enotes barley cured, or prepared to fit it for making a potable liquor, under a denomination of beer or ale. See Brewing.

Malt-Liquors have different names as well as different virtues, properties, and uses, both from the different manners of preparing the malt; whence they are distinguished into pale and brown; and from the different manners of preparing or brewing the liquors themselves; whence they are divided into beer and ale, strong and small, new and old.

Malt drinks are either pale or brown, as the malt is more or less dried on the kiln; that which is the slenderest dried tinged the liquor least in brewing, and therefore being called pale; whereas that higher dried, and as it were roasted, makes it of a higher colour. A mixture of both these makes an amber colour; whence several of these liquors take their name.

Now, it is certain, the pale malt has most of the natural grain in it, and is therefore the most nourishing; but, for the same reason, it requires a stronger constitution to digest it. Those who drink much of it, are usually fat and sleek in their bloom, but are often cut off by sudden fevers; or, if they avoid this, they fall early into a distempered old age.

The brown malt makes a drink much less viscid, and fitter to pass the several strainers of the body; but, if very strong, it may lead on to the same inconveniences with the pale; though a single debauch wears off much more easily in the brown.

Dr Quincy observes, that the best pale malt liquors are those brewed with hard waters, as those of springs and wells, because the mineral particles, wherewith these waters are impregnated, help to prevent the cohesions of those drawn from the grain, and enable them to pass the proper secretions the better; as the viscid particles of the grain do likewise defend them from doing the mischief they might otherwise occasion. But softer waters seem best suited to draw out the substance of high-dried malts, which retain many fiery particles in their contexture, and are therefore best lost in a smooth vehicle.

For the differences in the preparation of malt liquors, they chiefly consist in the use of hops, as in beer; or in the more sparing use of them, as in ale.

The difference made by hops is best discovered from the nature and quality of the hops themselves: these are known to be a subtle grateful bitter; in their composition, therefore, with this liquor, they add somewhat of an alkaline nature, i.e., particles that are sublime, active, and rigid. By which means, the viscid viscid parts of the malt are more divided and subtilized: and are therefore not only rendered more easy of digestion and secretion in the body, but also, while in the liquor, they prevent it from running into such cohesions as would make it syrupy, vapid, and sour.

For want of this, in unhopped drinks, that clammy sweetness, which they retain after working, turns them acid and unfit for use; which happens sooner or latter in proportion to the strength they receive from the malt, and the comminution that has undergone by fermentation.

It is a common opinion, that ale is more diuretic than beer; that is, liquor less hopped more than that with a greater quantity of hops in it: which may hold in some constitutions; because ale being more smooth, softening, and relaxing, where urine is to be promoted by enlarging the passages, as in thin, dry constitutions, this is the most likely to effect it. But, where the promoting of urine is to be done by attenuating and breaking the juices, and rendering them more fluid, it is certainly best answered by those drinks which are well hopped.

As to the dispute, whether or no hops tend to breed the stone; it is too long to enter upon here. Quincy is of opinion, there is but little reason for the affirmative side of the question; and in the general, makes no scruple to say, that, for one constitution damaged by beer, there are numbers spoiled by ale. This last manifestly fouls the glands, stuffs the vessels with slime and viscidity, makes the body unwieldy and corpulent, and paves the way for cachexies, jaundice, asthma, and at last incurable dropsies. The urinary passages, also, which it is supposed to clear, will, in time, be filled by it with flough and matter of as ill consequence as gravel.

The different strengths of malt liquors also make their effects different. The stronger they are, the more viscid parts they carry into the blood; and though the spirituous parts make these imperceptible at first; yet when those are evaporated, which will be in a few hours, the other will be sensibly felt by pains in the head, nausea, nausea at the stomach, and lassitude or listlessness to motion. This those are the most sensible of who have experienced the extremes of drinking these liquors and wines; for a debauch of wine they find much sooner worn off, and they are much more lively and brisk afterwards, than after fuddling malt liquors, whose viscid remains will be long before they be shaken off.

Malt liquors therefore are, in general, the more wholesome for being small; i.e., of such a strength as is liable to carry a small degree of warmth into the stomach, but not so great as to prevent their being proper diluters of the necessary food. Indeed, in robust people, or those who labour hard, the viscidities of the drink may be broken into convenient nourishment; but in persons of another habit and way of living, they serve rather to promote obstructions and ill humours.

The age of malt liquors is the last thing by which they are rendered more or less wholesome. Age seems to do nearly the same thing as hops; for those liquors which are longest kept are certainly the least viscid; age breaking the viscid parts, and by degrees rendering them smaller, and fitter for secretion. But this is always determined according to their strength; in proportion to which, they will sooner or later come to their full perfection as well as decay; for, when ale or beer is kept till its particles are broken and comminuted as far as they are capable, then it is that they are best; and, beyond this, they will be continually on the decay, till the finer spirits are entirely escaped, and the remainder becomes vapourous.

**Malt-Distillery.** This is an extensive article of trade, and by which very large fortunes are made. The art is to convert fermented malt liquors into a clear inflammable spirit, which may be either sold for use in the common state of a proof strength, that is, the same strength with French brandy; or is rectified into that purer spirit usually sold under the name of spirit of wine; or made into compound cordial waters, by being distilled again from herbs and other ingredients. See Brewing and Wash.

To brew with malt in the most advantageous manner, it is necessary, 1. That the subject be well prepared; 2. That the water be suitable and duly applied; and, 3. That some certain additions be used, or alterations made, according to the season of the year, and the intention of the operator; and by a proper regulation in these respects, all the fermentable parts of the subject will thus be brought into the tincture, and become fit for fermentation.

The due preparation of the subject consists in its being justly malted and well ground. When the grain is not sufficiently malted, it is apt to prove hard, so that the water can have but very little power to dissolve its substance; and if it be too much malted, a part of the fermentable matter is lost in that operation. The harder and more flinty the malt is, the finer it ought to be ground; and in all cases, when intended for distillation, it is advisable to reduce it to a kind of finer or coarser meal. When the malt is thus ground, it is found by experience that great part of the time, trouble, and expense of the brewing is saved by it, and yet as large a quantity of spirit will be produced; for thus the whole substance of the malt may remain mixed among the tincture, and be fermented and distilled among it. This is a particular that very well deserves the attention of the malt distiller as that trade is at present carried on; for the dispatch of the business, and the quantity of spirit procured, is more attended to than the purity or perfection of it.

The secret of this matter depends upon the thoroughly mixing or briskly agitating and throwing the meal about, first in cold and then in hot water; and repeating this agitation after the fermentation is over, when the thick turbid wash being immediately committed to the still already hot and dewy with working, there is no danger of burning, unless by accident, even with it the farther trouble of stirring, which in this case is found needless, though the quantity be ever so large, provided that requisite care and cleanliness be used; and thus the business of brewing and fermenting may very commodiously be performed together, and reduced to one single operation. Whatever water is made choice of, it must stand in a hot state upon the prepared malt, especially if a clear tincture be desired; but a known and very great inconvenience attends its being applied too hot, or too near a state of boiling, or even scalding with regard to the malt. To save time in this case, and to prevent the malt running into lumps and clods, the best way is to put a certain measured quantity of cold water to the malt first; the malt is then to be stirred very well with this, so as to form a sort of thin uniform paste or pudding; after which the remaining quantity of water required may be added in a state of boiling, without the least danger of making what, in the distillers language, is called a puddle.

In this manner the due and necessary degree of heat in the water, for the extracting all the virtues of the malt, may be hit upon very expeditiously, and with a great deal of exactness, as the heat of boiling water is a fixed standard which may be let down to any degree by a proportionate mixture of cold water, due allowances being made for the season of the year, and for the temperature of the air.

This little obvious improvement, added to the method just above hinted for the reducing brewing and fermentation to one operation, will render it practicable to very considerable advantage, and the spirit improved in quality as well as quantity.

A much more profitable method than that usually practised for the fermenting malt for distillation, in order to get its spirit, is the following: take ten pounds of malt reduced to a fine meal, and three pounds of common wheat-meal; add to these two gallons of cold water, and stir them well together; then add five gallons of water, boiling hot, and stir altogether again. Let the whole stand two hours, and then stir it again; and when grown cold, add to it two ounces of solid yeast, and let it by loofly covered in a warmish place to ferment.

This is the Dutch method of preparing what they call the **woofs for malt spirit**, whereby they save much trouble and procure a large quantity of spirit: thus commodiously reducing the two busynesses of brewing and fermenting to one single operation. In England the method is to draw and make for spirit as they ordinarily do for beer, only instead of boiling the wort, they pump it into large coolers, and afterwards run it into their fermenting backs, to be there fermented with yeast. Thus they below twice as much labour as is necessary, and lose a large quantity of their spirit by leaving the grofs bottoms out of the still for fear of burning.

All simple spirits may be considered in the three different states of low wines, proof spirit, and alcohol, the intermediate degrees of strength being of less general use; and they are to be judged of only according as they approach to or recede from these. Low wines at a medium contain a sixth part of pure inflammable spirit, five times as much water as spirit necessarily arising in the operation with a boiling heat. Proof goods contain about one half of the same totally inflammable spirit; and alcohol entirely consists of it.

Malt low-wines, prepared in the common way, are exceeding nauseous; they have, however, a natural vinousity or pungent agreeable acidity, which would render the spirit agreeable to the palate were it not for the large quantity of the grofs oil of the malt that abounds in it. When this oil is detained in some measure... Malt wine, when brought to the standard of proof spirit, loses its milky colour, and is perfectly clear and bright; no more oil being contained in it than is perfectly dissolved by the alcohol, and rendered invisible with that proportion of phlegm, which is about one half the liquor: its taste also is clearer, though not more pleasant; there being less of the thick oil to hang on the tongue than its own form; which is not the case in the low wines, where the oil being undissolved, adheres to the mouth in its own form, and does not pass lightly over it.

When proof-spirit of malt is distilled over again, in order to be rectified into alcohol, or, as we usually call it, spirits of wine, if the fire be raised at the time when the faints begin to fall off, a very considerable quantity of oil will be raised by it, and will run in the visible form of oil from the nose of the worm. This is not peculiar to malt spirit; but the French brandy shows the same phenomenon, and that in so great a degree, that half an ounce of this oil may be obtained from a single piece of brandy.

Malt spirit, more than any other kind, requires to be brought into the form of alcohol, before it can be used internally, especially as it is now commonly made up in the proof state, with as much of this nauseous and viscous oil as will give it a good crown of bubbles. For this reason it ought to be reduced to an alcohol, or totally inflammable spirit, before it is admitted into any of the medicinal compositions. If it be used without this previous caution, the odious taste of the malt oil will be distinguished among all the other flavours of the ingredients.

Malt spirit, when it has once been reduced to the true form of an alcohol, is afterwards more fit for all the curious internal uses than even French brandy; it being after this purification a more uniform, hungry, tasteful, and impregnable spirit, than any other spirits which we esteem so much finer.

A pure spirit being thus procured, should be kept carefully in vessels of glass or stone, well stopped, to prevent the evaporation of any of its volatile part. If preserved in casks, it is apt to impregnate itself very strongly with the wood. The quantity of pure alcohol obtainable from a certain quantity of malt, differs according to the goodness of the subject, the manner of the operation, the season of the year, and the skillfulness of the workmen; according to which variations, a quarter of malt will afford from eight or nine to thirteen or fourteen gallons of alcohol. This should encourage the malt distiller to be careful and diligent in his business, as so very large a part of his profit depends wholly on the well conducting his processes.

After every operation in this business, there remains a quantity of faints, which in their own coarse state ought never to be admitted into the pure spirit; these are to be saved together, and large quantities of them at once wrought into alcohol. It is easy to reduce those to such a state that they will serve for lamp-spirits. Their disagreeable flavour being corrected by the adding of aromatics during the distillations, the reducing them into a perfect and pure alcohol is practicable, but not without such difficulties as render it scarce worth the trader's while. One way of doing it is by distilling them from water into water, and that with a very slow fire. By this means a pure alcohol may be made out of the foulest faints.

The malt distiller always gives his spirit a single rectification per se, in order to purify it a little, and make it up proof; but in this state it is not to be reckoned fit for internal uses, but serves to be distilled into geneva and other ordinary compound strong waters for the vulgar.

The Dutch, who carry on a great trade with malt spirit, never give it any farther rectification than this; and it is on this account, that the malt spirit of England is in general so much more in esteem. The Dutch method is only to distil the wash into low wines, and then to full proof spirit; they then directly make it into geneva, or else send it as it is to Germany, Guinea, and the East-Indies, for the Dutch have little notion of our rectification. Their spirit is by this means rendered very foul and coarse, and is rendered yet more nauseous by the immoderate use they make of rye-meal. Malt spirit, in its unrectified state, is usually found to have the common bubble proof, as the malt distiller knows that it will not be marketable without it.

The whole matter requisite to this is, that it have a considerable portion of the grog oil of the malt well broke and mixed along with it; this gives the rectifier a great deal of trouble if he will have the spirit fine; but in the general run of the business, the rectifier does not take out this oil, but breaks it finer, and mixes it faster in by alkaline salts, and disguises its taste. taste by the addition of certain flavouring ingredients. The spirit loses in these processes the vinosity it had when it came out of the hands of the malt distiller, and is in all respects worse, except in the disguise of a mixed flavor.

The alkaline salts used by the rectifier destroying the natural vinosity of the spirit, it is necessary to add an extraneous acid in order to give it a new one. The acid they generally use is the spiritus nitri dulcis; and the common way of using it is the mixing it to the taste with the rectified spirit: this gives our malt spirit, when well rectified, a flavor somewhat like that of French brandy, but this soon flies off; and the better method is to add a proper quantity of Glauber's strong spirit of nitre to the spirit in the still. The liquor in this case comes over impregnated with it, and the acid being more intimately mixed, the flavor is retained.

**Malt-Bruiser, or Bruising-mill.** It has been found by repeated experiments, that bruising malt is a more advantageous method than the old one of grinding and flouring. By bruising, there is not only less waste, but the malt is also better fitted for giving out all its virtues. It has lately, therefore, become a practice to squeeze malt between rollers, by means of a proper apparatus, of which various constructions have been invented. As the best contrivance of this sort is said to be the bruising-mill of Mr Winlaw, we have given a figure of it on Plate CCLXXXII., where AAAA is the frame; B, the large cylinder or roller; C, the small one; D, the hopper; E, the shoe; F, the frame that supports the hopper; G, a fly-wheel; H, the windlass. To use this engine, it is directed to screw the large roller up to the small one, and not to feed too fast from the shoe, which is regulated by pins that have strings fixed to them. It is evident, that when two smooth surfaces are opposed to each other at a distance which can be regulated at pleasure, neither grain nor any other similar substance can pass between them without being bruised. This being the principle on which the bruising-mill acts, the unclean substance, which is the essential part of malt, is entirely removed from the skin or hull which contains it, and all the virtues of the malt are with ease extracted by the water in a manner superior to what is affected when the grain is only cut by grinding. The operation is at the same time so expeditiously performed, that two men can with ease bruise a bushel of malt in a minute.

—By the same engine may also be bruised oats and beans for horses. A great part of the corn given these animals, it is well known, is swallowed whole, and often passes through them in the same state; in which case, they cannot receive any nourishment from the grains that are unbroken: but when bruised in this engine, it eases mastication; and every grain being prepared for nutrition, a much less quantity will of course be found to be sufficient. For bruising beans, the two regulating screws must be unscrewed a little; and the fly-wheel requires to be then set in motion with the hand, on account that the rollers are then a little space apart, and will not turn each other before the beans come between them.

**Malt-Tax,** is the sum of £50,000, raised every year by parliament since 1697, by a duty of 6d. on the bushel of malt, and a proportionable sum on certain liquors, such as cyder and perry, which might otherwise prevent the consumption of malt. This is under the management of the commissioners of the excise; and is indeed itself no other than the annual excise. In 1760, an additional perpetual excise of 3d. per bushel was laid upon malt; and in 1763, a proportional excise was laid upon cyder and perry, but new-modelled in 1766. See Excise.

**MALTA,** a celebrated island of the Mediterranean, situated between the 15th and 16th degrees of east longitude, and between the 35th and 36th degrees of north latitude. It is about 19 or 20 leagues in length, nine or ten in breadth, and 60 in circumference. Anciently it was called Melita; and is supposed by Cluverius, from its situation and other particulars, to be the Hiperia mentioned by Homer, whence the Phaeaces the island were afterwards driven by the Phenicians, and retired into Scheria and the island of Corfu; which is the more probable, as the ancient poet places the mountain Melita in that island. He has likewise brought some probable arguments to prove, that Melita or Malta is the ancient Ogygia; in which the famed nymph Calypso, daughter of the Ocean and Thetis, received the shipwrecked Ulysses, and detained him seven years.

The most ancient possessors of Malta, of whom we have any certain account, were the Carthaginians; from whom it was taken by the Romans: and yet during the whole time that it continued under the power of these polite nations, it was almost entirely barren. The soil was partly sandy and partly rocky, having scarcely any depth of earth; and withal so stony, that it was hardly capable of producing corn or any other grain except cummin, and some seeds of a similar nature. Its chief products were figs, melons, honey, cotton, and some few other fruits and commodities which the inhabitants exchanged for corn; and in this barren state it seems to have continued till it came into the possession of the Maltese knights. It laboured also under great scarcity of water and fuel: upon all which accounts it was till that time but thinly inhabited, there being only about 30 or 40 boroughs or other villages scattered about, and no city except the capital, called also Malta, and the town and fort of St Angelo, which defended the harbour: so that the whole number of its inhabitants did not exceed 12,000, including women and children; the greatest part of whom were very indigent.

According to an ancient tradition, Malta was first possessed by an African prince named Battus, an enemy to queen Dido; from whom it was taken by the Carthaginians, as may be justly inferred from several Punic inscriptions to be seen on stone-pillars and other monuments yet standing. From the Carthaginians it passed to the Romans, who made themselves masters of it at the same time that they subdued the island of Sicily. These were driven out by the Arabs in the year 828; who were driven out of it in their turn by Roger the Norman, earl of Sicily, who took possession of it in 1190; from which time it continued under the dominion of the Sicilian princes till the time of Char.V., when it fell under his power, along with Naples and Sicily. To cover the island of Sicily from the Turks, Malta Charles gave the island to the knights of Rhodes, since then called knights of Malta.

The origin and history of these knights is given under der the article Knights of Malta and Rhodes. Here it is sufficient to observe, that in 1530, the knights of Rhodes having been expelled from that island by Soliman the Turkish sultan, and destitute of an habitation, accepted, tho' not without some reluctance on account of its barrenness, the offer made them by Charles V. of the island of Malta. The grand master having caused his two large carracks, the galleys of the order, and a good number of other transport-ships laden with great quantities of arms, ammunition, and troops, to be got ready, he and his knights embarked in the former, with all the effects, records, and treasure belonging to the order, and the rest in the latter. In their passage they suffered very much by a violent storm; in which one of their galleys split upon a rock, and one of the carracks was run aground by the violence of the waves, after having broke her three anchors. She stuck so fast, that they expected every moment to see her split in pieces; when providentially a contrary wind disengaged her without damage. This event was counted as a lucky omen, and on the 26th of October that year all the company were safely landed.

At the first landing of the Maltese knights, they found themselves obliged to lodge in a very poor town or borough at the foot of the hill on which stands the castle of St Angelo, and where their only habitations were fishermen's huts. The grand-master, with the principal knights, took possession of the castle, where the accommodations were somewhat better: tho' these too were very mean, and out of repair. Three days after, he took possession of the city, which was formerly called Malta, but since that time hath taken the name of the Notable City; and after that, of the whole island of Malta, and the neighbouring one of Gosa.

The first care of the knights, after having settled their authority through the two islands, was to provide some better accommodation for the present, and to choose a proper place where to fix their habitation. But as the island had no other defence than the old castle of St Angelo, and was so much exposed on all sides, that it would have required greater sums than their exhausted treasury could spare to put it in a proper state of defence; the grand-master was obliged to content himself with surrounding the borough abovementioned, wherein he had ordered new buildings to be reared for the present habitation of his knights, with a flout wall, to prevent its being surprised by the Turkish and Barbary corsairs. His design indeed, at this time, was not to have fixed the abode of the knights in the bare and defenceless island of Malta, but to stay in it only till he had got a sufficient force to attempt the conquest of Modon, a town of the Morea, and which was not only a populous and opulent place, but lay very convenient for making an attempt on the island of Rhodes, their ancient habitation, and to which they were naturally attached. This, however, did not hinder his taking all proper measures for securing Malta as well as Gosa, and laying out a proper plan for securing them from attacks, in case the design on Modon should fail.

In the mean time, as superstition was then universally prevalent, the grand-master, among other precious relics which they had brought from Rhodes, caused the arm of St Catharine to be carried in procession to the cathedral. Whilst they were on their march, one of the centinels gave them notice, that a large Turkish merchantman was wrecked on their coast. The grand-master immediately dispatched some of his knights and soldiers thither; who finding Isaac the patron of the ship, a native of Modon, and one Maurithsala Nocher, an excellent engineer, they were retained in the service of the order, and the latter was immediately employed in fortifying the island.

The knights were hardly settled in Malta, when the emperor, and other European potentates, endeavoured to engage them in a war with the inhabitants of Barbary, as the city of Tripoli, then held by Charles, was in great danger of falling into the hands of the infidels. The attempt on Modon, however, was first made; but it proved unsuccessful through the base aversion of the Maltese forces: for they having been admitted into the city, during the night began to murder and plunder the inhabitants, without waiting for the arrival of the galleys which were coming to their assistance. The consequence was, that the inhabitants armed, and a desperate battle began; in which the Maltese, notwithstanding the utmost efforts, were obliged to retire, but not till they had loaded themselves with plunder, and carried away 800 women captive.

The grand-master, looking upon this disappointment as a sign that Providence had ordained Malta to be the residence of the knights, did not renew his attempts against the Turks, and sent a great number of his galleys to join the confederate fleet under the celebrated Andrew Doria. In consequence of this aid, the undertaking proved successful; and in all probability the conquest of Modon would have been accomplished, had not the soldiery, discouraged by the bad success of the last attempt, openly refused to proceed, and obliged the emperor to proceed to Coron, another town belonging to the Turks. Through the valour of the Maltese knights, this place was soon obliged to capitulate; and in a second expedition in 1533, the knights again distinguished themselves in a most eminent manner. They were quickly recalled, however, by the grand-master to the defence of the island, which was now threatened with an invasion by Barbarossa the celebrated Turkish corsair, who scoured those seas at the head of above fourscore galleys. This invasion, however, did not take place; and in 1534 the grand-master Villiers de L'Isle Adam died, and was succeeded by Perino de Ponte, a native of the town of Aft in Italy.

The new grand-master, who received intelligence of his election at St Euphemia in Calabria, very soon after received another express, giving an account of the wars which in that time reigned in Tunis, and the danger that Tripoli as well as Malta was in from Barbarossa, who was by this time become master both of Algiers and Tunis; upon which he made all the haste he could to his new government. His first care was to send a strong reinforcement to Italy; after which, he dispatched an embassy to the emperor, intreating him to equip a powerful fleet against Barbarossa, without which it would be impossible for Tripoli to hold out much longer. By this embassy from De Ponte, and another to the same purpose from Muley Hassan, the deposed king of Tunis, Charles was easily prevailed on to carry his arms into Africa; in which he was assisted by a great number of the bravest knights, together with 18 galleys, and their vessel called the great carrack, of itself almost equivalent to a squadron. In this expedition the knights distinguished themselves in a most eminent manner. At the siege of Goletta, one of the knights, named Conversa, an excellent engineer, by means of a boccalonga, got almost close to the great tower, which he furiously battered with large cannon, while the great carrack, which was behind all the rest of the vessels, and by reason of its height could fire over them, did prodigious execution. A breach was soon made; and hardly was it wide enough to be sealed, when the Maltese knights jumped out of the galleys into their long-boats, and thence into the sea, with their swords in their hands, and waded through the water above their girdles, it being too shallow for boats to approach the shore. The standard-bearer of the order was the first that jumped into the water, and led the rest to the attack; they claiming every where the post of honour. They marched with the greatest resolution through the most terrible firing and showers of all kinds of missile weapons; and, having gained the shore, quickly ascended the breach, on the top of which they planted their great standard. A great number lost their lives, and scarce one came off unwounded; but the emperor did them the justice to own, that the taking the place was chiefly owing to the valour of the Maltese knights.

The city of Tunis was soon taken after the fortress of Goletta; on the surrender of which, the emperor, desirous to return into Europe, took his last dinner on board the great carrack; where he was magnificently entertained, and bestowed on the surviving knights the greatest encomiums, and marks of his esteem and gratitude to the owner. These he accompanied with considerable presents and with two new grants. By the first, they were allowed to import corn and other provisions from Sicily, without paying duty; and by the second, the emperor engaged, that none of the order should enjoy any of the estates or revenues, due to Maltese knights, throughout all his dominions, unless they were lawfully authorized by the grand-master and his council; or till the originals had been examined and registered by himself, or such ministers as he should appoint for that purpose. The fleet then set sail for Malta; where, on their arrival, they received the news of the grand-master's death, who was succeeded by Didier de Tolon de St Jalle, a native of Provence, and then grand prior of Tholoufe, where he resided at the time of his election.

The present grand-master was a man of great conduct and bravery, which he had formerly shown at the siege of Rhodes; and the situation of affairs at this time required a person of experience. The Turkish corsairs, quite tired out with the dreadful havoc made among them by Botigella, grand prior of Pifa, who seldom quitted the sea, and never failed out without sinking some of them, or making considerable prizes, had agreed to enter into a strong confederacy, either to surprise the city of Tripoli where his retreat was, or, if that failed, to lay siege to it by sea and land; in either of which attempts, they were sure of all the assistance of Barbarossa and Hayradin, then lord of Tagiora. This last had undertaken the command and conduct of the whole enterprise; but the governor being informed of the design, prepared to give him a warm reception. Hayradin came thither with his whole force in the dead of the night, and began to scale the walls in those places where he reckoned them to be most defenceless. They no sooner appeared at the foot of them, than the garrison, which had been kept up in arms, poured down such streams of wildfire, boiling oil, melted lead, &c. and threw such volleys of stones, while the great and small guns so annoyed those that stood farthest off, that great numbers of them were destroyed. They persisted in the attack, however, with great fury and vigour, till Hayradin, who was foremost in one of the escalades, was knocked down by a musket-shot from the top of his ladder. He fell into the ditch, and was taken up almost dead; upon which his troops instantly dispersed themselves, and abandoned the enterprise. The governor of Tripoli, however, judging that this would not be the last visit of the kind which in all probability he would receive, immediately dispatched an express to Malta, with proposals for fortifying the city, and demolishing a strong tower on that coast named Alcaid, which was held by a Turkish corsair. His advice being approved of, the commander Botigella, now general of the galleys, was immediately dispatched with a sufficient force; who, having landed his men at Tripoli, immediately marched, with them and a body of Arab mercenaries towards Alcaid; and without staying to open the trenches, or any other covering than his gabions, levelled his artillery against it. Hayradin being informed of this, came with his Turks to its defence; but was intercepted by a strong detachment of Maltese knights at the head of the hired Arabs, and repulsed with loss; so that all he could do was to convey about 50 or 60 Turks into the place, and to annoy the Christians with some flight skirmishes. Botigella, perceiving that his cannon did not make such quick dispatch as he wished, sent some of his galleys; under the shelter of which he quickly sprung a mine, which brought down part of the wall, and buried most of the corsairs under it; upon which the rest, seeing the Maltese knights mount the breach sword-in-hand, immediately threw down their arms. The tower was then razed to the ground; after which Botigella marched to a town called Ada-put, whence he drove Hayradin, who had entrenched himself in it, and gave the plunder to the Arabs. In his return he attacked and took a large Turkish galley, the cargo of which was valued at 160,000 crowns, and had on board 200 persons; so that he landed in triumph, and was received with the loud acclamations of the whole order, who came to meet him on his arrival. Soon after the grand-master fell sick and died, and was succeeded by John de Homedes.

The Maltese still continued to behave with their usual valour against the Turks; but, through the negligence of Charles V., almost all the places held by the Christians on the African coast were reduced by the infidels, and the valour exerted by the Maltese served only to destroy great numbers of them. At last the emperor's affairs in Africa were totally ruined by his unsuccessful expedition against Algiers, an account of which was given under that article, no 12—18. Here indeed it is thought that the emperor himself could not have escaped, had not the Maltese knights repulsed the Turks, who had attacked even the imperial quarters. They pursued them even to the gates of the city, and were in hopes of entering it with them; but the governor having caused the gates to be shut before the Turks had all got in, the knights were disappointed. When the Spanish troops reembarked, the Maltese were also of great service in repulsing the enemy; and indeed behaved on both occasions with so much valour and intrepidity, that the rest of the allies could not sufficiently admire them. The misfortune, however, was, that the loss they suffered, both of men and ships, especially by some of their best commanders, more than counterbalanced the glory they had gained. The emperor, before they parted, gave them the most ample testimony of his satisfaction and gratitude, as far as words and encomiums could go; after which, the Maltese commander set sail, with the small remains of his knights, in three shattered vessels, and arrived safely at the port of Malta about the end of November 1548.

While the Maltese were employed in this unfortunate expedition, the island was so terribly annoyed by the Turkish and other corsairs, that the port was in some measure blocked up by them; whilst the coasts, both here and at Gofa, lay exposed to frequent insults and depredations, and often to the loss of their inhabitants. This obliged the Maltese admiral Simeoni to refit his galleys with all possible expedition, and again put to sea in quest of these enemies. In this enterprise he succeeded so well, that he sent home a great number of the corsair captains in chains. Being obliged to put in at the port of Tripoli, the governor informed him, that he had just received an express from the king of Tunis, acquainting him that Barbarossa was making the most pressing complaints to the Porte against the Maltese knights, whilst his lieutenant Morat Haga was making great preparations at Tachora for the siege of Tripoli, which he doubted not would be followed by that of Tunis; the king having become odious to the Turks and Moors on account of his alliance with the emperor; after whose late disaster a great number of towns in that kingdom had revolted from him, and a much greater number of his subjects had put themselves under the protection of the Algerine monarch, who was expected shortly from Constantinople at the head of a powerful fleet.

On the receipt of these unwelcome news, an embassy was sent to the emperor, in order to persuade him to cause the fortifications of Tripoli be repaired; but without success. All that could be obtained was fair words and promises; the consequence of which was, that the Maltese made most violent and almost incredible exertions against their enemies, till at last Soliman resolved to expel the knights from Malta, as he had before done from Rhodes. To this he was chiefly instigated by Dragut, an old experienced corsair, who had obtained the command of his fleet after the death of Barbarossa. The siege was accordingly commenced in 1551; but, by a stratagem, the Turkish commander was induced to depart. However, he reduced the castle of Gofa and the city of Tripoli. Nothing happened of great consequence from that time till the year 1564, when fresh complaints being made to Soliman, he proposed, in a grand council, where most of his officers attended, to extirpate the knights altogether. This design was strenuously opposed by Hali, one of Dragut's most experienced captains, who offered the most solid reasons against it; but being overruled by the rest, an expedition against Malta was resolved upon. One of the sultan's first cares was to send some spies, in the disguise of fishermen, to take a full view of the island, who found means to bring him an exact plan of it, with all its fortifications, havens, strength, the number of its inhabitants, &c. whilst he was hastening his armaments against it. By this time, as the Maltese had very little reason to doubt that the Turkish armaments were designed against their island, the viceroy of Sicily, Don Garcia, was ordered by his master to take it in his way to the castle of Goletta, in order to consult with the grand-master about the necessary means for opposing such a formidable power. The grand-master acquainted him, that, in case of an attack upon Malta, he should want both men and corn; upon which the viceroy engaged to supply him with both on his return to Sicily; in pledge of which he left one of his sons with him, who was afterwards admitted into the order. He was no sooner departed, than the grand-master summoned all the knights of the order, dispersed through several parts of Europe, to repair to him. Those that were in Italy raised a body of 2000 foot, to which the viceroy of Sicily added two companies of Spanish forces. All the galleys of the order were employed in transporting these troops, together with all manner of provisions and ammunition, into the island; and the knights that were in it, in distributing, disciplining, and exercising their new levies, as well as the Maltese militia, against the siege. Thus the grand-master saw himself strengthened by the arrival of 600 knights, all of whom brought with them retinues of stout good servants, fit to assist in the defence of the island; whilst those, who by reason of age, sickness, or other impediments, could not to repair to him, sold their most valuable effects in order to assist him with their purses. The pope, on his part, contented himself with sending a supply of 10,000 crowns; and the king of Spain ordered his viceroy Don Garcia to raise an army of 20,000 men, to be ready to fall thither as soon as called for. The grand-master employed the remainder of his time in fitting all the forts, magazines, arsenals, &c. and aligning to each tongue their several posts, and making all necessary preparations, till the Ottoman fleet appeared in sight on the 18th of May 1565. It consisted of 150 large galleys and galleons, carrying on board 30,000 commissaries, janizaries and spahis, besides the slaves at the cedars, accompanied by a considerable number of other vessels, laden with artillery, ammunition, and other necessaries for a siege. The whole armament was commanded by Mustapha Basha, an old experienced officer, aged about 85 years, and an old favourite and confident of the sultan; of an haughty cruel temper, who made it a merit to violate his word, and to use all manner of violence against the Christians, especially against the Maltese. This formidable army landed at some distance from Il Borgo, and soon afterwards spread themselves over the country; setting fire to the villages. villages, putting the peasants to the sword, and carrying off such of the cattle as, notwithstanding the orders of the grand-master, had not been secured within the forts and towns.

While the Turks were thus employed, La Valette (the grand master) sent out De Copier, marshal of the order, with 200 horse and 600 foot, to watch their motions. De Copier, an officer of great experience, executed his commission with so much prudence and vigour, that, by falling unexpectedly on detached parties, he cut off 1500 Turks, with the loss only of 80 men.

The Turkish general held a council of war as soon as all his troops were landed, to assist him in resolving where he should begin his attack. Piali, the Turkish admiral, agreeably to what he understood to have been the sultan's instructions, was of opinion that they ought not to enter upon action till Dragut should arrive. But Mutapha having received information of the king of Spain's preparations, thought something ought to be done instantly for the safety of the fleet; which lay at present in a creek, where it was exposed to the violence of the east wind, and might be attacked with great advantage by the Spaniards. On this account he was of opinion, that they should immediately lay siege to a fort called St Elmo, which stood on a neck of land near Il Borgo, having the principal harbour on one side of it, and on the other another harbour large enough to contain the whole fleet in safety. This proposal was approved by a majority of the council, and Mutapha proceeded without delay to carry it into execution.

La Valette did not expect that a place which was neither strong nor large enough to admit a numerous garrison, could be defended long against so great a force as was employed to reduce it; but he thought it necessary that the siege of this fort should be prolonged as much as possible, in order to give the viceroy of Sicily time to come to his relief. With this view, he resolved to throw himself into St Elmo, with a select body of troops; and he was preparing to set out, when the whole body of knights remonstrated with such earnest importunity against his leaving the town, that he at last consented to suffer the reinforcement, which he had prepared, to be conducted to the fort by a knight called De Medran, upon whose conduct and intrepidity he could rely with the most assured confidence.

Not long after De Medran's arrival in the fort, the garrison made a vigorous sally, in which they drove the enemy from their entrenchments, and put a number of them to the sword. But the rest soon recovered from their surprize; and having returned to the charge, they compelled the Christians to retire. In this encounter, the vigorous efforts of the Janissaries were favoured by the wind, which blew the smoke of the guns upon the fort, and covered the besieged with a thick cloud, through which it was impossible to discern the operations of the enemy. This incident the Turks had the presence of mind to improve to very great advantage. They feigned, unperceived, upon the counterscarps; made a lodgment there with beams, wool-sacks, and gabions; and raised a battery upon it with incredible expedition. After the smoke was dispersed, the besieged beheld what had been done with much astonishment; and they were the more disquieted, as the fortification which the Turks had raised upon the counterscarp overtopped a ravelin which lay near it, in which the besieged could no longer appear with safety. They resolved, however, to defend this ravelin as long as possible, whatever it should cost them.

In the mean time Dragut, and another noted Corsair named Uluchiali, arrived with 20 galleys; having, besides slaves and seamen, 2500 troops on board. This reinforcement, and the presence of Dragut, added fresh vigour to the operations of the siege. This gallant Corsair exposed himself, on all occasions, with the utmost intrepidity; spent whole days in the trenches; and as, besides his other extraordinary talents, he was particularly skilful in the management of artillery, he caused some new batteries to be raised in more advantageous situations than had hitherto been made choice of; and kept up a continual fire both on the ravelin above mentioned and a cavalier that covered the fort, and was one of its principal defences.

This cavalier soon became the only defence which could prevent the besiegers from coming up to the very foot of the wall. Some Turkish engineers having approached the ravelin at day-break, to observe the effects of their artillery, they perceived a gun-port so low, that one of them, when mounted on the shoulders of another, looked into it, and saw the Christian soldiers lying on the ground asleep. Of this they gave immediate information to the troops; who, advancing as quickly and silently as possible, and clapping ladders to the gun-hole, got up into the ravelin, and cut most of the Christians to pieces.

Between this ravelin and the cavalier lay the ditch, over which the besieged had thrown a temporary bridge of planks leading up to the cavalier. The Turks, perceiving this, leaped instantly upon the bridge, and attempted to make themselves masters of the cavalier, as they already were of the ravelin. But the garrison was now alarmed; the bravest of the knights hastened from different quarters to the post of danger; and, after an obstinate engagement, they compelled the Turks to retire into the ravelin. There, observing another way of reaching the cavalier by a path from the bottom of the ditch, they threw themselves down without dread or hesitation; and having ascended by this path to the other side, they renewed their attack with greater fury than ever. The combat lasted from sun-rise till noon, when the knights at last proved victorious. About 20 knights and 100 soldiers were killed; and near 3000 of the enemy.

As the ravelin was open on the side towards the fort, the besieged pointed some cannon against it, and made great havoc among the infidels. But Mutapha, sensible of the value of the acquisition he had made, poured in fresh soldiers without number, and the pioneers coming forward with wool-sacks, planks, and gabions, put the troops at length in safety, and made a lodgment in the ravelin, of which the garrison were never afterwards able to dispossess them.

The grand-master's concern on account of this disaster was greatly augmented, by considering, that it could not have happened so soon without some negligence on the part of the garrison. He sent them, however, an immediate reinforcement; and both the siege sige and the defence were carried on with the same vigour as before.

But the situation of the besieged was now become much more dangerous than formerly. The Turks applied with unremitting diligence to heighten the ravelin till it overtopped the wall of the fort; and after this the garrison could no longer appear upon the parapet with safety. Many were killed by the enemy's artillery, several breaches were made in the wall, and the hearts of the bravest knights began to fail within them.

They agreed therefore, though with much reluctance, to apply to the grand-master for liberty to quit the fort; and they made choice of the chevalier de Medran for their messenger. He represented that the fort was in reality no longer tenible; and that, to continue in it, though only for a few days, would infallibly occasion the destruction of the garrison.

Most of the knights in council thought that this request of the garrison ought to be immediately granted. But la Valette was of a contrary opinion.—This he represented to the chevalier de Medran; and sent him back with instructions to remind the knights of the vows which they took, at their entrance into the order, of sacrificing their lives for its defence. He likewise bad him assure them, in his name, that he would not fail to send them such reinforcements as they should stand in need of; and was determined, as soon as it should be necessary, to come himself to their assistance, with a fixed unalterable purpose to lay down his life sooner than deliver the fort into the hands of the infidels.

This answer had the desired effect on several of the knights, and particularly on those whose principles of honour and attachment to the order were confirmed by years. But the greater part of them were much dissatisfied. They thought the grand-master's treatment of them harsh and cruel; and wrote him a letter, subscribed by 53; in which, after repeating their former request, they informed him, that if he did not, on the next night, send boats to carry them to the town, they were determined to fall out into the Turkish camp, where they might fall honourably by the sword, instead of suffering such an ignominious death as they had reason to expect if the fort was taken by storm.

To this letter la Valette replied, "That they were much mistaken if they expected to satisfy their honour by throwing away their lives; since it was no less their duty to submit to his authority, than to sacrifice their lives in defence of the order; that the preservation of the whole depended on their present obedience to his commands: that no aid was to be expected from Spain if the fort were given up. And that if he should yield to their request, and bring them to the town, the town itself would then be immediately invested; and they, as well as the rest, soon afterwards reduced to a situation more desperate than that from which they were so solicitous to escape, by deserting an important post which they had undertaken to defend." Besides this letter, he sent three commissioners to examine the state of the fortifications; intending by this measure either to gain time or to prevent the garrison from sinking into despair.

These commissioners differed very widely in the accounts which they delivered, at their return. Two of them thought it impossible to defend the fort much longer. But the third, named Constantine Castron, a Greek prince, descended from the famous Albanian hero Scanderbeg, whether from ignorance or consciousness of greater resources in his native courage than the other two possessed, maintained that the garrison was far from being reduced to the last extremity; and to give proof how firmly he was persuaded of the truth of what he said, he offered to enter the fort himself, and to undertake the defence of it with such troops as should be willing to accompany him.

The grand-master, strongly impressed with a sense of the necessity of protracting the siege, immediately accepted this offer, and bestowed the highest encomiums on Castron's zeal and resolution. Nor did Castron find any difficulty in persuading a sufficient number to attend him, who were no less zealous and resolute than himself. The soldiers crowded to his standard, and were emulous to have their names enrolled for that dangerous service in which he had engaged.

When la Valette saw the spirit by which these men were animated, and had no longer any doubt of being able by their means to prolong the siege of the fort; he sent a letter to the knights, acquainting them, that he was now willing to give them their discharge; and would immediately send another garrison, into whose hands he desired they should be ready to deliver up the fort, and come themselves to the town in the boats in which their successors were to be transported.

The contents and style of this letter affected the knights in the most sensible manner, and roused within them that delicate sense of honour by which the order had been so long and so eminently distinguished.—They resolved without hesitation to remain in the fort till every man should perish, rather than either deliver it to the new garrison or abandon it to the enemy. And they went in a body to the governor, and intreated him to inform the grand-master of their repentance, and to join with them in praying that they might be suffered to wipe out the remembrance of their fault by their future conduct.

The grand-master suffered himself at last to be overcome; and henceforth the garrison, dismissing all thoughts of their own safety, were intent on nothing but how to prolong the defence.

The grand-master sent them every night fresh troops, to supply the place of the killed and wounded; and kept them well furnished with provisions, ammunition, and fire-works. Of these last he had invented a particular kind, which consisted of hoops of wood, covered with wool, and steeped in boiling oil and other inflammable liquors, mixed with nitre and gunpowder. To these machines they set fire, and threw them flaming in the midst of the enemy when they were crowded together at an assault. It happened often that two or three of the Turks were hooked together and scorched to death; and the utmost confusion was produced wherever they were thrown.

The besieged stood much in need of this, and every other instrument of mischief that could be devised, for their defense. In spite of the most vigorous opposition, the Turks had cast a bridge over the ditch, and begun to sap and undermine the wall. From the 17th of June to the 14th of July, not a single day passed without some rencontre; and Mustapha had frequently attempted to scale the wall of the fort, but had been as often repulsed with the loss of some of the bravest of his troops.

Ashamed at having been detained so long before a place of such inconsiderable strength, he resolved to make one great decisive effort; and to bring to the assault as many of his forces as the situation of the place would permit him to employ. He had already made several breaches; but in order to secure the success of the assault which he now intended, he kept his batteries playing all the 15th without intermission, till the wall on that side where he designed his attack was almost level with the rock. On the 16th, the fleet was drawn up before sunrise, as near the fort as the depth of the water would allow. Four thousand musketeers and archers were stationed in the trenches; and the rest of the troops, upon a signal given, advanced to the breach. The garrison was prepared to receive them; the breach was lined with several ranks of soldiers, having the knights interspersed among them at certain distances. The Turks attempted often to break through this determined band, and to overpower them with their numbers; but their numbers served only to augment the loss which they sustained. Every shot from the fort did execution. The artillery made dreadful havoc among them; and the burning hoops were employed with astonishing success. The novelty of these machines, and the shrieks of those who were caught in them, added greatly to the terror which they inspired; and made it impossible for the Turkish officers to keep their men firm and steady in pursuing the advantages which, had they preserved their ranks, their numbers must have infallibly acquired.

At length Mustapha, after having continued the assault for more than six hours, without gaining a single inch of ground on the beleaguered, gave orders for founding a retreat. In this attack the garrison lost about 20 knights and 300 soldiers; but this loss was immediately supplied by a reinforcement from the town; and Mustapha was at last convinced, that unless the communication between the fort and the town were cut off, it would be impossible to bring the siege of the former to a period, while any troops remained in the other parts of the island. By the advice of Dragut, he resolved to extend his trenches and batteries on the side next the town, till they should reach to that part of the sea, or great harbour, where those supplies were landed which the grand-master daily sent to the garrison. This undertaking he knew must be attended with the utmost difficulty, because all the space between his intrenchments, and the point to which it was necessary to extend them, lay exposed to the artillery both of fort St Elmo and St Angelo. In viewing the ground, a Sangiac, in whom he put confidence, was killed by his side; and, which was still a more irreparable loss, Dragut received a mortal wound, of which he died in a few days. This did not, however, discourage Mustapha from pursuing his design. By employing his troops and pioneers at the workday night, without intermission, he at length carried Malta into execution. Then having planted batteries along the shore, and filled his trenches with musketeers, it was impossible for any boat to pass from the town to the fort without the most imminent danger of either being sunk or intercepted.

After this precaution, he resumed with fresh vigour his attempts to take the fort by storm. On the 21st he made four different assaults; all of which the garrison withstood; and, in repulsing so many thousand brave and well-disciplined troops, displayed a degree of prowess and fortitude which almost exceeds belief, and is beyond the power of description. But this heroic garrison was now exceedingly reduced in number; and there was the strongest reason to apprehend, that, in one assault more, they must inevitably be overpowered, unless a reinforcement were sent them from the town. Of their desperate situation they gave intelligence to the grand-master by one who swam across the harbour in the night. The boats were instantly filled with knights and other soldiers, who generally resolved to devote themselves to certain destruction for the general safety, and the preservation of the fort. They set off from the town with as much alacrity as if they had entertained the most fanguine hopes of victory; but they found the Turks every where so much upon their guard, and the lines so strongly defended, that, after several fruitless attempts to land, they were at last obliged to return, dejected with sorrow for the fate of their brave companions.

The garrison, now despairing of relief, gave themselves up for lost; but instead of either capitulating or attempting to escape, they prepared for death, and passed the night in prayer and in receiving the sacrament; after which they embraced one another tenderly, and then repaired to their respective posts; while such of the wounded as had been disabled from walking, were, at their own earnest desire, carried to the side of the breach, where they waited, without dismay, for the approach of the Turkish army.

Early in the morning of the 22d of July, the Turks advanced to the assault with loud shouts, as to certain victory, which they believed so small a handful of men as now remained in the fort would not dare to dispute with them. In this expectation they were disappointed. The garrison being resolved on death, and despising danger, were more than men; and exerted the first degree of prowess and valour that filled their enemies with amazement. The combat lasted upwards of four hours, till not only every knight but every soldier had fallen, except two or three who had saved themselves by swimming. The Turkish colours were then planted on the ramparts; and the fleet entered the harbour, which the fort commanded, in a kind of triumph. When Mustapha took a view of the fort, and examined its size and fortifications, he could not refrain from saying, "What will not the father cost us (meaning the town), when the son, who is so small, has cost so many thousands of our bravest troops?" But this reflection, far from exciting his admiration of that heroic fortitude which he had found so difficult to overcome, served only to inspire him with a brutal fury. He ordered all such of the garrison as were found lying on the breach alive to be ripped open, and their hearts... hearts torn out; and, as an insult on the knights and their religion, he caused their dead bodies to be searched for, and large gashes to be made in them, in the form of a cross; after which he tied them on planks, and threw them into the sea, to be carried by the wind and tide to the town or fort St Angelo.

The grand-master was at first melted into tears at this shocking spectacle; but his grief was soon converted into indignation and revenge; and these passions betrayed him into an action unworthy of the exalted character which he bore. In order to teach the basha, as he pretended, to make war with less barbarity, he caused all the Turks whom he had taken prisoners to be massacred; and then putting their heads into his largest cannon, he shot them into the Turkish camp.

In the siege which has been related, the order lost about 1500 men, including 130 of the bravest knights.

Mufapha vainly imagined, that, being intimidated by the fate of their companions, they would be now inclined to listen to terms of capitulation; and in this hope, he sent an officer with a white flag to one of the gates, attended by a Christian slave designed to serve for his interpreter. The Turk was not allowed to enter within the town; but the Christian was admitted, and was led through several ranks of soldiers under arms by an officer, who, after showing him all the fortifications of the place, desired him to take particular notice of the depth and breadth of the ditch, and said to him, "See there, the only spot we can afford your general; and there we hope soon to bury him and all his Janissaries."

This insulting speech being reported by the slave, excited in the fiery mind of the basha the highest degree of wrath and indignation, and made him resolve to exert himself to the utmost in the prosecution of the siege. His troops, though greatly diminished, were still sufficient to invest at once both the town and the fort of St Michael. He kept a constant fire on both; but he intended first to apply to the reduction of the latter, which he proposed to attack both by land and water, at the extremity of the peninsula on which it stands. In order to accomplish this design, it was necessary he should have some shipping introduced into the harbour for transporting his forces. But the mouth of the harbour having been rendered inaccessible by a great iron chain and the cannon of St Angelo, his design must have been relinquished, if Piali had not suggested an expedient against which the grand-master had not provided. This was, to make the Christian slaves and the crews of the ships draw a number of boats, by the strength of their arms, over the neck of land on which stood fort St Elmo. Of this proposal, which Mufapha immediately adopted, information was carried to the grand-master by a Turkish officer; who, being by birth a Greek, was touched suddenly with remorse, and deserted to the Christians. In consequence of this intelligence, La Valette set a great number of hands to work in framing a flacado along that part of the promontory where the Turks intended their attack; and at another part, where the depth of the water or the hardness of the bottom would not admit the flacado, he caused strong intrenchments to be made upon the beach. Mufapha, in the mean time, fired incessantly upon the fort, while the slaves and crews were employed in transporting the boats over land into the harbour. At length the basha, judging that the number of boats which he had transported would be sufficient, and that the breaches which his artillery had made were practicable, resolved, without further delay, to make an attack both by sea and land. He was the more confident of success, as, since the taking of St Elmo, he had received a considerable reinforcement, by the arrival of Hafcem, son of Barbarossa, with 2500 select soldiers, commonly called the Bravos of Algiers. Hafcem, who possessed a considerable share of his father's fire, and was ambitious to distinguish himself in the sultan's service, begged of Mufapha to intrust him with the assault of fort St Michael; and vaunted, with his natural arrogance, that he would soon make himself master of it sword-in-hand. The basha, whether from an opinion of his valour, or an intention to make him learn at his own expense the folly of his presumption, readily complied with his request; and, having added 6000 men to his Algerines, he promised to support him with the rest of his army.

Hafcem divided his forces with Candelisfa, an old corsair, his lieutenant; to whom he committed the attack by sea, whilst he reserved that on the land-side to himself.

Candelisfa having put his troops on board the boats, set out with drums beating, and hautboys and other musical instruments playing, preceded by a boat filled with Mahometan priests, some of whom were employed in offering prayers to heaven for his success, or in singing hymns; while others had books in their hands, out of which they read imprecations against the Christians. Candelisfa attempted first to break down the flacado which had been formed to obstruct his landing; but finding it much stronger than he expected, and that, while he was employed in demolishing it, his troops must suffer greatly from the enemy's fire, he thought it would be easier to make a descent on that part of the shore which the grand-master had strengthened with entrenchments. At this important point, the Christian troops were commanded by an ancient knight of the name of Guimeran. This experienced officer reserved his fire till the Turks had advanced within a little distance of the shore; when, by a single discharge, he killed about 400 men. This did not prevent the rest from approaching. Candelisfa pushed forwards while the Christians were loading their cannon, and landed at the head of his Algerines. But Guimeran having reserved some cannon charged with grape-shot, did dreadful execution among them after they had landed, and many of them began to fly to their boats; which Candelisfa observing, he commanded the boats to be put off to a little distance from the shore. His troops, perceiving then that they must either die or conquer, took courage from despair, and advanced boldly to the intrenchment, with ladders for scaling it in one hand and their sabres in the other. The combatants on both sides displayed the most intrepid valour. Great numbers fell, and the ditch was choked with blood, and with the bodies of the dead and wounded. The Turks at last, after an engagement of five hours, reached the top of the entrench- ment, and there planted their ensigns. The knights, stung with shame on account of their retreat, returned with redoubled ardour. But they would probably have been overpowered by the superior number of the enemy, had not the grand-master sent them a formidable reinforcement, under the admiral de Gioi and the chevalier de Quiney; who fell upon the Algerines and Turks with a degree of fury that struck terror into Candelis himself, who was noted for his intrepidity. Having ordered the boats to be brought nearer the shore, he was among the first who fled. His bravoes fought desperately for some time after he had left them; but were at length thrown down from the intrenchments, and compelled to fly to their boats with the utmost precipitation. The Christians pursued them, and the batteries continued firing on them without intermission. Many of the boats were sunk; the water was covered with dead bodies, mangled limbs, shields, and helmets. Of the 4000 who had been sent on this enterprise, scarcely 500 remained, and many of these were dangerously wounded.

Hafcem was not more fortunate in his assault by land than Candelis was by sea. After having been repulsed at one breach with great slaughter, he rallied his troops, and led them on to another, where he fought long and desperately, till, most of the bravoes having fallen by his side, he was obliged, with much reluctance and sorrow, to find a retreat.

Multapha, not unmindful of his promise to support him, no sooner perceived him beginning to retire, than he ordered the Janfaries, whom he kept under arms, to advance. The garrison had maintained an engagement with Hafcem for five hours, in the middle of the day, and in the hottest season of the year; yet, as if they had not been subject to the wants and weaknesses of humanity, they advanced beyond the breach to meet the Janfaries, and fought apparently with as much vigour and fortitude as before. By the power of superior numbers, they were compelled to fall back within the breach. But there they made the most desperate resistance; and, being reinforced by De Gioi and De Quiney, with the troops which had triumphed over Candelis, they at last repulsed the Janfaries with dreadful slaughter; after having lost more than 40 knights, and 200 of the bravest of the common men.

Multapha, enraged by this invincible obstinacy which the Christians displayed in their defence, and dreading that the Spanish succours, which had been already delayed much longer than he expected, might soon arrive, resolved now to employ his whole force at once; and while he himself prosecuted the siege of fort St Michael with one half of his troops, to employ the other, under Piali, against the town. More batteries were raised; the trenches were advanced still nearer than before; bridges of sail-yards and masts were thrown over the ditches; mines, notwithstanding the hard and rocky soil, were sprung; assaults were repeated without number; and the two bashas, emulous of one another, and each of them agitated with continual anxiety lest victory should declare first for his competitor, exhibited the most shining proofs of personal courage, and exhausted all the art of war then known in the world. Yet, through the determined bravery of the knights, conducted by the grand-ma- them and the inhabitants all night in throwing up intrenchments within the breach; after which he sent out some of the bravest knights, with a select body of troops, to make an attempt on the cavalier. These men stole softly along the foot of the wall till they arrived at the place appointed; when they set up a loud shout, and attacked the guards whom Piali had left there with so much fury, that the Turks, believing the whole garrison had fallen upon them, abandoned their post, and fled precipitately to their camp.

The cavalier was immediately fortified, a battery of cannon planted on it, and a parapet raised on the side towards the enemy. And thus the breach was rendered impracticable; the town put in greater security than before; and a work, which had been devised for its destruction, converted into a bulwark for its defence.

The grand-master had now greater confidence than ever of being able to hold out till the Spaniards should come to his relief. In consequence of the assurances given by Philip and the Sicilian viceroy, he had, long before this time, entertained the hopes of their arrival; and had often earnestly solicited the viceroy to hasten his departure from Messina. The conduct of this nobleman was long exceedingly mysterious. The patience of the knights was worn out by his delays; and they, and many others, suspected that the real motive of his conduct was the dread of encountering with an admiral of so considerable reputation as Piali. But it afterwards appeared that the viceroy had acted agreeably to his instructions from the court of Spain. For although Philip was, for the reasons above mentioned, sincerely interested in the preservation of the knights, and had amused them with the most flattering promises of affiance; yet he seems from the first to have resolved not to expose himself to danger on that account, and to avoid if possible a general engagement.

A generous and grateful prince would have acted very differently towards an ally so deserving of his support; and if either generosity or gratitude had been the leading principle of Philip's conduct, it is probable he would, on this occasion, have regarded the knights as his own subjects; and have thought it no less incumbent on him to exert himself in their defence, than if they had acknowledged him as their sovereign.

But Philip was affected by their danger only so far as it threatened the tranquillity of his own dominions. He had resolved to interpose in their behalf, rather than to suffer them to be overpowered; but he appears to have been very little touched with their calamities, and to have intended to leave them to themselves, as long as there was any prospect of their being able to make resistance; by doing which he considered, that he would not only preserve his own strength entire, but might afterwards engage with the Turks when they were exhausted by the operations of the siege.

Philip adhered inflexibly to this plan, notwithstanding the grand-master's repeated opportunities, much longer than was consistent with his own selfish views. For, without a degree of fortitude and prowess on the part of the garrison, and a degree of wisdom, vigilance, and magnanimity on that of the grand-master, infinitely higher than there could be reason to expect, it must have been impossible for such a handful of men to have withstand, for so long a time, so great a force, and such mighty efforts, as were employed to reduce them. Even the death of the grand-master alone, whose person was exposed to perpetual danger, would have proved fatal to the knights, long before Philip sent orders to his viceroy to give them any effectual support; and in this case, as his own dominions or his fleet would have been immediately attacked, he would probably have had little reason to be satisfied with the timid ungenerous counsels which he pursued.

Whatever judgment may be formed on this head, the viceroy did not think himself at liberty to yield to the repeated applications of the grand-master, till the operations of the siege began to relax, and the Turkish forces were reduced from 45,000 to 15,000 or 16,000; of whom many were worn out with the fatigues which they had undergone, and others rendered unfit for action by a bloody flux, which for several weeks had raged amongst them.

In this situation of affairs, when it was probable that the knights would, without affiance, have compelled the Turks to raise the siege, the viceroy let the grand master know, that he had now received such instructions from the king, as put it in his power to show his attachment to the order; that he was not indeed permitted to attack the Turkish fleet; but that he would immediately bring him a strong body of troops, whose commanders (as he himself must return to Sicily) were to be entirely subject to the grand-master's authority till the enemy should be expelled.

The viceroy, although still suspected of interpolating unnecessary delays, at length fulfilled his promise; and on the 7th of September landed 6000 men, under Don Alvaro de Sande and Acanio della Corona, in that part of the island which lay at the greatest distance from the Turks; after which, he immediately carried back the fleet to Sicily.

In the mean time, intelligence being brought to Mustapha that the Spaniards were landed, and marching towards him, he was thrown into the most dreadful consternation. Sensible that his soldiers were much disheartened by their ill success, he imagined that he was about to be attacked by a superior army, consisting of the bravest and best disciplined troops in Spain. Without waiting for information of their number, he forthwith raised the siege, drew his garrison off St Elmo, and, leaving all his heavy cannon behind him, embarked his troops with as much precipitation as if panic, the Spaniards with superior forces had been in fight. He had scarcely got on board when a deserter arrived from the Spanish camp, and informed him, that with 15,000 or 16,000 men, he had fled before an army that did not exceed 6000, having no general at their head, and commanded by officers who were independent of one another. The basha was overwhelmed with shame and vexation by this intelligence, and would have immediately disembarked; but this, he knew, he durst not attempt without consulting Piali, Hafseem, and his other principal officers.

While he was deliberating upon it, the grand master improved to the best advantage the leisure that was afforded him. He employed all the inhabitants, men, women, and children, as well as the soldiers, in filling up the enemy's trenches, and demolishing their works; and put a garrison without delay into fort St Elmo; in which the Turks now beheld from their ships the stand- This demonstrated to Mustapha how much new labour awaited him in case he should return to the siege; but being enraged against himself on account of the precipitancy of his retreat, and disquieted at the thoughts of the reception which he had reason to expect from Soliman, he wished to atone for his imprudence, and to wipe off the reproach in which it had involved him, by victory or death. Piali, who, from his jealousy of the bailiff's credit with the sultan, was not sorry for the failure of his enterprise, represented in a council of war convened on this occasion, That as the troops were much dispirited and worn out, it would be exposing them to certain destruction, either to lead them against the enemy, or to resume the operations of the siege. But a majority of the council were of a different opinion; and it was resolved to land the forces again without delay.

The Turkish soldiers complained bitterly of this unexpected resolution, and obeyed the orders to disembark with the greatest reluctance. Their officers were obliged to employ threats with some force with others. At length the number intended was put on shore, and Mustapha set out at their head in search of the enemy.

The grand-master had not neglected to give early notice of their march to the Spanish commanders, who had entrenched their little army on a steep hill, which the Turks would have found almost inaccessible; and it was the opinion of some of the principal officers, that they should avail themselves of the advantage of their situation, and stand on their defence. But this proposal was rejected with disdain by the bold adventurous De Sande, and the greatest part of the Spanish officers; and the troops were led out of their encampment, to meet the enemy in the open field. This conduct, more fortunate perhaps than prudent, contributed to increase the dejection of the Turkish soldiers, and to facilitate their defeat. Having been dragged against their inclination to the field of battle, and being attacked by the Spaniards with great fury, both in front and flank, they scarcely fought, but, being struck with a sudden panic, fled with the utmost precipitation.

Mustapha, confounded and enraged by this pusillanimous behaviour of his troops, was hurried along by the violent tide of the fugitives. He fell twice from his horse, and would have been taken prisoner if his officers had not rescued him. The Spaniards pursued briskly till they came to the sea-shore. There Piali had his boats ready to receive the Turks, and a number of shallops filled with musketeers drawn up to favour their escape. Without this precaution, they must all have perished; and, even notwithstanding the protection which it afforded them, the number of their killed amounted to 2000 men, while the victors lost only 13 or 14 at most.

Such, after four months continuance, was the conclusion of the siege of Malta, which will be forever memorable on account of that extraordinary display of the most generous and heroic valour by which the knights, so few in number, were enabled to baffle the most vigorous efforts which could be made to subdue them by the most powerful monarch in the world. The news of their deliverance gave universal joy to the Christian powers; and the name of the grand-master excited every where the highest admiration and applause. Congratulations were sent him from every quarter; and in many states public rejoicings were celebrated on account of his success.

With this siege is concluded everything of importance in the history of Malta. The power of the Turks began about this time to be so much circumscribed, that they ceased to be formidable to the Christian nations, and the knights of Malta had no longer an opportunity of exerting their valour as formerly. They have remained ever since in quiet possession of their island, of which the best description we have met with is that given by Mr Brydone.

"The approach of the island (says he) is very fine, although the shore is rather low and rocky. It is everywhere made inaccessible to an enemy by an infinite number of fortifications. The rock, in many places, has been sloped into the form of a glacis, with strong parapets and intrenchments running behind it.—On getting ashore we found ourselves in a new world indeed.—The streets (of Valetta) crowded with well-dressed people, who have all the appearance of health and affluence; and we were conducted by the English consul to an inn, which had more the appearance of a palace.

"After dinner we went to visit the principal villas of the island; particularly those of the grand-master and the general of the galleys, which lie contiguous to one another. These are nothing great or magnificent; but they are admirably contrived for a hot climate, where, of all things, shade is the most desirable. The orange-groves are indeed very fine, and the fruit they bear superior to any thing of the kind in Spain or Portugal.

"The aspect of the country is far from being pleasing: the whole island is a great rock of very white free-stone; and the soil that covers this rock is, in most places, not more than five or fix inches deep; yet what is singular, we found their crop in general was exceedingly abundant. They account for it from the copious dews that fall during the spring and summer months; and pretend likewise that there is a moisture in the rock below the soil, that is of great advantage to the corn and cotton, keeping its roots perpetually moist and cool: without which singular quality, they say, they could have no crop at all, the heat of the sun being so exceedingly violent.—The whole island produces corn only sufficient to supply its inhabitants for five months or little more; but the crop they most depend upon is the cotton. They begin to sow it about the middle of May, and continue till the middle of June; and the time of reaping is in the month of October and beginning of November.

"They pretend that the cotton produced from this plant, which is sown and reaped in four months, is of a much superior quality to that of the cotton-tree. I compared them; but I cannot say I found it so: this is indeed the finest; but that of the cotton-tree is by much the strongest texture. The plant rises to the height of a foot and an half; and is covered with a number of nuts or pods full of cotton: These, when ripe, they are at great pains to cut off every morning before sun-rise; for the heat of the sun immediately turns..." turns the cotton yellow; which indeed we saw from those pods they save for seed.

"They manufacture their cotton into a great variety of stuffs. Their flockings are exceedingly fine. Some of them, they assured us, had been sold for ten sequins a pair. Their coverlets and blankets are esteemed all over Europe. Of these the principal manufactures are established in the little island of Gozzo, where the people are said to be more industrious than those of Malta, as they are more excluded from the world, and have fewer inducements to idleness. Here the sugar-cane is still cultivated with success, though not in any considerable quantity.

"The Maltese oranges certainly deserve the character they have of being the finest in the world. The season continues for upwards of seven months, from November till the middle of June; during which time those beautiful trees are always covered with abundance of delicious fruit. Many of them are of the red kind, much superior, in my opinion, to the others, which are rather too luscious. They are produced, I am told, from the common orange-bud, ingrafted on the pomegranate stock. The juice of this fruit is as red as blood, and of a fine flavour. The greatest part of their crop is sent in presents to the different courts of Europe, and to the relations of the chevaliers.

The industry of the Maltese in cultivating their little island is inconceivable. There is not an inch of ground left in any part of it; and where there was not soil enough, they have brought over ships and boats loaded with it from Sicily, where there is plenty, and to spare. The whole island is full of inclosures of free-stone, which give the country a very uncouth and barren aspect; and in summer reflects such a light and heat, that it is exceedingly disagreeable and offensive to the eyes. The inclosures are very small and irregular, according to the inclination of the ground. This, they say, they are obliged to observe, notwithstanding the deformity it occasions; otherwise the floods, to which they are subject, would soon carry off their soil.

"The island is covered over with country-houses and villages, besides seven cities, for so they term them; but there are only two, the Valletta, and Citta Vecchia, that by any means deserve that appellation. Every little village has a noble church, elegantly finished, and adorned with statues of marble, rich tapestry, and a large quantity of silver-plate.

"The city of Valletta has certainly the happiest situation that can be imagined. It stands upon a peninsula between two of the finest ports in the world, which are defended by almost impregnable fortifications. That on the south side of the city is the largest. It runs about two miles into the heart of the island; and is so very deep, and surrounded by such high grounds and fortifications, that they assured us the largest ships of war might ride here in the most stormy weather, almost without a cable.

"This beautiful bason is divided into five distinct harbours, all equally safe, and each capable of containing an immense number of shipping. The mouth of the harbour is scarcely a quarter of a mile broad, and is commanded on each side by batteries that would tear the strongest ship to pieces before she could enter. Besides this, it is fronted by a quadruple battery, one above the other, the largest of which is a fleur d'eau, or on a level with the water. These are mounted with about 80 of their heaviest artillery: so that this harbour, I think, may really be considered as impregnable; and indeed the Turks have ever found it so, and I believe ever will.

"The harbour on the north side of the city, although they only use it for fishing, and as a place of quarantine, would, in any other part of the world, be considered as infallible. It is likewise defended by very strong works; and in the centre of the basin is an island on which they have built a castle and a lazaret.

"The fortifications of Malta are indeed a most stupendous work. All the boasted catacombs of Rome and Naples are a trifle to the immense excavations that have been made in this little island. The ditches, of a vast size, are all cut out of the solid rock. These extend for a great many miles, and raise our astonishment to think that so small a state has ever been able to make them.

"One side of the island is so completely fortified by nature, that there was nothing left for art. The rock is of a great height, and absolutely perpendicular from the sea for several miles. It is very singular, that on this side there are still the vestiges of several ancient roads, with the tracks of carriages worn deep in the rocks. These roads are now terminated by the precipice, with the seas beneath; and show, to a demonstration, that this island has formerly been of a much larger size than it is at present; but the convulsion that occasioned its diminution is probably much beyond the reach of any history or tradition. It has been often observed, notwithstanding the very great distance of mount Etna, that this island has generally been more or less affected by its eruptions; and they think it probable, that on some of these occasions a great part of it may have been thrown into the sea.

"One half of mount Etna is clearly discovered from Malta. They reckon the distance near 200 Italian miles. And the people of Malta affirm, that, in great eruptions of the mountain, their whole island is illuminated, and from the reflection in the water there appears a great track of fire all the way from Malta to Sicily. The thundering of the mountain is likewise distinctly heard.

"We made an expedition through the island in coaches drawn by one mule each; the only kind of vehicle the island affords. The catacombs, not far from the ancient city of Melita, are a great work; they are said to extend for 15 miles underground. Many people, they assure us, have been lost in them by advancing too far; the prodigious number of branches making it next to impossible to find the way out again. The great source of water that supplies the city of Valletta takes its rise near to this place; and there is an aqueduct, composed of some thousand arches, that conveys it from thence to the city. The whole of this immense work was finished at the private expense of one of the grand-masters.

"Not far from the old city there is a small church dedicated to St Paul; and just by the church a miraculous statue of the saint, with a viper on his hand; supposed to be placed on the very spot where the house stood." consists of 4 gallies, 3 galliots, 4 ships of 60 guns, and a frigate of 36, besides a number of the quick-failing little vessels called campavias (literally runaways). Their ships, galleys, and fortifications, are not only well supplied with excellent artillery, but they have likewise invented a kind of ordnance of their own, unknown to all the world besides. For we found, to our no small amazement, that the rocks were not only cut into fortifications, but likewise into artillery, to defend these fortifications, being hollowed out, in many places, into the form of immense mortars. The charge is said to be about a barrel of gunpowder, over which they place a large piece of wood, made exactly to fit the mouth of the chamber. On this they heap a great quantity of cannon-balls, shells, or other deadly materials; and when an enemy's ship approaches the harbour, they fire the whole into the air; and they pretend it produces a very great effect; making a shower for 200 or 300 yards round, that would sink any vessel.

Notwithstanding the supposed bigotry of the Maltese, the spirit of toleration is so strong, that a mosque has been lately built for their sworn enemies the Turks. Here the poor slaves are allowed to enjoy their religion in peace. It happened lately that some idle boys disturbed them during their service; they were immediately sent to prison, and severely punished. The police indeed is much better regulated than in the neighbouring countries, and assassinations and robberies are very uncommon; the last of which crimes the grand-master punishes with the utmost severity. He is said to be much more relaxed with regard to the first.

Perhaps Malta is the only country in the world where duelling is permitted by law. As their whole establishment is originally founded on the wild and romantic principles of chivalry, they have ever found it too inconsistent with those principles to abolish duelling; but they have laid it under such restrictions as greatly to lessen its danger. These are curious enough. The duelists are obliged to decide their quarrel in one particular street of the city; and if they presume to fight anywhere else, they are liable to the rigour of the law. But, what is not less singular, but much more in their favour, they are obliged, under the most severe penalties, to put up their swords when ordered to do so by a woman, a priest, or a knight. Under these limitations, in the midst of a great city, one would imagine it almost impossible that a duel could ever end in blood; however, this is not the case: a cross is always painted opposite to the spot where a knight has been killed, in commemoration of his fall. We counted about 20 of these crosses.

About three months ago (Mr Brydone's letter is dated June 7, 1770), two knights had a dispute at a billiard-table. One of them, after giving a great deal of abusive language, added a blow; but, to the astonishment of all Malta (in whose annals there is not a similar instance), after so great a provocation, he absolutely refused to fight his antagonist. The challenge was repeated, and he had time to reflect on the consequences; but still he refused to enter the lists. He was condemned to make the amende honorable in the great church of St John for 45 days successively; then to be confined in a dungeon, without light, for five years; after which, he is to remain a prisoner in the castle for life. The unfortunate young man who received this blow is likewise in disgrace, as he has not had an opportunity of wiping it out in the blood of his adversary.

"The horse-races of Malta are of a very uncommon kind. They are performed without either saddle, bridle, whip, or spur; and yet the horses are said to run full speed, and to afford a great deal of diversion. They are accustomed to the ground for some weeks before; and although it is entirely over rock and pavement, there are very seldom any accidents. They have races of asses and mules performed in the same manner four times every year. The rider is only furnished with a machine like a shoemaker's awl, to prick on his course if he is lazy.

"As Malta is an epitome of all Europe, and an assemblage of the younger brothers, who are commonly the best of their families, it is probably one of the best academies for politeness in this part of the globe; besides, where every one is entitled by law as well as custom to demand satisfaction for the least breach of it, people are under a necessity of being very exact and circumstantial, both with regard to their words and actions."

Knights of Malta, otherwise called Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem, a religious military order, whose residence is in the island of Malta, situated in the Mediterranean sea, upon the coast of Africa. The Knights of Malta, so famous for defending Christendom, had their rise as follows:

Some time before the journey of Godfrey of Bouillon into the Holy Land, some Neapolitan merchants, who traded in the Levant, obtained leave of the caliph of Egypt to build an house for those of their nation who came thither on pilgrimage, upon paying an annual tribute. Afterwards they built two churches, and received the pilgrims with great zeal and charity. This example being followed by others, they founded a church in honour of St John, and an hospital for the sick; whence they took the name of Hospitallers. A little after Godfrey of Bouillon had taken Jerusalem, in 1290, they began to be distinguished by black habits and a cross with eight points; and, besides the ordinary vows, they made another, which was to defend the pilgrims against the insults of the infidels. This foundation was completed in 1104, in the reign of Baldwin; and so their order became military, into which many persons of quality entered, and changed the name of hospitallers into that of knights.

When Jerusalem was taken, and the Christians lost their power in the East, the knights retired to Acre or Ptolemais, which they defended valiantly in 1290. Then they followed the king of Cyprus, who gave them Limassol in his dominions, where they stood till 1310. That same year they took Rhodes, under the grand-master Foulques de Villaret, a Frenchman; and next year defended it against an army of Saracens: since which the grand-masters have used these four letters, F. E. R. T., i.e. Fortitude ejus Rhodium tenuit; and the order was from thence called knights of Rhodes.

In 1522, Soliman having taken Rhodes, the knights retired into Candia, and thence into Sicily. In 1530, Charles V. gave them the island of Malta, to cover his kingdom of Sicily from the Turks. In 1566, Soliman besieged Malta; but it was gallantly defended by the grand-master John de Valette Parifot, and the Turks obliged to quit the island with great loss.

The knights consisted of eight different languages or nations, of which the English were formerly the fifth; but at present they are but seven, the English having withdrawn themselves. The first is that of Provence, whose chief is grand commendator of religion; the second, of Auvergne; whose chief is marshal of the order; the third, of France, whose chief is grand-hospitaller; the fourth, of Italy; and their chief, admiral; the fifth, of Arragon; and their chief, grand-conservator; the sixth, of Germany; and their chief, grand-bailiff of the order; the seventh, of Castile; and their chief, grand-chancellor. The chief of the English was grand-commander of the cavalry.

None are admitted into this order but such as are of noble birth both by father and mother's side for four generations, excepting the natural sons of kings and princes. The knights are of two sorts; those who have a right to be candidates for the dignity of grand-master, called grand-crosses; and those who are only knights-affiliants, who are taken from good families. They never marry; yet have continued from 1090 to the present time.

The order consists of three estates; the knights, chaplains, and servants at arms. There are also priests who officiate in the churches; friar-servants, who assist at the offices; and dames, or demi-crosses; but these are not reckoned as constituent parts of the body. This division was made in 1130, by the grand-master Raymond du Puy.

The government of the order is mixed, being partly monarchical, and partly aristocratical. The grand-master is sovereign, coins money, pardons criminals, and gives the places of grand-priors, bailiffs, knights, &c. The ordinary council is composed of the grand-master and the grand-crosses. Every language has several grand priories, and every priory a certain number of commanderies.

The knights are received into this order, either by undergoing the trials prescribed by the statutes, or by dispensation. The dispensations are obtained either by the pope's brief, or by a general chapter of the order, and are granted in case of some defect as to the nobility of their pedigree, especially on the mother's side. The knights are received, either as of age, under minority, or pages to the grand-master. They must be 16 years old complete before they are received; they enter into the noviciate at 17, and are professed at 18. They sometimes admit infants of one year old; but the expense is about 4000 livres. The grand-master has 16 pages who serve him, from 12 to 16 years of age. The knights wear on the left-side of their cloaks or waistcoat a cross of white waxed cloth, with eight points, which is their true badge; that of gold being only for ornament. When they go to war against the Turks, they wear a red caftan, with a great white cross before and behind, without points, which are the arms of the religion. The ordinary habit of the grand-master is a sort of caftan of tabby-cloth, tied about with a girdle, at which hangs a great purse, to denote the charitable institution of the order. Over this he wears a velvet gown; and on the left side a white cross with eight points. His yearly revenue is 10,000 ducats. He acknowledges the kings of Spain, and both the Sicilies, as his protectors; and is obliged, by his agreement with the emperor Charles V. to suppress pirates.