(anc. geog.), a celebrated kingdom of Asia Minor.—All the ancient writers tell us, that Lydia was first called Maonia or Meonia, from Meon king of Phrygia and Lydia; and that it was known under no other denomination till the reign of Atys, when it began to be called Lydia from his son Lydus. Bochart finding in his learned collection of Phoenician words the verb luz, signifying "to wind," and observing that the country we are speaking of is watered by the Maeander so famous for its windings, concludes that it was thence named Lydia, or Ludia. As to the ancient name of Maonia, he takes it to be a Greek translation of the Phoenician word lud; wherein he agrees in some measure with Stephanus, who derives the name of Maonia from Meon the ancient name of the Maeander. Some take the word maonia to be a translation of a Hebrew word signifying "metal," because that country, say they, was in former times enriched above any other with mines. Though Lydia and Maonia are by most authors indifferently used for one and the same country, yet they are sometimes distinguished; that part where mount Tmolus flood, watered by the Pactolus, being properly called Maonia; and the other, lying on the coast, Lydia. This distinction is used by Homer, Callimachus, Dionyfius, and other ancient writers. In after ages, when the Ionians, who had planted a colony on the coast of the Egean Sea, began to make some figure, that part was called Ionia, and the name of Lydia given to the ancient Maonia.—Lydia, according to Pliny, Ptolemy, and other ancient geographers, was bounded by the Myisia Major on the north, by Caria on the south, by Phrygia Major on the east, and Ionia on the west, lying between the 37th and 39 degrees of north latitude. What the ancients style the kingdom of Lydia was not confined within these narrow boundaries, but extended from Halys to the Egean sea. Pliny's description includes Aëolia, lying between the Hermus and the Caicus.

As to the origin of the Lydians, Josephus, and after him all the ecclesiastic writers, derive them from Lud Shem's fourth son; but this opinion has no other foundation than the similitude of names. Some of the ancients will have the Lydians to be a mixed colony of Phrygians, Myrians, and Carians. Others finding some conformity in religion and religious ceremonies between the Egyptians and Tuscan who were a Lydian colony, conclude them, without any farther evidence, to be originally Egyptians. All we know for certain is, that the Lydians were a very ancient nation, as is manifest from their very fables; for Atys, Tantalus, Pelops, Niobe, and Arachne, are all said to have been the children of Lydus. And Zanthus in his Lydiaca, quoted by Stephanus, informs us, that the ancient city of Alcalon, one of the five satrapies of the Philistines, mentioned in the books of Joshua and the Judges, was built by one Acalus a Lydian, whom Achiamus king of Lydia had appointed to command a body of troops which he sent, we know not on what occasion, into Syria. The Heraclidae, or kings of Lydia, descended from Hercules, began to reign before the Trojan war; and had been preceded by a long series of sovereigns sprung from Atys, and hence styled Atyadæ: a strong proof of the antiquity of that kingdom.

The Lydians began very early to be ruled by kings whose government seems to have been truly despotic and the crown hereditary. We read of three distinct races of kings reigning over Lydia, viz. the Atyadæ, the Heraclidae, and the Mermnadæ.

The Atyadæ were so called from Atys the son of Cotys and grandson of Manes the first Lydian king. But the history of this family is obscure and fabulous.

The Atyadæ were succeeded by the Heraclidae, or the descendants of Hercules. For Hercules being, by the direction of the oracle, sold as a slave to Omphale a queen of Lydia to expiate the murder of Iphitus, had, during his captivity, by one of her slaves, a son named Cleostratus, whose grandson Argon was the first of the Heraclidae that ascended the throne of Lydia. This race is said to have reigned 505 years, the father succeeding the son for 22 generations. They began to reign about the time of the Trojan war. The last of the family was the unhappy Candaules, who lost both his life and kingdom by his imprudence. An event of which we have the following account by Herodotus. Candaules had a wife whom he passionately loved, and believed the most beautiful of her sex. He extolled her charms to Gyges his favourite, whom he used to entrust with his most important affairs; and the more to convince him of her beauty, refolved to show her to him quite naked: he accordingly placed him in the porch of her chamber where the queen used to undress when she went to bed, ordering him to retire after he should have seen her, and take all possible care not to be observed. But notwithstanding all the caution he could use, she plainly discovered him going out; and though she did not doubt but it was her husband's contrivance, yet she passed that night in a seeming tranquillity, suppressing her resentment till next morning, while she sent for Gyges, and resolutely told him that he must either by his death atone for the criminal action he had been guilty of, or put to death Candaules the contriver of it, and receive both her and the kingdom of Lydia for his reward. Gyges at first earnestly begged of her that she would not drive him to the necessity of such a choice. But finding that he could not prevail with her, and that he must either kill his master or die himself, he chose the former part of the alternative. Being led by the queen to the same place where her husband had posted him the night before, he stab- bed the king while he was asleep, married the queen, and took possession of the kingdom, in which he was confirmed by the answer of the Delphic oracle. The Lydians having taken up arms to revenge the death of their prince, an agreement was made between them and the followers of Gyges, that if the oracle should declare him to be lawful king of Lydia he should be permitted to reign; if not, he should resign the crown to the Heraclidae. The answer of the oracle proving favourable to Gyges, he was universally acknowledged for lawful king of Lydia. Candaules is said to have purchased a picture painted by Bularchas, representing a battle of the Magnetes, for its weight in gold; a circumstance which shows how early the art of painting began to be in request, for Candaules was contemporary with Romulus.

Gyges having thus possessed himself of the kingdom of Lydia, sent many rich and valuable presents to the oracle of Delphos, among others, six cups of gold weighing 30 talents, and greatly esteemed for the workmanship. He made war on Miletus and Smyrna, took the city of Colophon, and subdued the whole country of Troas. In his reign, and by his permission, the city of Abydos was built by the Milesians. Plutarch and other writers relate his affection to the crown of Lydia in a quite different manner, and tell us, without making any mention of the queen, that Gyges rebelled against Candaules and slew him in an engagement. In Gyges began the third race called Mermaidae; who were also, properly speaking, Heraclidae, being descended from a son of Hercules by Omphale. Gyges reigned 38 years, and was succeeded by his son Ardyes.

This prince carried on the war against the Milesians which his father had begun, and possessed himself of Priene, in those days a strong city. In his reign the Cimmerians invaded and overran all Asia Minor; but what battles were fought between the Lydians and these invaders, and with what success, we find no where mentioned. Herodotus only informs us, that in the time of Ardyes they possessed themselves of Sardis, the metropolis of Lydia, but could never reduce the castle. Ardyes reigned 49 years, and was succeeded by his son Sadyattes, who reigned 12 years, and warred most part of his reign with the Milesians.

After him came his son Alyattes, who for the space of five years continued the war which his father had begun against the Milesians, ravaging their country, and about harvest time carrying away all their corn yearly, in order to oblige them, for want of provisions, to surrender their city, which he knew he could not reduce any other way, the Milesians being at that time masters of the sea. In the 12th year of this war the Lydians having set fire to the corn in the fields, the flames were carried by a violent wind, which happened to blow at that time, to the temple of Minerva at Assos, and burnt it down to the ground. Not long after, Alyattes falling sick, sent to consult the oracle at Delphos; which refused to return any answer till such time as the king should rebuild the temple of Minerva at Assos. Alyattes, thus warned, dispatched ambassadors to Miletus, enjoining them to conclude a truce with the Milesians till the temple should be rebuilt. On the arrival of the ambassadors, Thrasybulus, then king of Miletus, commanded all the corn that was at that time in the city to be brought into the market-place, ordering the citizens to banquet in public, and revel as if the city were plentifully stored with all manner of provisions. This stratagem Thrasybulus practised, to the end that the ambassadors seeing such quantities of corn, and the people everywhere diverting themselves, might acquaint their master with their affluence, and divert him from pursuing the war. As Thrasybulus had designed, so it happened; for Alyattes, who believed the Milesians greatly distressed for provisions, receiving a different account from his ambassadors, changed the truce into a lasting peace, and ever afterwards lived in amity and friendship with Thrasybulus and the Milesians. He was succeeded, after a reign of 57 years, by his son Croesus, whose uninterrupted prosperity, in the first years of his reign, far eclipsed the glory of all his predecessors. He was the first that made war on the Ephesians, whose city he besieged and took notwithstanding their consecrating it to Diana, and fastening the walls by a rope to her temple, which was seven stadia distant from the city. After the reduction of Ephesus, he attacked, under various pretences, the Ionians and Aeolians, obliging them, and all the other Greek states of Asia, to pay him a yearly tribute. Having met with such extraordinary success by land, the Lydian prince determined to render his power equally conspicuous by sea. For this purpose he thought seriously of equipping a fleet; with which he purposed to invade and conquer the Grecian islands directly fronting his dominions. But this design, which, considering the slow progress in maritime power among the nations most diligent to attain it, would probably have failed of success, was prevented by the advice of a philosophical traveller conveyed in such a lively turn of wit, as easily changed the revolution of the king. Bias of Priene in Ionia, some say Pittacus of Mitylene in the isle of Lesbos, while he travelled after the Grecian custom, from curiosity and a love of knowledge, was presented to Croesus at the Lydian court; and being asked by that prince what news from Greece; he answered with a republican freedom, that the islanders had collected powerful squadrons of cavalry with an intention of invading Lydia. "May the gods grant (said Croesus), that the Greeks, who are unacquainted with horsemanship, should attack the disciplined valour of the Lydian cavalry; there would soon be an end to the contest."

"In the same manner (replied Bias), as if the Lydians, who are totally unexperienced in naval affairs, should invade the Grecians by sea." Struck by the acuteness of this unexpected observation, Croesus desisted from his intended expedition against the islands, and instead of employing new means for extending his conquests, determined peaceably to enjoy the laurels which he had won, and to display the grandeur which he had attained. But his happiness was soon after alloyed by the death of his favourite son Atys, who was unfortunately killed at the chase of a wild boar. For this loss he continued disconsolate for two years and in a state of inaction, till the conquests of Cyrus, and growing power of the Persians, roused up his martial spirit, and diverted his mind to other thoughts. He apprehended that the success which attended Cyrus in all his undertakings, might at last prove prove dangerous to himself, and therefore resolved to put a stop, if possible, to his progress. In taking this resolution, which might probably be attended with the most important consequences, he was desirous to learn the will of heaven concerning the issue of the war. The principal oracles which he consulted were those of Branchus in Ionia, of Hammon in Libya, and of Delphi in Greece. Among these respected shrines, the oracle of Delphi maintained its ascendant, as the most faithful interpreter of fate. Croesus was fully persuaded of its veracity; and desirous generously to compensate for the trouble which he had already given, and still meant to give, the priests of Apollo, he sacrificed 3000 oxen to the god, and adorned his shrine with dedications equally valuable for the workmanship and for the materials; precious vessels of silver, ewers of iron beautifully inlaid and enamelled; various ornaments of pure gold, particularly a golden lion weighing ten talents, and a female figure three cubits or near five feet high. In return for these magnificent presents, the oracle, in ambiguous language, flattered Croesus with obtaining an easy victory over his enemies, and with enjoying a long life and a prosperous reign. The god at the same time enjoined him to contract an alliance with the most powerful of the Grecian states.

Elevated with these favourable predictions of Apollo, Croesus prepared to yield a ready obedience to the only condition required on his part for the accomplishment of his aspiring purpose. Not deeming himself sufficiently acquainted with the affairs of Greece, to know what particular republic was meant by the oracle, he made particular inquiry of those best informed concerning the state of Europe; and discovered, that among all the members of the Grecian confederacy, the Athenians and Lacedemonians were justly entitled to the pre-eminence. In order to learn which of these communities deserved the epithet of most powerful, it was necessary to send ambassadors into Greece. The Lydians dispatched with this important commission, soon discovered that the Athenians, after having been long harassed by internal dissensions, were actually governed by the tyrant Pisistratus. The Spartans, on the other hand, though anciently the worst regulated of all the Grecian communities, had enjoyed domestic peace and foreign prosperity ever since they had adopted the wise institutions of Lycurgus. After that memorable period, they had repeatedly conquered the warlike Argives, triumphed over the hardy Arcadians; and notwithstanding the heroic exploits of Aristomenes, subdued and enslaved their unfortunate rivals of Messene. To the Lydian ambassadors, therefore, the Spartan republic appeared to be pointed out by the oracle as the community whose alliance they were enjoined to solicit. Having repaired accordingly to Sparta, they were introduced not only to the kings and senate, but, as the importance of the negociation required, to the general assembly of the Lacedemonians, to whom they, in few words, declared the object of their commission: "We are sent, O Lacedemonians! by Croesus, king of the Lydians and of many other nations, who being commanded by the oracle of Apollo to seek the friendship of the most powerful people of Greece, now summons you, who justly merit that epithet, to become his faithful allies, in obedience to the will of the god whose authority you acknowledge."

The Lacedemonians, pleased with the alliance of a warlike king, and still more with the fame of their valour, readily accepted the proposal. To the strict connection of an offensive and defensive league, they joined the more respected ties of sacred hospitality. A few years before this transaction, they had sent to purchase gold at Sardis for making a statue of Apollo. Croesus had on that occasion gratuitously supplied their want. Remembering this generosity, they gave the Lydian ambassadors at their departure, as a present for their master, a vessel of brafs containing 300 amphoras (above 12 hogsheads), and beautifully carved on the outside with various forms of animals.

Croesus, having thus happily accomplished the design recommended by the oracle, was eager to set out upon his intended expedition. He had formerly entered into alliance with Amasis king of Egypt, and Labynetus king of Babylon. He had now obtained the friendship of the most warlike nation of Europe. The newly-raised power of Cyrus and the Persians seemed incapable of resisting such a formidable confederacy.

Elevated with these flattering ideas of his own invincible greatness, Croesus waited not to attack the Persian dominions until he had collected the strength of his allies. The sanguine impetuosity of his temper, unexperienced in adversity, unfortunately precipitated him into measures no less ruinous than daring. Attended only by the arms of Lydia, and a numerous band of mercenaries, whom his immense wealth enabled him at any time to call into his service, he marched towards the river Halys; and having crossed with much difficulty that deep and broad stream, entered the province of Cappadocia, which formed the western frontier of the Median dominions. That unfortunate country soon experienced all the calamities of invasion. The Pterian plain, the most beautiful and the most fertile district of Cappadocia, was laid waste; the ports of the Euxine, as well as several inland cities, were plundered; and the inoffensive inhabitants were either put to the sword or dragged into captivity. Encouraged by the unrelenting softness of the natives of those parts, Croesus was eager to push forwards; and if Cyrus did not previously meet him in the field, he had determined to proceed in triumph to the mountains of Persia. Against this dangerous resolution he was in vain exhorted by a Lydian named Sandanis; who, when asked his opinion of the war, declared it with that freedom which the princes of the East have in every age permitted, amidst all the pride and caprices of despotic power, to men distinguished by the gifts of nature or education. "You are preparing, O king, to march against a people who lead a laborious and a miserable life; whose daily subsistence is often denied them, and is always scanty and precarious; who drink only water, and who are clothed with the skins of wild beasts. What can the Lydians gain by the conquest of Persia; they who enjoy all the advantages of which the Persians are destitute? For my part, I deem it a blessing of the gods, that they have not excited the warlike poverty of these miserable barbarians to invade and plunder the luxurious wealth of Lydia." The moderation of this advice was rejected by the fatal presumption of Croesus; who confounding the the dictates of experienced wisdom with the mean suggestions of pusillanimity, dismissed the counsellor with contempt.

Meanwhile, the approach of Cyrus, who was not of a temper to permit his dominions to be ravaged with impunity, afforded the Lydian king an opportunity of bringing the war to a more speedy issue than by his intended expedition into Persia. The army of Cyrus gradually augmented on his march; the tributary princes cheerfully contributing with their united strength towards the assistance of a master whose valour and generosity they admired, and who now took arms to protect the safety of his subjects, as well as to support the grandeur of his throne. Such was the rapidity of his movement, especially after being informed of the destructive ravages of the enemy in Cappadocia, that he arrived from the shores of the Caspian to those of the Euxine Sea before the army of Croesus had provided the necessaries for their journey. That prince, when apprised of the neighbourhood of the Persians, encamped on the Pterian plain; Cyrus likewise encamped at no great distance; frequent skirmishes happened between the light troops; and at length a general engagement was fought with equal fury and perseverance, and only terminated by the darkness of night. The loss on both sides hindered a renewal of the battle. The numbers, as well as the courage of the Persians, much exceeded the expectation of Croesus. As they discovered not any intention to harass his retreat, he determined to move back towards Sardis, to spend the winter in the amusements of his palace; and after summoning his numerous allies to his standard, to take the field early in the spring with such increase of force as seemed sufficient to overpower the Persians.

But this design was defeated by the careful vigilance of Cyrus. That experienced leader allowed the enemy to retire without molestation; carefully informing himself of every step which they took, and of every measure which they seemed determined to pursue. Patiently watching the opportunity of a just revenge, he waited until Croesus had re-entered his capital, and had disbanded the foreign mercenaries, who composed the most numerous division of his army. It then seemed the proper time for Cyrus to put his Persians in motion; and such was his celerity, that he brought the first news of his own arrival in the plain of Sardis. Croesus, whose firmness might well have been shaken by the imminence of this unforeseen danger, was not wanting on the present occasion to the duties which he owed to his fame and the lustre of the Lydian throne. Though his mercenaries were disbanded, his own subjects, who served him from attachment, who had been long accustomed to victory, and who were animated with a high sense of national honour, burned with a desire of enjoying an opportunity to check the daring insolence of the invaders. Croesus indulged and encouraged this generous ardour. The Lydians in that age fought on horseback, armed with long spears; the strength of the Persians consisted in infantry. They were too little accustomed to the use of horses, that camels were almost the only animals which they employed as beasts of burden. This circumstance suggested to a Mede, by name Harpagus, a stratagem, which being communicated to Cyrus, was immediately adopted with approbation by that prince. Harpagus, having observed that horses had a strong aversion to the shape and smell of camels, advised the Persian army to be drawn up in the following order: All the camels which had been employed to carry baggage and provisions were collected into one body, arranged in a long line fronting the Lydian cavalry. The foot soldiers of the Persians were posted immediately behind the line, and placed at a due distance. The Median horse (for a few squadrons of these followed the standard of Cyrus) formed the rear of the army. As the troops on both sides approached to join battle, the Lydian cavalry, terrified at the unusual appearance of the camels, mounted with men in arms, were thrown into disorder, and turning their heads, endeavoured to escape from the field. Croesus, who perceived the confusion, was ready to despair of his fortune; but the Lydians, abandoning their horses, prepared with uncommon bravery to attack the enemy on foot. Their courage deserved a better fate; but unaccustomed as they were to this mode of fighting, they were received and repelled by the experienced valour of the Persian infantry, and obliged to take refuge within the fortified strength of Sardis, where they imagined themselves secure. The walls of that city bid defiance to the rude art of attack, as then practised by the most warlike nations. If the Persian army should invest it, the Lydians were provided with provisions for several years; and there was reason to expect, that in a few months, and even weeks, they would receive such assistance from Egypt, Babylonia, and Greece (to which countries they had already sent ambassadors), as would oblige the Persians to raise the siege.

The Lydian ministers dispatched into Greece met with great sympathy from the Spartans. That people were particularly observant of the faith of treaties; and while they punished their enemies with unexampled severity, they behaved with generous compassion towards those whom they had once accepted as allies. They immediately resolved therefore to send him a speedy and effectual relief; and for this purpose assembled their troops, made ready their vessels, and prepared every thing necessary for the expedition.

The valour of the Spartans might perhaps have upheld the sinking empire of Lydia; but before their armament could set sail, Croesus was no longer a sovereign. Notwithstanding the strength of Sardis, that city had been taken by storm on the 20th day of the siege; the walls having been scaled in a quarter which, appearing altogether inaccessible, was too carelessly guarded. This was effected by the enterprise of Hyrcanus, a Mede, who accidentally observed a centinel descend part of the rock in order to recover his helmet. Hyrcanus was a native of the mountainous province of Mardia, and being accustomed to clamber over the dangerous precipices of his native country, resolved to try his activity in passing the rock upon which he had discovered the Lydian. The design was more easily accomplished than he had reason to expect; emulation and success encouraged the bravery of the Persians to follow his example; these were supported by greater numbers of their countrymen; the garrison of Sardis was surprised; the citadel stormed; the rich capital of Lower Asia subjected to the vengeful rapacity of an indignant victor. Thus ended the ancient kingdom of Lydia, which continued subject to the Persians till they also were conquered by the Macedonians.—For the fate of the Lydian monarch, see the article Croesus.