in general, a branch of architecture, consisting in the art of hewing or squaring stones, and cutting them level or perpendicular, for the uses of building: but, in a more limited sense, masonry is the art of assembling and joining stones together with mortar.

Hence arise as many different kinds of masonry as there are different forms and manners for laying or joining stones. Vitruvius mentions several kinds of masonry used among the ancients: three of hewed stone, viz., that in form of a net, that in binding, and that called the Greek masonry; and three of unhewn stones, viz., that of an equal course, that of an unequal course, and that filled up in the middle; and the seventh was a composition of all the rest.

Net-masonry, called by Vitruvius reticulatum, from its resemblance to the meshes of a net, consists of stones squared in their courses, and so disposed as that their joints go obliquely; and their diagonals are the one perpendicular and the other level. This is the most agreeable masonry to the eye, but it is very apt to crack. See n°1.

Bound-masonry, that in which the stones were placed one over another, like tiles; the joints of their beds being level, and the mounters perpendicular, so that the joint that mounts and separates two stones always falls directly over the middle of the stone below. This is less beautiful than the net-work; but it is more solid and durable. See n°2.

Greek masonry, according to Vitruvius, is that where after we have laid two stones, each of which makes a course, another is laid at the end, which makes two courses, and the same order is observed throughout the building; this may be called double-binding, in regard the binding is not only of stones of the same course with one another, but likewise of one course with another course. See n°3.

Masonry by equal courses, called by the ancients irodum, differs in nothing from the bound masonry, but only in this, that its stones are not hewn. See n°4.

Masonry by unequal courses, called pseudiodum, is also made of unhewn stones, and laid in bound work; but then they are not of the same thickness, nor is there any equality observed excepting in the several courses, the courses themselves being unequal to each other. See n°5.

Masonry filled up in the middle, is likewise made of unhewn stones, and by courses; but the stones are only set in order as to the courses: (see n°9). A, the courses; B, the parts filled up; C, a coat of plaster.

Compound masonry is of Vitruvius's proposing, so called as being formed of all the rest. In this the courses are of hewed stone; and the middle being left void, is filled up with mortar and pebbles thrown in together: after this the stones of one course are bound to those of another course with iron-cramps fastened with melted lead: (See n°7). E, the stones cramped; F, the cramps; G, the middle part filled up.—N°8. represents another sort of compound masonry, the middle of which is stone, and the edges boards.

All the kinds of masonry now in use may be reduced to these five, viz., bound masonry; that of brick-work, where the bodies and projections of the stones inclose square spaces or panels, &c. set with bricks; that de molion, or small work, where the courses are equal, well squared, and their edges or beds rusticated; that where the courses are unequal; and that filled up in the middle with little stones and mortar.

Free-Masonry, denotes the system of mysteries and secrets peculiar to the society of free and accepted masons.

The origin of this society is very ancient; but we have no authentic account of the time when it was first instituted, or even what was the reason of such an association of people under the title of Masons, more than of any other mechanical profession.—In Dr Henry's history we find the origin of the Free Mason Society in Britain attributed to the difficulty found in former times, of procuring a sufficient number of workmen to build the multitude of churches, monasteries, and other religious edifices which the superstition of those ages prompted the people to raise. Hence the masons were greatly favoured by the popes, and many indulgences were granted in order to augment their numbers. In times like those we speak of, it may well be supposed that such encouragement from the supreme pastors of the church must have been productive of the most beneficial effects to the fraternity; and hence the increase of the society may naturally be deduced. The Doctor quotes, in confirmation of this, the words of an author who was well acquainted with their history and constitution. "The Italians (says he), with some Greek refugees, and with them French, Germans, and Flemings, join..." Masonry ed into a fraternity of architects, procuring papal bulls for their encouragement and their particular privileges; they styled themselves Free-masons, and ranged from one nation to another, as they found churches to be built; their government was regular; and where they fixed near the building in hand, they made a camp of huts. A surveyor governed in chief; every tenth man was called a warden, and overlooked each nine. The gentlemen in the neighbourhood, either out of charity or commutation of penance, gave the materials and carriages. Those who have seen the accounts in records of the charge of the fabrics of some of our cathedrals near 400 years old, cannot but have a great esteem for their economy, and admire how soon they erected such lofty structures.

By other accounts, however, the antiquity of masonry is carried up much higher, even as early as the building of Solomon's temple. In Britain the introduction of masonry has been fixed at the year 674, when glass-making was first introduced; and it appears indeed, that from this time many buildings in the Gothic style were erected by men in companies, who are said to have called themselves free, because they were at liberty to work in any part of the kingdom. Others have derived the institution of free masons from a combination among the people of that profession not to work without an advance of wages, when they were summoned from several counties, by writs of Edward III., directed to the sheriffs, to assist in rebuilding and enlarging the castle, together with the church and chapel of St George at Windsor. At this time, it is said, the masons agreed on certain tokens by which they might know and assist each other against being impressed, and not to work unless free and on their own terms.

In a treatise on Masonry published in 1792 by William Preston, master of the Lodge of Antiquity, the origin of masonry is traced from the creation. "Ever since symmetry began, and harmony displayed her charms (says he), our order has had a being." Its introduction into England he likewise supposes to have been prior to the Roman invasion. There are, according to him, the remains yet existing of some stupendous works executed by the Britons much earlier than the time of the Romans; and even these display no small share of ingenuity of invention: so that we can have no doubt of the existence of masonry in Britain even during these early periods. The Druids are likewise said to have had among them many customs similar to those of the masons, and to have derived their government from Pythagoras; but the resemblance betwixt their usages and those of the free-mason societies now existing cannot be accurately traced even by the masons themselves.

Masonry is said to have been encouraged by Caesar, and many of the Roman generals who were appointed governors of Britain: but though we know, that at this period the fraternity were employed in erecting many magnificent fabrics, nothing is recorded concerning their lodges and conventions; and we have but a very imperfect account of the customs which prevailed in their assemblies.

For a long time the progress of masonry in Britain was obstructed by the frequent wars which took place; and it did not revive till the time of Carausius, by whom it was patronised. This general, who hoped to be the founder of a British empire, encouraged learning and learned men; collecting also the best artificers from many different countries, particularly masons, whom he held in great veneration, and appointing Albanus his steward the principal superintendent of their assemblies. Lodges, or conventions of the fraternity, began now to be introduced, and the business of masonry to be regularly carried on. The masons, through the influence of Albanus, obtained a charter from Carausius to hold a general council, at which Albanus himself sat president, and assisted at the reception of many new members. This Albanus was the celebrated St Alban, the first who suffered martyrdom in Britain for the Christian faith. Mr Preston quotes an old MS. destroyed with many others, said to have been in the possession of Nicholas Stone, a curious sculptor under Inigo Jones; from which we learn that St Alban was a great friend to masons, and gave them two shillings per week besides threepence for their cheer; while, before that time, they had no more than one penny per day and their meat. He likewise obtained "a charter from the king and his council for them to hold a general council, which was named an assembly." The same circumstances are mentioned in a MS. written in the time of James II. only this increases the weekly salary of the masons to 3s. 6d. and 3d. per day for the bearers of burthens.

The progress of masonry was greatly obstructed by the departure of the Romans from Britain; and in a short time fell into absolute neglect. This was occasioned first by the furious irruptions of the Scots and Piets, which left no time for the cultivation of the arts; and afterwards by the ignorance of the Saxons, whom the ill-advised Britons called in as allies, but who soon became their masters. After the introduction of Christianity, however, the barbarity of these conquerors began to wear off, the arts received some encouragement, and masonry particularly began to flourish. Lodges were now formed; but these being under the direction of foreigners, were seldom convened, and never attained to any degree of consideration or importance. In this situation it continued till the year 557, when St Austin, with 40 more monks, among whom the sciences had been preserved, came into England. By these the principles of Christianity were propagated with such zeal, that all the kings of the heptarchy were converted; after which masonry was taken under the patronage of St Austin, and the Gothic style of building was introduced into England by the numerous foreigners who resorted at this time to the kingdom. Austin himself appeared at the head of the fraternity in founding the old cathedral of Canterbury in 600; that of Rochester in 602; St Paul's in London in 604; St Peter's in Westminster in 605, as well as many others. The number of masons in England was thus greatly increased, as well as by his other buildings of castles, &c., throughout the kingdom.

In 640 a few expert brethren arrived from France, and formed themselves into a lodge under the direction of Bennet abbot of Wirral; whom Kenred king of Mercia soon after appointed inspector of the lodges, and general superintendent of the masons. During the whole time of the heptarchy, however, masonry was in a low state, but began to revive in 856 under the patronage of St Swithin, whom Ethelwolf employed to repair some religious houses; and from that time the art gradually improved till the year 872, when it found a zealous protector in Alfred the Great. This prince was a most eminent patron of all kinds of arts and manufactures; and, with regard to masonry in particular, he appropriated a seventh part of his revenue for maintaining a number of workmen, whom he constantly employed in rebuilding the cities, castles, &c., ruined by the Danes. During the reign of his successor Edward, the masons continued to hold their lodges under the sanction of Ethred, husband to the king's sister, and Ethelward his brother, to whom the care of the fraternity was intrusted. The latter was a great architect, and founded the university of Cambridge.

The true re-establishment of masonry in England, however, is dated from the reign of King Athelstan; and there is still extant a grand lodge of masons at York, who trace their existence from this period. This lodge, the most ancient in England, was founded in 926, under the patronage of Edwin the king's brother, who obtained for them a charter from Athelstan, and became grand master himself. By virtue of this charter it is said, that all the masons in the kingdom were convened at a general assembly in that city, where they established a general or grand lodge for their future government. Under the patronage and jurisdiction of this lodge it is also alleged that the fraternity increased very considerably, and that kings, princes, and other eminent persons who had been initiated into the mysteries, paid due allegiance to the assembly. But as the times were yet turbulent and barbarous, the art of masonry was sometimes more sometimes less patronised; and of course the assembly more or less respected according to the respect which the art itself met with. The appellation of ancient York masons is well known both in Ireland and Scotland; and the general tradition is, that they originated at Auldby near York; and as Auldby was a seat of Edwin, this tradition gives considerable confirmation to the above account. There is indeed great reason to believe that York was the original seat of masonic government, no other place having claimed it, and the whole fraternity having at various times owned allegiance to the authority there established; though we know not whether that allegiance be now given or not. Certain it is, that if such a lodge was once established there, of which there is no reason to doubt, we have no account of its being regularly moved from that place to any other part of the kingdom with consent of its members. Many respectable meetings have indeed been held at different times in other parts of the kingdom, but there is no account of any other general meeting being held in another place than York till very lately.

While prince Edwin lived, the masons were employed as formerly in building churches, monasteries, &c., and repairing those which had suffered by the ravages of the Danes; and after his death the order was patronised by king Athelstan himself; but on his decease the masons were dispersed, and remained in an unsettled state till the reign of Edgar in 960. They were now collected by St Dunstan, who employed masons in works of the same kind; but as no permanent encouragement was given them, their lodges soon declined, and masonry remained in a low state for upwards of 50 years. It revived, however, in 1041, under Edward the Confessor, who superintended the execution of several great works. By the assistance of Leofric earl of Coventry, he rebuilt Westminster Abbey, the earl being appointed superintendent of the masons; and by this architect many other magnificent structures were likewise erected. After the Conquest, in 1066, Gundulph bishop of Rochester and Roger de Montgomery earl of Shrewsbury, both of them excellent architects, became joint patrons of the masons; and under their auspices the Tower of London was begun, though finished only in the reign of William Rufus, who likewise rebuilt London Bridge with wood, and in 1087 first constructed the palace and hall of Westminster.

The masons now continued to be patronised by the sovereigns of England in succession. The lodges assembled during the reign of Henry I. and during that of Stephen, the society were employed in building a chapel at Westminster, now the House of Commons, and several other works; the president of the lodges being now Gilbert de Clare, the marquis of Pembroke. During the reign of Henry II. the lodges were superintended by the grand-master of the Knights Templars, who employed them in building their temple in Fleet-Street in the year 1155. Masonry continued under the patronage of this order till the year 1199, when John succeeded Richard I. in the throne of England, and Peter de Colechurch was then appointed grand-master. He began to rebuild London bridge with stone, which was afterwards finished by William Aleman in 1209. Peter de Rupibus succeeded Peter de Colechurch in the office of grand-master, and Geoffrey Fitz-Peter, chief surveyor of the king's works, acted as deputy under him; masonry continued also to flourish under the auspices of these two artists during this and the following reign. On the accession of Edward I. in 1272, the superintendence of the masons was entrusted to Walter Giffard archbishop of York, Gilbert de Clare earl of Gloucester, and Ralph lord of Mount Hermer, the progenitor of the family of the Montagues; and by these architects the abbey of Westminster was finished, after having been begun in 1220, during the minority of Henry II. During the reign of Edward II. the fraternity were employed in building Exeter and Oriel Colleges in Oxford, Clarehall in Cambridge, &c., under the auspices of Walter Stapleton bishop of Exeter, who had been appointed grand-master of the masons in 1307.

Edward III. was a great encourager of learning in general, and not only patronised the masons, but applied very assiduously to the constitutions of the order, revised and meliorated the ancient charges, and added several useful regulations to the original code by which the fraternity had been governed. He patronised the lodges, and appointed five deputies under him to inspect their proceedings; and at this period it appears from some old records, that the lodges were numerous, and that the fraternity held communications under the protection of the civil magistrates. William a Wykeham was continued grand-master on the accession of Richard. Richard II, and by him both the New College in Oxford and Winchester College were founded at his own expense. After the accession of Henry IV, Thomas Fitz-Allan earl of Surrey was appointed grand-master, who, after the engagement at Shrewsbury, founded Battle-abbey and Fotheringay; the Guildhall at London being also built in this reign. On the accession of Henry V, the fraternity were directed by Henry Chicheley archbishop of Canterbury, under whom the lodges and communications of the fraternity were frequent. In 1425, however, during the reign of Henry VI, an act was made against the meetings of the chapters and congregations of masons, because it was said, that by such meetings "the good course and effect of the statutes of labourers were openly violated and broken, in subversion of the law, and to the great damage of all the commons." But this act was not put in force, nor did the fraternity cease to meet as usual under the protection of archbishop Chicheley, who still continued to preside over them. The reason of this extraordinary edict is said to have been as follows. The duke of Bedford, at that time regent of the kingdom, being in France, the royal power was vested in his brother Humphrey duke of Gloucester, who was styled protector and guardian of the kingdom. The care of the young king's person and education was entrusted to Henry Beaufort bishop of Winchester, the duke's uncle. This prelate being of an ambitious disposition, and aspiring at the sole government, had continual disputes with his nephew the protector; and by reason of the violent temper of that prince, gained frequent advantages over him. This animosity increased to such a degree, that the parliament was at length obliged to interpose. On the meeting of that assembly in the month of April 1425, however, the servants and followers of the peers came thither, armed with clubs and staves; on which account it received the name of the Bat Parliament, and at this time the act against masons was made. This was owing to the influence of the bishop, who wished to destroy the meetings of the fraternity on account of the secrecy observed in them. Dr Anderson, in the first edition of the Book of Constitutions, makes the following observation upon this act: "It was made in ignorant times, when true learning was a crime, and geometry condemned for conjuration; but it cannot derogate from the honour of the ancient fraternity, who, to be sure, would never encourage any such confederacy of their working brethren. By tradition, it is believed that the parliament were then too much influenced by the illiterate clergy, who were not accepted masons, nor underwood architecture (as the clergy of some former ages), and were generally thought unworthy of this brotherhood. Thinking they had an indefeasible right to know all secrets by virtue of particular confession, and the masons never confessing anything thereof, the said clergy were highly offended; and at first, suspecting them of wickedness, represented them as dangerous to the state during that minority; and soon influenced the parliament to lay hold of such supposed arguments of the working masons for making an act that might seem to reflect dishonour upon even the whole fraternity, in whose favour several acts had been made before that period, and were made after it."

The bishop was soon after this diverted from his persecution of the masons by an affair of a more important kind. He had formed a design of surprising the city of London on the evening of St Simon and St Jude's day, that on which the Lord Mayor was invested with his office. But the plot having been discovered by the duke of Gloucester, the Mayor was sent for while at dinner, and ordered to keep a strict watch for that night. The bishop's party accordingly made an attempt to enter by the bridge about nine the next morning, but were repulsed by the vigilance of the citizens. At this the prelate was so much enraged, that he collected a numerous body of archers and men at arms, commanding them to assault the gate with shot. By the prudence of the magistrates, however, all violent measures were stopped; but no reconciliation could be procured betwixt the two parties, though it was attempted by the archbishop of Canterbury, and Peter duke of Coimbra, eldest son to the king of Portugal, with several other persons of distinction. At last the bishop wrote a letter to the duke of Bedford, urging his return to England, and informing him of the danger there was of a civil war, and reflecting upon the duke of Gloucester. This letter had the desired effect. The regent returned, and held a great council at St Albans on the 21st of February, but adjourned it to the 15th of March at Northampton, and to the 25th of June at Leicester. Bats and staves were now prohibited at these meetings; but the parties assembled with weapons no less formidable, viz. with slings, stones, and leaden plummetts. The duke of Bedford employed all his authority to reconcile the differences; and at last obliged the two rivals to promise before the assembly that they would bury all animosities in oblivion. During the discussion of this matter five charges were exhibited by the duke of Gloucester against the bishop; one of which was, that "he had, in his letter to the duke of Bedford, at France, plainly declared his malicious purpose of assembling the people, and stirring up a rebellion in the nation, contrary to the king's peace." To this the bishop answered, "That he never had any intention to disturb the peace of the nation or raise a rebellion; but that he sent to the duke of Bedford to solicit his return to England, to settle all those differences which were so prejudicial to the peace of the kingdom: That though he had indeed written in the letter, 'That if he tarried, we should put the land in adventure by a field, such a brother you have here,' he did not mean it of any design of his own, but concerning the seditious assemblies of masons, carpenters, tylers, and plasterers; who being distressed by the late act of parliament against the excessive wages of these trades, had given out many seditious speeches and menaces against certain great men, which tended much to rebellion," &c.

Notwithstanding this heavy charge, the duke of Gloucester, who knew the innocence of the parties accused, took the masons under his protection, and transferred the charge of sedition and rebellion from them to the bishop and his followers. By the interest of the latter, however, the king granted him a pardon for all offences; and though the duke drew up fresh articles of impeachment against him in 1443, and presented them in person to the king, the council, being composed mostly of ecclesiastics, proceeded so slowly in the business, that the duke, wearied out with the tediousness of the matter, dropped the prosecution entirely.

This contest terminated in the impeachment, imprisonment, and murder of the duke of Gloucester himself. This event might have been attended with bad consequence, had not their inveterate enemy, the prelate himself, been taken off by death in about two months after the duke. The masons then continued not only to meet in safety, but were joined by the king himself. He was, that very year (1442) initiated into masonry, and from that time spared no pains to become completely master of the art. He perused the ancient charges, revised the constitutions, and, with the consent of his council, honoured them with his sanction. The example of the sovereign was followed by many of the nobility, who affluently studied the art. The king presided over the lodges in person, nominating William Wanefleet bishop of Winchester grand-master. This bishop at his own expense built Magdalene college, Oxford, and several religious houses. Eton college near Windsor, and King's college at Cambridge, were also founded during this reign. Henry himself founded Christ's college, Cambridge, as his queen Margaret of Anjou did Queen's college in the same university.

About this time also, the masons were protected and encouraged by James I. of Scotland, who, after his return from captivity, became a zealous patron of arts and learning of all kinds. He honoured the lodges with his royal presence, and settled an annual revenue of four pounds Scots (an English noble) to be paid by every master-mason in Scotland, to a grand-master chosen by the grand-lodge, and approved by the crown, one nobly born, or an eminent clergyman who had his deputies in cities and counties; something was likewise paid him by every new brother at his entry. His office entitled him to regulate everything in the fraternity which could not come under the jurisdiction of law-courts; and, to prevent law-suits, both mason and lord, or builder and founder, appealed to him. In his absence, they appealed to his deputy or grand-warden, who resided next the premises.

The flourishing state of masonry was interrupted by the civil wars between the houses of York and Lancaster, which brought it almost totally into neglect. About 1471, however, it revived under the auspices of Robert Beauchamp bishop of Sarum, who had been appointed grand-master by Edward IV. and honoured with the title of Chancellor of the Garter, for repairing the castle and chapel of Windsor. It again declined during the reigns of Edward V. and Richard III.; but came once more into repute on the accession of Henry VII. in 1485. It was now patronized by the master and fellows of the order of St John at Rhodes (now Malta); who assembled their grand-lodge in 1500, and chose Henry for their protector. On the 24th of June 1502, a lodge of masters was formed in the palace, at which the king presided as grand-master; and having appointed John Ilip abbot of Westminster, and Sir Reginald Bray knight of the garter, his wardens for the occasion, proceeded in great state to the east end of Westminster abbey, where he laid the first stone of that excellent piece of Gothic architecture called Henry the Seventh's Chapel. The cape-stone of this building was celebrated in 1507. The palace of Richmond, as well as many other noble structures, were raised under the direction of Sir Reginald Bray; and the colleges of Brazen-Nose in Oxford, and Jesus and St John's in Cambridge, were all finished in this reign.

On the accession of Henry VIII. Cardinal Wolsey was appointed grand-master; who built Hampton-court, Whitehall, Christ-church college, Oxford, with several other noble edifices; all of which, upon the disgrace of that prelate, were forfeited to the crown in 1530. Wolsey was succeeded as grand-master in 1534 by Thomas Cromwell earl of Essex; who employed the fraternity in building St James's palace, Christ's hospital, and Greenwich castle. Cromwell being beheaded in 1540, John Touchet lord Audley succeeded to the office of grand-master, and built Magdalen college in Cambridge, and many other structures. In 1547, the duke of Somerset, guardian to the king, and regent of the kingdom, became superintendent of the masons, and built Somerset-house in the Strand; which, on his being beheaded, was forfeited to the crown in 1552.

After the death of the duke of Somerset, John Poynter bishop of Winchester presided over the lodges till the death of the king in 1553. From this time they continued without any patron till the reign of Elizabeth, when Sir Thomas Sackville accepted the office of grand-master. Lodges, however, had been held during this period in different parts of England; but the general or grand lodge assembled in the city of York, where it is said the fraternity were numerous and respectable.—Of the queen we have the following curious anecdote with regard to the masons: Hearing that they were in possession of many secrets which they refused to disclose, and being naturally jealous of all secret assemblies, she sent an armed force to York to break up their annual grand-lodge. The design was prevented by the interposition of Sir Thomas Sackville, who took care to initiate some of the chief officers whom she had sent on this duty in the secrets of masonry. These joined in communication with their new brethren, and made so favourable a report to the queen on their return, that she countermanded her orders, and never afterwards attempted to disturb the meeting of the fraternity. In 1567, Sir Thomas Sackville resigned the office of grand-master in favour of Francis Russell earl of Bedford, and Sir Thomas Gresham an eminent merchant. The former had the care of the brethren in the northern part of the kingdom assigned to him, while the latter was appointed to superintend the meetings in the south, where the society had considerably increased, in consequence of the honourable report which had been made to the queen. The general assembly, however, continued to meet at York as formerly; and here all records were kept, and appeals made on every important occasion to the assembly.

Sir Thomas Gresham abovementioned proposed to erect a building in the city of London for the benefit of commerce, provided the citizens would purchase a spot proper for the purpose. Accordingly some houses houses between Cornhill and Threadneedle-street being pulled down, the foundation-stone of the building was laid on the 7th of June 1566, and with such expedition was the work carried on, that the whole was finished in November 1567. This building, which was constructed on the plan of the exchange of Antwerp, was called at first simply the Bourse, but in January 1572, the queen having dined with Sir Thomas, returned through Cornhill, entered the Bourse on the south side, and having viewed every part of the building, particularly the gallery which extended round the whole structure, and which was furnished with shops filled with all sorts of the finest merchandise in the city, she caused the edifice to be proclaimed, in her presence, by herald and trumpet, the Royal Exchange; and on this occasion, it is said Sir Thomas appeared publicly in the character of grand-master.

The queen being now thoroughly convinced that the fraternity of masons did not interfere in state affairs, became quite reconciled to their assemblies, and from this time masonry made a considerable progress; lodges were held in different parts of the kingdom, particularly in London and its neighbourhood, where the number of brethren increased considerably. Several great works were carried on there under the auspices of Sir Thomas Gresham, from whom the fraternity received every encouragement.

Sir Thomas was succeeded in the office of grand-master by Charles Howard earl of Effingham, who continued to preside over the lodges in the south till the year 1588, when George Hastings earl of Huntingdon was chosen grand-master, and remained in the office till the decease of the queen in 1603.

On the accession of James I. to the crown of England, masonry flourished in both kingdoms, and lodges were held in both kingdoms. A number of gentlemen returned from their travels, with curious drawings of the old Greek and Roman architecture, as well as strong inclination to revive a knowledge of it. Among these was the celebrated Inigo Jones, who was appointed general surveyor to the king. He was named grand-master of England, and was deputed by the king to preside over the lodges (a). Several learned men were now initiated into the mysteries of masonry, and the society increased considerably in reputation and consequence. Ingenious artists resorted to England in great numbers; lodges were constituted as seminaries of instruction in the sciences and polite arts after the model of the Italian schools; the communications of the fraternity were established, and the annual festivals regularly observed. Under the direction of this accomplished architect, many magnificent structures were raised; and among the rest he was employed, by command of the sovereign, to plan a new palace at Whitehall, worthy of the residence of the kings of England. This was executed; but for want of a parliamentary fund, no more of the plan was ever finished than the banqueting-house. Inigo Jones continued in the office of grand-master till the year 1618, when he was succeeded by the earl of Pembroke; under whose auspices many eminent and wealthy men were initiated, and the mysteries of the order Masonry held in high estimation.

After Charles I. ascended the throne, Earl Pembroke was continued in his office till the year 1630, when he resigned in favour of Henry Danvers earl of Danby. This nobleman was succeeded in 1633 by Thomas Howard earl of Arundel, the ancestor of the Norfolk family. In 1635, Francis Ruffell earl of Bedford accepted the government of the society; but Inigo Jones having continued to patronize the lodges during his lordship's administration, he was re-elected the following year, and continued in office till the year of his death, 1646. The progress of masonry, however, was for some time obstructed by the breaking out of the civil wars; but it began to revive under the patronage of Charles II. who had been received into the order during his exile. Some lodges during this reign were constituted by leave of the several noble grand-masters, and many gentlemen and famous scholars requested at that time to be admitted into the fraternity. On the 27th of December 1663, a general assembly was held, where Henry Jennyn earl of St Albans was elected grand-master; who appointed Sir John Denham his deputy, and Mr Christopher Wren, afterwards the celebrated Sir Christopher Wren, and John Webb, his wardens. At this assembly several useful regulations were made, for the better government of the lodges; and the greatest harmony prevailed among the whole fraternity. The earl of St Albans was succeeded in his office of grand-master by earl Rivers in the year 1666, when Sir Christopher Wren was appointed deputy, and distinguished himself beyond any of his predecessors in promoting the prosperity of the lodges which remained at that time, particularly that of St Paul's, now the lodge of Antiquity, which he patronized upwards of 18 years. At this time he attended the meetings regularly; and during his presidency made a present to the lodge of three mahogany candlesticks, which at that time were very valuable. They are still preserved, and highly valued as a testimony of the esteem of the donor.

The fire which in 1666 destroyed such a great part of London, afforded ample opportunity for the masons to exert their abilities. After a calamity so sudden and extensive, however, it became necessary to adopt some regulations to prevent such a catastrophe in time to come. It was now determined, that in all the new buildings to be erected, stone should be used instead of timber. Wren was ordered by the king and grand-master to draw up the plan of a city with broad and regular streets. Dr. Christopher Wren was appointed surveyor-general and principal architect for rebuilding the city, the cathedral of St Paul, and all the parochial churches enacted by parliament, in lieu of those that were destroyed, with other public structures. This gentleman, however, conceiving the charge to be too important for a single person, selected for his assistant Mr Robert Hook professor of geometry in Greatham college. The latter was immediately employed in measuring, adjusting, and setting out the ground.

(a) Mr Preston observes, that the grand-master of the north bears the title of grand-master of all England, which (says he) may probably have been occasioned by the title of grand-master. ground of the private streets to the several proprietors.

The model and plan were laid before the king and house of commons, and the practicability of the whole scheme, without any infringement of private property: but unfortunately it happened, that the greater part of the citizens were totally adverse to leaving their old habitations, and building houses in other places; and so obstinate were they in their determinations, that they chose rather to have their old city again under all its disadvantages, than a new one upon the improved plan. Thus an opportunity was lost of making the new city the most magnificent as well as the most convenient for health and commerce of any in Europe. Hence the architect, being cramped in the execution of his plan, was obliged to alter and abridge it, and to model the city after the manner in which it has since appeared.—In 1673 the foundation-stone of the cathedral of St Paul's was laid with great solemnity by the king in person, and the mallet which he used on this occasion is still preserved in the lodge of Antiquity as a great curiosity.

During the time that the city was rebuilding, lodges were held by the fraternity in different places, and many new ones constituted, to which the best architects resorted. In 1674, earl Rivers resigned the office of grand-master in favour of George Villiers duke of Buckingham, who left the care of the fraternity to his wardens, and Sir Christopher Wren who still continued to act as deputy. In 1679, the duke resigned in favour of Henry Bennet earl of Arlington; but this nobleman was too deeply engaged in state affairs to attend to his duty as a mason, though the lodges continued to meet under his sanction, and many respectable gentlemen joined the fraternity. During the short reign of James II. the masons were much neglected. In 1685, Sir Christopher Wren was elected to the office of grand-master, who appointed Gabriel Cibber and Mr Edward Strong his wardens: yet notwithstanding the great reputation and abilities of this celebrated architect, masonry continued in a declining way for many years, and only a few lodges were held occasionally in different parts of the kingdom.

At the Revolution, the society was in such a low state in the south of England, that only seven regular lodges were held in London and its suburbs; and of these only two, viz. that of St Paul's and one at St Thomas's hospital, Southwark, were of any consequence. But in 1695, king William having been initiated into the mysteries, honoured the lodges with his presence, particularly one at Hampton-court, at which he is said to have frequently presided during the time that the new part of his palace was building. Many of the nobility also were present at a general assembly and feast held in 1697, particularly Charles duke of Richmond and Lenox, who was elected grand-master for that year; but in 1698 resigned his office to Sir Christopher Wren, who continued at the head of the fraternity till King William's death in 1702.

During the reign of Queen Anne, masonry made no considerable progress. Sir Christopher's age and infirmities drew off his attention from the duties of his office, the annual festivals were entirely neglected, and the number of masons considerably diminished. It was therefore determined that the privileges of masonry should not be confined to operative masons, but that people of all professions should be admitted to participate in them, provided they were regularly approved and initiated into the order.

Thus the society once more rose into esteem; and on the accession of George I., the masons, now deprived of Sir Christopher Wren, resolved to unite again under a grand-master, and revive the annual festivals. With this view, the members of the only four lodges at that time existing in London, met at the Apple-tree tavern in Charles-street, Covent Garden; and having voted the oldest master-mason then present into the chair, constituted themselves a grand-lodge pro tempore. It was now resolved to renew the quarterly communications among the brethren; and at an annual meeting held on the 24th of June the same year, Mr Anthony Sayer was elected grand-master, invested by the oldest master-mason there present, installed by the master of the oldest lodge, and had due homage paid him by the fraternity. Before this time a sufficient number of masons, met together within a certain district, had ample power to make masons without a warrant of constitution; but it was now determined, that the privilege of assembling as masons should be vested in certain lodges or assemblies of masons convened in certain places, and that every lodge to be afterwards convened, excepting the four old lodges then existing, should be authorized to act by a warrant from the grand-master for the time, granted by petition from certain individuals, with the consent and approbation of the grand-lodge in communication; and that without such warrant, no lodge should hereafter be deemed regular or constitutional. The former privileges, however, were still allowed to remain to the four old lodges then extant. In consequence of this, the old masons in the metropolis vested all their inherent privileges as individuals in the four old lodges, in trust that they never would suffer the ancient charges and land-marks to be infringed. The four old lodges, on their part, agreed to extend their patronage to every new lodge which should hereafter be constituted according to the new regulations of the society; and while they acted in conformity to the ancient constitutions of the order, to admit their masters and wardens to share with them all the privileges of the grand-lodge, that of precedence only excepted.

Matters being thus settled, the brethren of the four old lodges considered their attendance on the future communications of the society as unnecessary; and therefore trusted implicitly to their masters and wardens, satisfied that no measure of importance would be adopted without their approbation. It was, however, soon discovered, that the new lodges being equally represented with the old ones at the communications, would at length so far outnumber them, that by a majority they might subvert the privileges of the original masons of England which had been centered in the four old lodges; on which account a code of laws was, with the consent of the brethren at large, drawn up for the future government of the society. To this the following was annexed, binding the grand-master for the time being, his successors, and the master of every lodge to be hereafter constituted, to preserve it inviolably; "Every annual grand-lodge has an inherent power and authority to make new regulations, or to alter these for the real benefit of this ancient fraternity, provided always that the old landmarks be carefully preserved; and that such alterations and new regulations be proposed and agreed to at the third quarterly communication preceding the annual grand feast; and that they be offered also to the perusal of all the brethren before dinner, in writing, even of the youngest apprentice; the approbation and consent of the majority of all the brethren present being absolutely necessary to make the same binding and obligatory." To commemorate this circumstance, it has been customary, ever since that time, for the master of the oldest lodge to attend every grand installation; and, taking precedence of all present, the grand-master only excepted, to deliver the book of the original constitutions to the new installed grand-master, on his promising obedience to the ancient charges and general regulations.

By this precaution the original constitutions were established as the basis of all succeeding masonic jurisdiction in the south of England; and the ancient landmarks, as they are called, or the boundaries set up as checks against innovation, were carefully secured from the attacks of any future invaders. No great progress, however, was made during the administration of Mr Sayer, only two lodges being constituted, though several brethren joined the old ones. In 1718 Mr Sayer was succeeded by Mr George Payne, who collected many valuable manuscripts on the subject of masonry, and earnestly requested, that the fraternity would bring to the grand lodge any old writings or records concerning the fraternity, to show the usages of ancient times: and in consequence of this invitation, several old copies of the Gothic constitutions were produced, arranged, and digested. Another assembly and feast were held on the 24th of June 1719, when Dr Defaguliers was unanimously elected grand-master. At this feast the old, regular, and peculiar toasts were introduced; and from this time we may date the rise of free-masonry on its present plan in the south of England. Many new lodges were established, the old ones visited by many masons who had long neglected the craft, and several noblemen initiated into the mysteries. In 1720, however, the fraternity sustained an irreparable loss by the burning of several valuable manuscripts, concerning the lodges, regulations, charges, secrets, &c. (particularly one written by Mr Nicholas Stone, the warden under Inigo Jones). This was done by some scrupulous brethren, who were alarmed at the publication of the masonic constitutions. At a quarterly communication it was this year agreed, that, for the future, the new grand-master shall be named and proposed to the grand lodge some time before the feast; and if approved and present, he shall be saluted as grand-master elect: and that every grand-master, when he is installed, shall have the sole power of appointing his deputy and wardens according to ancient custom.

In the mean time masonry continued to spread in the north as well as the south of England. The general assembly, or grand lodge at York, continued to meet as usual. Several lodges met in 1705, under the direction of Sir John Tempest baronet, then grand-master; and many persons of worth and character were initiated into the mysteries of the fraternity. The greatest harmony subsisted between the two grand lodges, and private lodges were formed in both parts of the kingdom under their separate jurisdiction. The only distinction which the grand lodge in the north appears to have retained is in the title of the Grand Lodge of all England; while the other was only called the Grand Lodge of England. The latter, however, being encouraged by some of the principal nobility, soon acquired consequence and reputation, while the other seemed gradually to decline; but, till within these few years, the authority of the grand lodge at York was never challenged; on the other hand, every mason in the kingdom held that assembly in the highest veneration, and considered himself bound by the charges which originated from that assembly. It was the glory and boast of the brethren in almost every country where masonry was established to be accounted descendants of the original York masons; and from the universality of the idea that masonry was first established at York by charter, the masons of England have received tribute from the first states in Europe. At present, however, this social intercourse is abolished, and the lodges in the north and south are almost entirely unknown to one another; and neither the lodges of Scotland nor Ireland court the correspondence of the grand lodge at London. This is said to have been owing to the introduction of some innovations among the lodges in the south; but for the coolness which subsists between the two grand lodges another reason is assigned. A few brethren at York having, on some trivial occasion, seceded from their ancient lodge, they applied to London for a warrant of constitution. Their application was honoured without any inquiry into the merits of the case; and thus, instead of being recommended to the mother-lodge to be restored to favour, these brethren were encouraged to revolt, and permitted, under the sanction of the grand lodge in London, to open a new lodge in the city of York itself. This illegal extension of power justly offended the grand lodge at York, and occasioned a breach which has never yet been made up.

The duke of Buccleugh, who in 1723 succeeded the duke of Wharton as grand-master, first proposed the scheme of raising a general fund for distressed masons. The duke's motion was supported by Lord Pauley, Colonel Houghton, and a few other brethren; and the grand lodge appointed a committee to consider of the most effectual means of carrying the scheme into execution. The disposal of the charity was first vested in seven brethren; but this number being found too small, nine more were added. It was afterwards resolved that 12 masters of contributing lodges, in rotation with the grand officers, should form the committee; and by another regulation since made, it has been determined that all past and present grand officers, with the masters of all regular lodges which shall have contributed within 12 months to the charity, shall be members of the committee. This committee meets four times in the year by virtue of a summons from the grand master or his deputy. The petitions of the distressed brethren are considered at these meetings; and if the petitioner be considered as a deserving object, he is immediately relieved with five pounds. If the circumstances of the case are of a peculiar nature, his petition is referred to the next communication, where he is relieved with any sum the committee may have specified, not exceeding 20 guineas at one time. Thus the distressed have always found ready relief from this general charity, which is supported by the voluntary contributions of different lodges out of their private funds, without being burdensome to any member in the society. Thus has the committee of charity for free masons been established; and so liberally have the contributions been, that though the sums annually expended for the relief of the distressed brethren have for several years past amounted to many thousand pounds, there still remains a considerable sum.

The most remarkable events which of late have taken place in the affairs of masonry, are the initiation of Omiluth-Omrah Bahauder, eldest son of the nabob of the Carnatic, who was received by the lodge of Trinchinopoly in the year 1779. The news being officially transmitted to England, the grand lodge determined to send a congratulatory letter to his highness on the occasion, accompanied with an apron elegantly decorated, and a copy of the book of Constitutions superbly bound. The execution of this commission was entrusted to Sir John Duy, advocate-general of Bengal; and in the beginning of 1780, an answer was received from his highness, acknowledging the receipt of the present, and expressing the warmest attachment and benevolence to his brethren in England. The letter was written in the Persian language, and inclosed in an elegant cover of cloth of gold, and addressed to the grand-master and grand lodge of England. A proper reply was made; and a translation of his highness's letter was ordered to be copied on vellum; and, with the original, elegantly framed and glazed, and hung up in the hall at every public meeting of the society.

After such a long history of the rise and progress of masonry, it must be natural to inquire into the uses of the institution, and for what purpose it has been patronised by so many great and illustrious personages. The profound secrecy, however, in which every thing relating to masonry is involved, prevents us from being very particular on this head. The masons themselves say, in general, that it promotes philanthropy, friendship, and morality; that in proportion as masonry has been cultivated, the countries have been civilized, &c. How far this can be depended upon, the fraternity themselves best know. Another advantage, however, seems less equivocal, viz. that its signs serve as a kind of universal language, so that by means of them people of the most distant nations may become acquainted, and enter into friendship with one another. This certainly must be accounted a very important circumstance; and considering the great number which have been, and daily are, admitted to the society, and their inviolable attachment to the art, we must certainly conclude, that if it contains nothing of great importance to mankind at large, it must at least be extremely agreeable, and even fascinating to those who are once initiated.

Egyptian Masonry, a new system of masonry taught by the celebrated impostor the Count Cagliostro.—It is not known whether this system was an invention of his own, or whether any such thing really has an existence among the superstitious Egyptians. The Masonry scheme was first put in execution in London; and by means of his pretended knowledge in the mysteries of this art, the Count procured great sums of money, and attached to himself a vast number of followers. The following particulars concerning it were confessed by him before the inquisition at Rome.

The Egyptian masons are divided into several sects, but there are two more esteemed than the rest. The first is that of the adepts, the members of which (say the inquisitors) profess the most irreverent sentiments, and employ magic in their operations; but their principal object is the destruction of the Catholic religion and of monarchy. The members of the other pretend to be occupied about the secrets of the hermetic art, and more especially the philosopher's stone. Cagliostro owned that he was associated in London with the second of these sects; that his wife was likewise a member, and received a diploma, which cost five guineas. The lady was presented with a ribbon, on which were embroidered the words Union, Silence, and Virtue; and she was desired to sleep the following night with the ribbon attached to her thigh. When a male candidate is to be admitted, his courage must be tried in a number of ways. Cagliostro himself submitted to these trials; among which the following are mentioned in the account of his life. He was first hoisted up to the ceiling by means of a pulley, and, after suffering considerable pain, had his hand scorched by means of a candle. His eyes were then covered with a bandage, and he received an empty pistol, with orders to charge it. This being done, he was ordered to discharge it against his head; and upon his refusing to do so, the pistol was taken from him with contempt, but returned after a number of ceremonies. This had such an effect upon him, that without any regard to self-preservation, he drew the trigger, and got a smart stroke on the skull, which, however, produced no bad consequence. At the initiation of other candidates, he discovered that the pistol was changed, an unloaded one being put into the hands of the person when blind-folded, and that one of the assistants struck him a smart blow on the head, to make him think himself wounded. The ceremony was concluded with his taking an oath of secrecy and obedience to the grand-master.