217 miles from London. It is a pretty place, with a harbour for boats, a free school, a market, and a fair. This is a chapel of ease to Cheltenham, and has a bridge over the Salcombe to Dodbrook.

**Kingsclere**, a pleasant town of Hampshire, situated on the Oxford road from Basingstoke. It is 56 miles from London, and was once the seat of the Saxon kings. It has a market and two fairs.

**Kingsferry**, in Kent, the common way from the main land into the Isle of Sheppey; where a cable of about 140 fathom in length, fastened at each end across the water, serves to get the boat over by hand. For the maintenance of this ferry and keeping up the highway leading to it through the marshes for above one mile in length, and for supporting a wall against the sea, the land-occupiers tax themselves yearly one penny per acre for fresh marsh-land, and one penny for every... Kin, every 10 acres of salt marsh-land. Here is a house for the ferry-keeper, who is obliged to tow all travellers over free, except on these four days, viz. Palm Monday, Whit-Monday, St James's day, and Michaelmas-day, when a horseman pays two-pence and a footman one penny. But on Sunday, or after eight o'clock at night, the ferry keeper demands six-pence of every horseman, and two-pence of every footman, whether strangers or the land-occupiers.

KINGSTON UPON THAMES, a town of Surry in England, situated 13 miles from London. It takes its name from having been the residence of many of our Saxon kings, some of whom were crowned here on a stage in the market-place. It has a wooden bridge of 20 arches over the Thames, which is navigable here by barges. There is another bridge here of brick, over a stream that comes from a spring in a cellar four miles above the town, and forms such a brook as to drive two mills not above a bow-shot from it and from each other. It is generally the place for the summer assizes of this county, there being a gallows on the top of the hill that overlooks it. It is a populous, trading, well-built town, and in the reigns of King Edward II. and III. sent members to parliament. It has a free-school; an alms-house built in 1670 for six men and six women, and endowed with lands to the value of £100 a year; and a charity-school for 30 boys, who are all clothed. Here is a spacious church with eight bells, adjoining to which, on the north side, was formerly a chapel dedicated to St Mary, in which were the pictures of three of the Saxon kings that were crowned here, and also that of King John, who gave the inhabitants of this town their first charter of incorporation. But these were all destroyed by the fall of this chapel in 1730. Here is a good market for corn, &c., and three fairs.

KINGSTON UPON HULL, a town in the east riding of Yorkshire, 173 miles from London. Its common name is simply Hull. It is situated at the confluence of the rivers Hull and Humber, and near the place where the latter opens into the German Ocean. It lies so low, that by cutting the banks of the Humber the country may be laid under water for five miles round. Towards the land it is defended by a wall and a ditch, with the farther fortification of a castle, a citadel, and a block-house. A dock was begun here, but after great expense left unfinished.—A new cut has been lately made to Hull by Weighton. The town is large and populous, containing two churches, several meeting-houses, a free-school, a charity-school, and some hospitals. Among the latter is one called Trinity-house, in which are maintained many distressed seamen, both of Hull and other places, that are members of its port. It is governed by 12 elder brethren and six assistants; out of the former are chosen annually two wardens, and out of the younger brethren two stewards; they determine questions between masters and seamen, and other sea matters. A handsome infirmary has lately been erected without the town to the north. Here are also an exchange and a custom-house, and over the Hull a stone bridge consisting of 14 arches. A good harbour was made here by Richard II. This town has not only the most considerable inland traffic of any port in the north of England, but a foreign trade superior to any in the kingdom, excepting the ports of London, Bristol, Liverpool, and Yarmouth. Kingston. By means of the many large rivers that fall into the Humber, it trades to almost every part of Yorkshire, as well as to Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, Staffordshire, Derbyshire, and Cheshire; the commodities of which counties are brought hither, and exported to Holland, Hamburg, France, Spain, the Baltic, and other parts of Europe. In return for these, are imported iron, copper, hemp, flax, canvas, Russia linen and yarn, besides wine, oil, fruit, and other articles. Such quantities of corn are also brought hither by the navigable rivers, that Hull exports more of this commodity than London. The trade of Hull with London, particularly for corn, lead, and butter, and with Holland and France, in times of peace, for those commodities, as well as for cloth, kerseys, and other manufactures of Yorkshire, is so considerable as to employ not only single vessels, but fleets; the Hull fleets to London being generally from 50 to 60 sail, and in time of war frequently 100 sail or upwards. The mayor of Hull has two swords, one given by King Richard II. the other by Henry VIII.; but only one is borne before him at a time; also a cap of maintenance, and an ear of lignum vitae as a badge of his admiralty jurisdiction within the limits of the Humber. This town gave title of earl to Robert Pierpoint of Holme Pierpoint, viscount Newark, created in the 4th of Charles I. Being unfortunately slain in crossing the Humber in 1643, he was succeeded by his son Henry, created marquis of Dorchester in 1645, only for life; who dying in 1680, without male issue, was succeeded in the earldom by Robert, grandson of his younger brother William Pierpoint of Thoresby; who dying unmarried in 1682, left this honour to William his brother and heir; and he also dying without issue in 1690, it descended to his brother Evelyn, who was further advanced to the honours of marquis of Dorchester in 1706 and duke of Kingston in 1715; and dying in 1725 was succeeded by his grandson Evelyn last duke of Kingston, who died in 1773, and the title became extinct.